1.
Prince of Wales's feathers
–
The Prince of Waless feathers is the heraldic badge of the Prince of Wales. It consists of three ostrich feathers emerging from a gold coronet. A ribbon below the coronet bears the motto Ich dien, as well as being used in royal heraldry, the badge is sometimes used to symbolise Wales, particularly in Welsh rugby union and Welsh regiments of the British Army. The badge has no connection with the native Princes of Wales and its use is generally traced back to Edward, the Black Prince, eldest son and heir apparent of Edward III of England. Edward bore a shield of Sable, three ostrich feathers argent, described as his shield for peace, this means it was the shield he used for jousting. These arms can be several times on his tomb chest in Canterbury Cathedral. The prince also used badges of one or more ostrich feathers in a number of other contexts, the feathers had first appeared at the marriage of Edward III to Philippa of Hainault, and it is therefore likely that the Black Prince inherited the badge from his mother. Philippa was descended from the Counts of Hainault, whose eldest son bore the title Count of Ostrevent, alternatively, the badge may have derived from the Counts of Luxembourg, from whom Philippa was also descended, and who had used the badge of an ostrich. Edward III occasionally used ostrich feather badges, as did members of the royal family in the 14th and 15th centuries. Similar badges were used by royal princes. The first Prince of Wales to use the badge in its form was Prince Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII. It was also used by Prince Edward, son of Henry VIII and afterwards Edward VI. Feathers continued to be used as lesser royal badges, by Elizabeth I among others, only from the beginning of the 17th century did the badge become exclusively associated with the Prince of Wales. According to a legend, the Black Prince obtained the badge from the blind King John of Bohemia. The story first appears in writing in 1376, the year of the Black Princes death, there is, however, no sound historical basis for it, and no evidence for King John having used either the crest or the motto. The German motto Ich dien is a near-homophone for the Welsh phrase Eich Dyn meaning Your Man, again, however, there is no historical evidence to support this theory. In 1917, during the First World War, it was rumoured that the motto might be changed to Eich Dyn to avoid the use of German. The badge is the cap badge of the Royal Welsh, an amalgamation of three Welsh regiments, the Royal Welch Fusiliers, the Royal Regiment of Wales and the Territorial Armys Royal Welsh Regiment
2.
Prince of Wales
–
Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
3.
Emblem
–
An emblem is an abstract or representational pictorial image that represents a concept, like a moral truth, or an allegory, or a person, like a king or saint. Although the words emblem and symbol are used interchangeably, an emblem is a pattern that is used to represent an idea or an individual. An emblem crystallizes in concrete, visual terms some abstraction, a deity, an emblem may be worn or otherwise used as an identifying badge or patch. For example, in America, police officers badges refer to their personal metal emblem whereas their woven emblems on uniforms identify members of a particular unit. A real or metal shell, the emblem of St. James the Apostle, sewn onto the hat or clothes. In the Middle Ages, many saints were given emblems, which served to them in paintings and other images, St. Catherine had a wheel, or a sword, St. Anthony Abbot, a pig. These are also called attributes, especially when carried by or close to the saint in art. Kings and other grand persons increasingly adopted personal devices or emblems that were distinct from their family heraldry. The most famous include Louis XIV of Frances sun, the salamander of Francis I of France, the boar of Richard III of England, pisanello produced many of the earliest and finest of these. A symbol, on the hand, substitutes one thing for another, in a more concrete fashion, The Christian cross is a symbol of the Crucifixion. The Red Cross is one of three representing the International Red Cross. A red cross on a background is the emblem of humanitarian spirit. The crescent shape is a symbol of the moon, it is an emblem of Islam, the skull and crossbones is a symbol identifying a poison. The skull is an emblem of the nature of human life. A totem is specifically an animal emblem that expresses the spirit of a clan, heraldry knows its emblems as charges. The lion passant serves as the emblem of England, the lion rampant as the emblem of Scotland, an icon consists of an image, that has become standardized by convention. A logo is an impersonal, secular icon, usually of a corporate entity, since the 15th century the terms of emblem and emblematura belong to the termini technici of architecture. They mean an iconic painted, drawn, or sculptural representation of a concept affixed to houses, Emblem in this sense refers to a didactic or moralizing combination of picture and text intended to draw the reader into a self-reflective examination of his or her own life
4.
Coat of arms
–
A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
5.
Crest (heraldry)
–
A crest is a component of a heraldic display, consisting of the device borne on top of the helm. Originating in the decorative sculptures worn by knights in tournaments and, to an extent, battles. A normal heraldic achievement consists of the shield, above which is set the helm, on which sits the crest, the word crest derives from the Latin crista, meaning tuft or plume, perhaps related to crinis, hair. They first appeared in a context in the form of the metal fans worn by knights in the 12th and 13th centuries. These were primarily decorative, but may also have served a purpose by lessening or deflecting the blows of opponents weapons. These fans were generally of one colour, later evolving to repeat all or part of the arms displayed on the shield. The fan crest was developed by cutting out the figure displayed on it, to form a metal outline. Torses did not come into use in Britain until the 15th century, and are still uncommon on the Continent. Crests were also mounted on a furred cap known as a chapeau. By the 16th century the age of tournaments had ended, and their illustrated equivalents consequently began to be treated as simply two-dimensional pictures. In the same period, different helms began to be used for different ranks, sovereigns and knights helms faced forwards, whereas those of peers, torses also suffered artistically, being treated not as silken circlets, but as horizontal bars. Heraldry in general underwent something of a renaissance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, crests are now generally not granted unless they could actually be used on a physical helm, and the rules about directions of helms are no longer rigidly observed. The use of crests was once restricted to those of tournament rank, i. e. knights and above and they are not generally used by women and clergymen, as they did not participate in war or tournaments and thus would not have helms on which to wear them. Some heraldists are also of the opinion that crests, as devices, are not suited for use by corporate bodies. This practice did not exist in Britain until the modern era, and arms with more than one crest are still rare. After the 16th century, it common for armigers to detach the crest and wreath from the helm. This led to the use of the term crest to mean arms. Unlike a badge, which can be used by any amount of relatives and retainers, a crest is personal to the armiger, and its use by others is considered usurpation
6.
Badge
–
They are also used in advertising, publicity, and for branding purposes. Police badges date back to times when knights wore a coat of arms representing their allegiances. Badges can be made from metal, plastic, leather, textile, rubber, etc. and they are attached to clothing, bags, footwear, vehicles, home electrical equipment. Textile badges or patches can be woven or embroidered, and can be attached by gluing, ironing-on. Badges have become collectable, in the UK, for example. In the military, badges are used to denote the unit or arm to which the wearer belongs, similarly, youth organizations such as scouting and guiding use them to show group membership, awards and rank. Badges were popular as jewellery in the Middle Ages, and varied from extremely expensive works of jewellery, like the Dunstable Swan Jewel, one royal celebration in 1483 was marked by the distribution of 13,000 badges, a huge number relative to the population at the time. Other types were funerary badges, presumably presented to mourners for the funeral of important figures, the grandest form of badge was worn as a pendant to a metal collar, often in gold or silver-gilt. From the livery badge, various badges of service evolved, worn by officials, soldiers, in the British army a metal cap badge denoting the soldiers regiment became standard by the 17th century, as in most European armies. One of the badges is the typically star-shaped U. S. sheriffs badge. The Chairman Mao badge is probably the most famous political badge, members of fraternities and sororities often refer to the pins that signify their membership as badges. The BBC childrens programme Blue Peter also awards its own Blue Peter badge to members of the public who appear on the show and these are highly collectable as they cannot be bought—except from people who have been awarded one and wish to sell it. Case badges are thick, about 3 mm deep, 3-by-3-centimetre lucite stickers that are packaged with various computer parts, such as processors. Modern computer cases are frequently embellished with an indentation on the front panel to facilitate the affixing of a case badge. Button badges are a highly collectible round badge with a coating over a design or image. They often have a pin back or a safety pin style back. The most popular size is 25. 4-millimetre but the badges can range anywhere from this right up to 120-millimetre badges. This style of badge is used in political campaigning and often given as part of a greeting such as a birthday card
7.
Dunstable Swan Jewel
–
The Dunstable Swan Jewel is a gold and enamel brooch in the form of a swan made in England or France in about 1400 and now in the British Museum, where it is on display in Room 40. The jewel is a medieval example of the then recently developed. The jewel is formed as a standing or walking mute swan gorged with a collar in the form of a royal crown with six fleur-de-lys tines. There is a chain terminating in a ring attached to the crown. The swan is 3.2 cm high and 2.5 cm wide, the swans body is in white enamel, its eyes are of black enamel, which also once covered the legs and feet, where only traces now remain. Tiny fragments of pink or red enamel remain on the beak, the jewel is a unique survival of the most expensive form of livery badge, otherwise only known from inventories and representations in paintings. In the Wilton Diptych, Richards own badge has pearls on the antler tips, which the angels badges lack. In 1483 King Richard III ordered 13,000 fustian badges with his emblem of a boar for the investiture of his son Edward as Prince of Wales, a huge number given the population at the time. The British Museum also has a flat lead swan badge with low relief, the mob attacked him, pulling him off his horse and the badge off him, and he had to be rescued by the mayor from suffering serious harm. Over twenty years later, after Gaunts son Henry IV had deposed Richard, many of the large number of badges of various liveries recovered from the Thames in London were perhaps discarded hurriedly by retainers who found themselves impoliticly dressed at various times. Richard offered to give up his own badges, to the delight of the House of Commons of England, but the House of Lords refused to give up theirs, and the matter was put off. In 1390 it was ordered that no one below the rank of banneret should issue badges, and no one below the rank of esquire wear them. In the end it took a determined campaign by Henry VII to largely stamp out the use of badges by others than the king. The widespread use of the swan as a badge derives from the legend of the Swan Knight. A group of Old French chansons de geste called the Crusade cycle had associated the legend with the ancestors of Godfrey of Bouillon, the hero of the First Crusade. Although Godfrey had no issue, his family had many descendants among the aristocracy of Europe. The swan with the crown and chain is associated with Lancastrian use, it echoes the crown and chain of Richard IIs white hart. He declared to Parliament that he had exchanged liveries with his uncles as a sign of amity at various moments of reconciliation and it was also used by his grandson Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales before his death in the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471
8.
Livery collar
–
A livery collar or chain of office is a collar or heavy chain, usually of gold, worn as insignia of office or a mark of fealty or other association in Europe from the Middle Ages onwards. One of the oldest and best-known livery collars is the Collar of Esses, various forms of livery were used in the Middle Ages to denote attachment to a great person by friends, servants, and political supporters. From the collar hung a badge or device indicating the person the livery related to, equally gold collars that had no livery connotations were worn. Livery collars seem to be first recorded in the 14th century, the collar of Esses is first recorded earlier than this, as being given by John of Gaunt, and remained in use by the House of Lancaster throughout the Wars of the Roses. The same collar was worn by Henry IV on the way to his crowning, the inventory shows that Queen Annes collar, was made up of sprigs of rosemary garnished with pearls. The York collar had falcons and fetterlocks, and the Lancaster collar was doubtless that Collar of Esses used by the son, Henry of Bolingbroke, as an earl, duke. The oldest effigy bearing it is that in Spratton church of Sir John Swynford, who died in 1371. Swynford was a follower of John of Gaunt, and the date of his death easily disposes of the theory that the Esses were devised by Henry IV to stand for his motto or word of Soverayne. Many explanations are given of the origin of these letters, in one of Henry VIs own collars the S was joined to the broomcod of the French device, symbolizing the kings claim to the two kingdoms. The kings of the house of York and their chief followers wore the Yorkist collar of suns and roses, with the lion of March. It was presented to ministers and courtiers, and came to represent more a symbol of office by the time of Elizabeth I, the term Collar of SS was preferred by Victorian antiquaries. Since World War II, as SS is usually associated with the Schutzstaffel, besides these royal collars, the 14th and 15th centuries show many private devices. A monumental brass at Mildenhall shows a knight whose badge of a dog or wolf circled by a crown hangs from a collar with edges suggesting a pruned bough or the ragged staff. The Elizabethan artist Nicholas Hilliard was both a goldsmith and miniaturist, and so produced the whole of pieces like the Armada Jewel, given by Queen Elizabeth I of England to a courtier. When the Earl of Rutland returned from an embassy to Denmark, sixteen members of his party were given chains of gold with the James I of Englands picture, during the sixteenth century collars became marks of a specific office or Order, and subsequently remained so. Most British and Irish mayors wear a collar/chain of office, the mayors spouse may have a much smaller version. These are worn over normal clothes when on official duties, following British practice, most Canadian, Australian and New Zealand mayors also wear chains of office. Collars of various devices are worn by the knights of some of the European orders of knighthood
9.
Embroidery
–
Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate materials such as, pearls, beads, quills. Today, embroidery is most often seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, stockings, Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or yarn color. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted, It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery. There are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, on the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found world-wide and several examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period, depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a wide-spread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane, in 18th century England and its colonies, samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a marking a girls path into womanhood as well as conveying rank. Conversely, embroidery is also an art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger from Norway, Merezhka from Ukraine, Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland, Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal, many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. Embroidery was an important art in the Medieval Islamic world, the 17th century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the craft of the two hands. Because embroidery was a sign of social status in Muslim societies. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread, Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. Taste for fine material has become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. The development of embroidery and its mass production came about in stages in the Industrial Revolution. The earliest machine embroidery used a combination of machine looms and teams of women embroidering the textiles by hand and this was done in France by the mid-1800s. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the half of the 19th century
10.
Heraldic flag
–
In heraldry and vexillology, a heraldic flag is any of several types of flags, containing coats of arms, heraldic badges, or other devices used for personal identification. When it is for the use of a monarch, it is a royal standard. Heraldic flags include banners, standards, pennons and their variants, gonfalons, guidons, specifications governing heraldic flags vary from country to country, and have varied over time. The pennon is a small elongated flag, either pointed or swallow-tailed and it was charged with the heraldic badge or some other armorial ensign of the owner, and displayed on his own lance, as a personal ensign. The pennoncelle was a modification of the pennon, in contemporary Scots usage, the pennon is four feet long. It tapers either to a point or to an end as the owner chooses. It is assigned by the Lord Lyon King of Arms to any armiger who wishes to apply for it. The banner of arms is square or oblong and larger than the pennon, bearing the coat of arms of the owner, composed precisely as upon a shield. In the olden time, when a Knight had distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry, in such a case, the point or points of the good Knight’s Pennon were rent off, and thus the. Small Flag was reduced to the form of the Banner. Banners of Knights of the Order of the Thistle are hung in the 1911 chapel of the Order in St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh, banners of Knights of the Order of the Garter are displayed in St Georges Chapel at Windsor Castle. From Victorian times Garter banners have been approximately 5 feet by 5 feet, banners became available to all English armigers as a result of a report by Garter to the Earl Marshal dated 29 January 1906. The report stated that the size of banner for Esquires and Gentlemen should be considered in the future, until that date they were available to all noblemen and knights banneret. In 2011, Garter Woodcock said that the banner for an Esquire or Gentleman should be the size as a Marquess’s and those of a lower rank down to Knight. In Scotland, the size of personal banners, excluding any fringes, are specified by the Lord Lyon, the heraldic standard appeared about the middle of the fourteenth century, and was in general use by personages of high rank in the two following centuries. The standard appears to have adopted for the special purpose of displaying badges. A standard is not rectangular, it tapers, usually from 4 feet down to 2 feet, in England any armiger who has been granted a badge is entitled to fly a standard. The medieval English standard was larger than the flags
11.
Livery
–
Often, elements of the heraldry relating to the individual or corporate body feature in the livery. Alternatively, some kind of an emblem or badge, or a distinctive colour, is featured. The word itself derives from the French livrée, meaning dispensed, handed over. Most often it would indicate that the wearer of the livery was a servant, dependant, follower or friend of the owner of the livery, or, in the case of objects, that the object belonged to them. In the late medieval phenomenon of bastard feudalism, livery badges worn by the retainers of great lords, sometimes in effect private armies, in the 14th century, livery referred to an allowance of any kind, but especially clothes provided to servants and members of the household. Such things might be kept in a livery cupboard, during the 14th century, specific colours denoting a great person began to be used for both his soldiers and his civilian followers, and the modern sense of the term began to form. Usually two different colours were used together, but the ways in which they were combined varied with rank, often the colours used were different each year. As well as embroidered badges, metal ones were sewn on to clothing, municipalities and corporations copied the behaviour of the great households. The grandest of these is the livery collar, william, Lord Hastings the favourite of King Edward IV of England had a Coller of gold of K. Edwards lyverys valued at the enormous sum of £40 in an inventory of 1489. This would have similar to the collars worn by Hastings sister and her husband Sir John Donne in the Donne Triptych by Hans Memling. Lords gave their servants lead or pewter badges to sew onto their clothes, in the 15th century European royalty sometimes distributed uniform suits of clothes to courtiers, as the House of Fugger, the leading bankers, did to all employees. This practice later contracted to the provision of standardized clothing to male servants, the term most notably referred to the embroidered coats, waistcoats, knee breeches and stockings in 18th-century style, worn by footmen on formal occasions in grand houses. Plainer clothing in dark colours and without braiding was worn by footmen, chauffeurs, for reasons of economy the employment of such servants, and their expensive dress, died out after World War I except in royal households. Most European royal courts still use their state liveries on formal occasions and these are generally in traditional national colours, and are based on 18th century clothing with fine gold embroidery. Only male royal servants normally wear livery, knee breeches are worn, normally with white silk stockings, one exception being the Spanish court which prescribes red. At the British royal court red state livery are still worn by pages, footmen, coachmen, the state livery worn by footmen includes foils. The scarlet coats are handmade, and embroidered in gold braid with the cypher of the monarch. Gold buttons and other trimmings are of designs and patterns which date from the 18th century, unlike the tailor-made uniform clothing issued to full-time royal staff, the seldom-worn full-state dress reserved for court pages is not bespoke
12.
Pub names
–
Pub names are used to identify and differentiate pubs in the United Kingdom. Many pubs are old, from a time when their customers were often illiterate. Pub names have a variety of origins, from objects used as identification marks to the coats of arms of kings or local aristocrats. Other names come from historic events, livery companies, and occupations or craftsmens guilds, although the word The appears on much pub signage, it is not considered to be an important part of the name, and is therefore ignored in the following examples. The word Ye is likewise ignored as it is only a spelling of The. The Y represents a now obsolete character for the th sound and it was never pronounced with a y sound. Similarly, other spellings such as olde worlde are not distinguished below. Names like Fox and Hounds, Dog and Duck, Dog and Gun, animal names coupled with colours, such as White Hart and Red Lion, are often heraldic. A white hart featured as the badge of King Richard II, while a red lion was the badge of John of Gaunt, Dog and Duck, St Georges Fields Fox & Hounds, West Witton Guide Dog, Southampton. Hen and Chickens Pigs, Edgefield, Norfolk, formerly Three Pigs, originally Bacon Arms named after the Bacon family that gave their name to Baconsthorpe. Individual animals once famous in a particular locality sometimes give their names to pubs, Blue Cap, Cheshire, smoker, Cheshire, named after a grey horse which was the mount of a local landowner. Examples are found in Sussex, Kent, Dorset and Yorkshire and these include, Dr Syntax, Alice Hawthorn, Golden Miller, Slow and Easy, Windmill, Happy Man, Spinner and Bergamot, and The Flying Childers. Some pub chains in the UK adopt the same or similar names for pubs as a means of brand expression. Before painted inn signs became commonplace, medieval publicans often identify their establishment by hanging or standing a distinctive object outside the pub. This tradition dates back to Roman times, when the owners of used to hang some vine leaves outside their property to show where wine was sold. Boot Copper Kettle Crooked Billet Sometimes the object was coloured, such as Blue Post or Blue Door, the ubiquity of the naming element arms shows how important heraldry has been in the naming of pubs. The simpler symbols of the badges of royalty or local nobility give rise to many of the most common pub names. Bear and Ragged Staff, a badge of the earls of Warwick, Black Griffin, a pub in Lisvane, Cardiff, named after the coat of arms carried by the lords of the manor
13.
Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham
–
He is also one of the primary suspects in the disappearance of the Princes in the Tower. He became the Duke of Buckingham in 1460 following the death of his grandfather, Humphrey Stafford, in February 1466 he was married to Catherine Woodville, sister of Edward IVs queen, Elizabeth Woodville, and daughter to Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers. Becoming disaffected with Richard, Buckingham then joined with Henry Tudor and Tudors mother, Margaret Beaufort, Buckingham was executed for treason by Richard on 2 November 1483, he was beheaded in Salisbury market-place. He is believed to have buried in St Peters Church in Britford in Wiltshire. Buckinghams precise motivation has been called obscure, he had been treated well by Richard, the traditional naming of the rebellion after him has been labelled a misnomer, with John Morton and Reginald Bray more plausible leaders. Buckingham is also one of the suspects in the disappearance of the Princes in the Tower, Edward IVs young sons Edward V of England and Richard of Shrewsbury. Buckingham is depicted as a character in Philippa Gregorys 2009 historical novel The White Queen. He is depicted as the murderer of the Princes in the Tower in Sharon Penmans 1982 debut novel The Sunne in Splendour, listed among other members of the Stafford family, with their genealogies clarified
14.
Stafford knot
–
It is a particular representation of the simple overhand knot, the most basic knot of all. The knot was the badge of the de Stafford family, one legend of its origin, generally considered mythical, is that three convicted criminals who had committed a crime together were due to be executed in Stafford gaol. There was argument over who should be hanged first but the hangman solved the problem by devising this knot, however, the knot can be seen on a 4-foot-high carved Anglo-Saxon cross in a churchyard in Stoke-upon-Trent, and also on a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon object from the Staffordshire hoard. The design closely matches the design of the pretzel, which was made to represent arms crossed in prayer. The knot appears prominently on the flag of the county of Staffordshire. The motto of the county council is the knot unites, a reference to the Stafford knot and it also appears on the coat of arms of the Borough of Stafford. The knot formed part of the insignia of the North Staffordshire Regiment, South Staffordshire Regiment, Staffordshire Regiment and it is also used as the badge of the Staffordshire Police force. The knot appears on the logos of both Staffordshire University and Keele University, as well as on many school badges, stoke-on-Trent based football team Port Vale F. C. use the knot on their club badge as do fellow Staffordshire club Tamworth F. C. West Bromwich Albion and Stoke City have also used the knot on their respective badges, the knot symbol appeared in the railway companys badge. The Smiler, a coaster at Alton Towers, has a combined section of track known as the Stafford/Staffordshire Knot. It is given this nickname due to the resemblance to the knot shape
15.
Bohun swan
–
The Bohun swan was a heraldic badge used originally in England by the mediaeval noble family of de Bohun, Earls of Hereford, and Earls of Essex. The widespread use of the swan as a badge derives from the legend of the Swan Knight, today most familiar from Richard Wagners opera Lohengrin. The Crusade cycle, a group of Old French chansons de geste, had associated the legend with the ancestors of Godfrey of Bouillon, King of Jerusalem and the hero of the First Crusade. Godfrey had no legitimate progeny, but his family had many descendants among the aristocracy of Europe. In England such a family was that of de Bohun, Earls of Hereford and he declared to Parliament that he had exchanged liveries with his uncles as a sign of amity at various moments of reconciliation. The Dunstable Swan Jewel made in about 1400 is presumed to have intended as a livery badge possibly given to his supporters by the future Henry V of England. It is in the form of a white enamelled swan gorged with a collar in the form of a crown with six fleur-de-lys tines. The Bohun swan was used by Henry Vs grandson Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales. In 1459 Edwards mother Margaret of Anjou insisted that he should give swan livery badges to all the gentlemen of Cheshire, the type and number are unknown. Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, a descendant of the Beauchamps, of Eleanor de Bohun and of Thomas of Woodstock, and of John of Gaunt, used the swan with crown and chain as his own badge. He was certainly active in trying to obtain possession of the Bohun lands, the Courtenays frequently used the Bohum swan as one of their supporters, with or in place of the usual Courtenay boar, on their heraldic achievements. Surviving examples are, Seal of Sir Philip Courtenay of Powderham, the Luttrell family, feudal barons of Dunster, of Dunster Castle in Somerset, also used the Bohun swan as supporters. This was due to their descent from the Courtenays, Dunster Castle continued to be held by her descendants until 1976. Bohun swan supporters survive on the Easter Sepulchre monument of Hugh Luttrell of Dunster, in St Marys Church, East Quantoxhead, Somerset. A modern example is on the huge stone sculpted heraldic achievement of George Fownes Luttrell above the new entrance door to the castle. The Bohun swan also features in the centre of the Luttrell Table Carpet, now in the Burrell Collection in Glasgow
16.
Charge (heraldry)
–
In heraldry, a charge is any emblem or device occupying the field of an escutcheon. This may be a design or a symbolic representation of a person, animal, plant. In French blazon, the ordinaries are called pièces while other charges are called meubles, while thousands of objects found in nature, mythology or technology have appeared in armory, there are several charges which have contributed to the distinctive flavour of heraldic design. Only these and a few other notable charges are discussed in this article, some heraldic writers distinguish, albeit arbitrarily, between honourable ordinaries and sub-ordinaries. While some authors hold that only nine charges are honourable ordinaries, the remainder are often termed sub-ordinaries, and narrower or smaller versions of the ordinaries are called diminutives. Apparently ceding the point for the moment, Fox-Davies lists the generally agreed-upon honourable ordinaries as the bend, fess, pale, pile, chevron, cross, saltire and chief. Boutell lists the chief, pale, bend, bend sinister, fess, bar, cross, saltire and cheveron as the honourable ordinaries. Thus, the chief, bend, pale, fess, chevron, cross and saltire appear to be the undisputed ordinaries, while authors disagree over the status of the pile, bar, inescutcheon, bordure and others. Several different figures are recognised as honourable ordinaries, each normally occupying about one-fifth to one-third of the field, the chief is the upper portion of the field. The bend runs from the left to the lower right, as \. The bend sinister runs from the right to the lower left. The pale, a stripe in the centre of the field. The fess is a horizontal stripe across the centre of the field. The chevron is a construction shaped like an inverted letter V, the cross is a geometric construction of two perpendicular lines or bands. It has hundreds of variants, most of which are common charges rather than ordinaries, the saltire is a diagonal cross, often called Saint Andrews cross. Most of the ordinaries have corresponding diminutives, narrower versions, most often mentioned when two or more appear in parallel, bendlets, pallets, bars, chevronels, in addition to those mentioned in the above section, other ordinaries exist. Some of these are variously called honourable ordinaries by different authors, the pall or pairle is shaped like the letter Y. The pile is a wedge issuing from the top of the field and its length and width vary widely
17.
Rebus
–
A rebus is an allusional device that uses pictures to represent words or parts of words. It was a form of heraldic expression used in the Middle Ages to denote surnames. For example, in its form, three salmon are used to denote the surname Salmon. A more sophisticated example was the rebus of Bishop Walter Lyhart of Norwich, Rebuses are used extensively as a form of heraldic expression as a hint to the name of the bearer, they are not synonymous with canting arms. A man might have a rebus as an identification device entirely separate from his armorials. An example of canting arms proper are those of the Borough of Congleton in Cheshire consisting of an eel, a lion. This word sequence conger-leo-tun enunciates the towns name, similarly, the coat of arms of St. Ignatius Loyola contains wolves and a kettle, said by some to be a rebus for Loyola. The arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon feature bows and lions, a modern example of the rebus used as a form of word play is, H + = Hear, or Here. By extension, it uses the positioning of words or parts of words in relation to each other to convey a hidden meaning, for example, p walk ark. A rebus made up solely of letters is known as a gramogram, grammagram, the term rebus also refers to the use of a pictogram to represent a syllabic sound. A precursor to the development of the alphabet, this process one of the most important developments of writing. Fully developed hieroglyphs read in rebus fashion were in use at Abydos in Egypt as early as 3400 BCE, the writing of correspondence in rebus form became popular in the 18th century and continued into the 19th century. Lewis Carroll wrote the children he befriended picture-puzzle rebus letters, nonsense letters, and looking-glass letters, Rebus letters served either as a sort of code or simply as a pastime. In linguistics, the principle is the use of existing symbols, such as pictograms, purely for their sounds regardless of their meaning. Many ancient writing systems used the principle to represent abstract words. An example that illustrates the Rebus principle is the representation of the sentence I can see you by using the pictographs of eye—can—sea—ewe, some linguists believe that the Chinese developed their writing system according to the rebus principle, and Egyptian hieroglyphs sometimes used a similar system. A famous rebus statue of Ramses II uses three hieroglyphs to compose his name, Horus, for Ra, the child, mes, and the plant, su. Canada 1980s childrens game show Kidstreet featured a rebus during the bonus round, united Kingdom Catchphrase was a long-running game show which required contestants to decipher a rebus
18.
Pun
–
The pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism is a variation on a correct expression. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, as their usage and meaning are specific to a particular language, Puns have a long history in human writing. Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs were originally based on punning systems, punning has been credited as the fundamental concept behind alphabets, writing, and even human civilization. Puns can be classified in various ways, including, The homophonic pun, walter Redfern exemplified this type with his statement, To pun is to treat homonyms as synonyms. For example, in George Carlins phrase Atheism is a non-prophet institution, similarly, the joke Question, Why do we still have troops in Germany. A homographic pun exploits words which are spelled the same but possess different meanings, because of their nature, they rely on sight more than hearing, contrary to homophonic puns. They are also known as heteronymic puns, an example that combines homophonic and homographic punning is Douglas Adamss line You can tune a guitar, but you cant tuna fish. Unless of course, you play bass, the phrase uses the homophonic qualities of tune a and tuna, as well as the homographic pun on bass, in which ambiguity is reached through the identical spellings of /ˈbeɪs/, and /ˈbæs/. Homonymic puns, another type, arise from the exploitation of words which are both homographs and homophones. An adaptation of a joke repeated by Isaac Asimov gives us Did you hear about the little moron who strained himself while running into the screen door, playing on strained as to give much effort and to filter. A homonymic pun may also be polysemic, in which the words must be homonymic and also possess related meanings, however, lexicographers define polysemes as listed under a single dictionary lemma while homonyms are treated in separate lemmata. A compound pun is a statement that two or more puns. For example, a statement by Richard Whately includes four puns. Because he can eat the sand which is there, but what brought the sandwiches there. Why, Noah sent Ham, and his descendants mustered and bred and this pun uses sand which is there/sandwiches there, Ham/ham, mustered/mustard, and bred/bread. Similarly, the piano is not my forte links two meanings of the words forte and piano, one for the dynamic markings in music
19.
Henry V of England
–
Henry V was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 36 in 1422. He was the second English monarch who came from the House of Lancaster, after his fathers death in 1413, Henry assumed control of the country and embarked on war with France in the ongoing Hundred Years War between the two nations. His military successes culminated in his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt and he was the son of 20-year-old Henry of Bolingbroke, and 16-year-old Mary de Bohun. He was also the grandson of the influential John of Gaunt, at the time of his birth, Richard II of England, his cousin once removed, was king. As he was not close to the line of succession to the throne and his grandfather, John of Gaunt, was the guardian of the king at that time. Upon the exile of Henrys father in 1398, Richard II took the boy into his own charge, the young Henry accompanied King Richard to Ireland, and while in the royal service, he visited Trim Castle in County Meath, the ancient meeting place of the Irish Parliament. He was created Prince of Wales at his fathers coronation, and Duke of Lancaster on 10 November 1399 and his other titles were Duke of Cornwall, Earl of Chester, and Duke of Aquitaine. A contemporary record notes that during that year Henry spent time at The Queens College, Oxford, under the care of his uncle Henry Beaufort, from 1400 to 1404, he carried out the duties of High Sheriff of Cornwall. It was there that the prince was almost killed by an arrow that became stuck in his face. An ordinary soldier might have died from such a wound, the operation was successful, but it left Henry with permanent scars, evidence of his experience in battle. The Welsh revolt of Owain Glyndŵr absorbed Henrys energies until 1408, then, as a result of the kings ill health, Henry began to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry Beaufort and Thomas Beaufort – legitimised sons of John of Gaunt – he had control of the government. Both in foreign and domestic policy he differed from the king, the quarrel of father and son was political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had discussed the abdication of Henry IV, and their opponents certainly endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that the tradition of Henrys riotous youth, immortalised by Shakespeare, is due to political enmity. Henrys record of involvement in war and politics, even in his youth, the most famous incident, his quarrel with the chief justice, has no contemporary authority and was first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff originated in Henrys early friendship with Sir John Oldcastle, shakespeares Falstaff was originally named Oldcastle, following his main source, The Famous Victories of Henry V. However, his descendants objected, and the name was changed. That friendship, and the political opposition to Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury. If so, their disappointment may account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers like Thomas Walsingham that Henry, after Henry IV died on 20 March 1413, Henry V succeeded him and was crowned on 9 April 1413 at Westminster Abbey, London, Kingdom of England
20.
British Museum
–
The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
21.
Wars of the Roses
–
The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487, however, there was fighting before and after this period between the houses. With the Duke of Yorks passing, the transferred to his heir, Edward. His son reigned for 86 days as Edward V, but Parliament then decided that Edward and his brother Richard were illegitimate and offered the crown to Edward IVs younger brother, the two young princes disappeared within the confines of the Tower of London. The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, after assuming the throne as Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. The name Wars of the Roses refers to the badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. Wars of the Roses came into use in the nineteenth century. Badges were not always distinct, at the Battle of Barnet, Edwards sun was very similar to the Earl of Oxfords Vere star, which caused fateful confusion. Another example, Henry Tudors forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon, although the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of York and Lancaster, the corresponding duchies had little to do with these cities. Although minor armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of York and Lancaster, the first open fighting broke out in 1455 at the First Battle of St Albans, several prominent Lancastrians died at the hands of the Yorkists. Although peace was restored, the Lancastrians were inspired by Margaret of Anjou to contest Yorks influence. Fighting resumed more violently in 1459, York and his supporters were forced to flee the country, but one of his most prominent supporters, the Earl of Warwick, invaded England from Calais and captured Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton. York returned to the country and became Protector of England, but was dissuaded from claiming the throne, Margaret and the remaining Lancastrian nobles gathered their army in the north of England. When York moved north to engage them, he and his second son Edmund were killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. The Lancastrian army advanced south and released Henry at the Second Battle of St Albans, but failed to occupy London, Yorks eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV. He gathered the Yorkist armies and won a victory at the Battle of Towton in March 1461. After Lancastrian revolts in the north were suppressed in 1464 and Henry was captured once again, Edward fell out with his chief supporter and adviser, the Earl of Warwick after Edwards unpopular and secretly conducted marriage with the widow of a Lancastrian supporter, Elizabeth Woodville. Within a few years, it clear that Edward was favoring his wifes family
22.
Sir John Donne
–
Sir John Donne was a Welsh courtier, diplomat and soldier, a notable figure of the Yorkist party. In the 1470s he commissioned the Donne Triptych, an altarpiece by Hans Memling now in the National Gallery. It contains portraits of him, his wife Elizabeth and a daughter and he may well have been related to the Jacobean poet John Donne, although not as a direct ancestor, as he had no Donne grandchildren. The Donnes of Kidwelly, Carmarthenshire were a distinguished family and his father Griffith reputedly fought at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and certainly in many other French campaigns, he was Lieutenant of Cherbourg in 1424. His mother was Joan Scudamore, a grandchild of Owain Glyndŵr, the last independent Prince of Wales, John Donne was born in France, in parts of Picardy, probably in the 1420s. Donne was their son who entered, probably in his late teens. He may have done so through the patronage of the leading Yorkist in South Wales, William ap Thomas, also an Agincourt veteran and father of Donnes contemporary William Herbert, Donne is recorded as having fought in France for the Duke, which must have been before 1447. It is from this and his apparent age in the Memling that his birth in the 1420s is estimated and he also fought for the Duke in England, and in the late 1440s in Ireland. Donne married before 1465 Elizabeth Hastings, sister of William, Lord Hastings, the favourite of Edward IV, Hastings had also been in the service of the Duke of York for all his adult life, so he and Donne must have known each other very well. The Donnes surviving children were first two daughters, Anne and Margaret, then two sons Edward and Griffith, on Edwards accession in 1461 he was made an Usher of the Chamber and started to become wealthy. From 1465–9 he was an Esquire of the Body and he was knighted on the field after the huge Yorkist victory of the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471 and his wife was a damicellae or Lady-in-waiting, of the Queen. These chains would presumably have been presents from Edward to his close followers and he was probably the Jehan Don present at the extravagantly celebrated wedding in Bruges in 1468 of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. He may well have accompanied Edward in his Burgundian exile in 1470–1, much later, he was present when the widowed Margaret met her brother at what is now Syon House in 1480. He owned a house there, and was a member of the Calais council in 1471, involved in negotiations in 1472, by 1483 he was Deputy of the Tower of Risban, an outlying fort, and before 1497 Lieutenant of the Castle. It may well have been his main base for much of his career, the Donne Triptych by Hans Memling would presumably have been made in Bruges, and is believed to date from the 1470s. The National Gallery now favours a date in the late 1470s, perhaps 1478, the date on a copy, which is plausible. The Donne coat of arms appears on small escutcheons in the capital of the column behind Sir John, rather roughly represented, the Donne arms also appear in a glass roundel in the window in the right side panel. The portrait of Lady Donne was first painted with a younger, more generalized face, then overpainted, also by Memling and this may suggest Memling only saw her when the painting was well underway, and changed his picture to her actual features
23.
Richard II of England
–
Richard II, also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed on 30 September 1399. Richard, a son of Edward, the Black Prince, was born in Bordeaux during the reign of his grandfather, Edward III. Richard was the brother of Edward of Angoulême, upon whose death, Richard. Upon the death of Richards father prior to the death of Edward III, Richard, by primogeniture, with Edward IIIs death the following year, Richard succeeded to the throne at the age of ten. During Richards first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of councils, most of the aristocracy preferred this to a regency led by the kings uncle, John of Gaunt, yet Gaunt remained highly influential. The first major challenge of the reign was the Peasants Revolt in 1381, the young king played a major part in the successful suppression of this crisis. By 1389 Richard had regained control, and for the eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In 1397, Richard took his revenge on the appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled, the next two years have been described by historians as Richards tyranny. In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, the king disinherited Gaunts son, Henry of Bolingbroke, Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Claiming initially that his goal was only to reclaim his patrimony, meeting little resistance, Bolingbroke deposed Richard and had himself crowned as King Henry IV. Richard died in captivity in February 1400, he is thought to have starved to death. Richard was said to have tall, good-looking and intelligent. Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years War that Edward III had started, modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating Richard from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as historians of the 19th and 20th centuries believed, Richard of Bordeaux was the younger son of Edward, the Black Prince, and Joan of Kent. Edward, heir to the throne of England, had distinguished himself as a commander in the early phases of the Hundred Years War. After further military adventures, however, he contracted dysentery in Spain in 1370 and he never fully recovered and had to return to England the next year. Joan of Kent had been at the centre of a dispute between Thomas Holland, Earl of Kent, and William Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, from which Holland emerged victorious. Less than a year after Hollands death in 1360, Joan married Prince Edward, since she was a granddaughter of King Edward I and a first cousin of King Edward III, the marriage required papal approval
24.
Philip the Good
–
Philip the Good was Duke of Burgundy as Philip III from 1419 until his death. He was a member of a line of the Valois dynasty. During his reign, Burgundy reached the apex of its prosperity and prestige, Philip is known in history for his administrative reforms, his patronage of Flemish artists such as Jan van Eyck and Franco-Flemish composers such as Gilles Binchois, and the capture of Joan of Arc. In political affairs, he alternated between alliances with the English and the French in an attempt to improve his dynastys position. As ruler of Flanders, Brabant, Limburg, Artois, Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland and Namur, born in 1396 in Dijon, Philip was the son of John the Fearless and Margaret of Bavaria-Straubing. His father succeeded Philips grandfather Philip the Bold as Duke of Burgundy in 1404 and they were married in June 1409. Bonne of Artois lived only a year after Philip married her, Philip was married for a third time to Isabella of Portugal, a daughter of John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster, in Bruges on 7 January 1430. Corneille and Anthony were his favorite bastard sons and successively bore the title Grand bâtard de Bourgogne, Philip became duke of Burgundy and count of Flanders, Artois and Franche-Comté upon the assassination of his father in 1419. Philip accused Charles, the Dauphin of France and Philips brother-in-law, of planning the murder of his father, because of this, he continued to prosecute the civil war between the Burgundians and Armagnacs. In 1420, Philip allied himself with Henry V of England under the Treaty of Troyes, in 1423, the marriage of Philips sister Anne to John, Duke of Bedford, regent for Henry VI of England, strengthened the English alliance. In 1430, Philips troops captured Joan of Arc at Compiègne and later handed her over to the English, Philip signed the treaty for a variety of reasons, one of which may have been a desire to be recognised as the preeminent duke in France. He then attacked Calais, a possession of the English, Philip supported the revolt of the French nobles the following year and offered shelter to the Dauphin Louis, who had rebelled against his father Charles VII. In 1456, Philip also managed to ensure his illegitimate son David was elected Bishop of Utrecht and it is not surprising that in 1435 Philip began to style himself the Grand Duke of the West. In 1463, Philip gave up some of his territory to King Louis XI of France and that year he also created an Estates-General for the Netherlands based on the French model. The first meeting of the Estates-General was to obtain a loan for a war against France, in 1465 and 1467, Philip crushed two rebellions in Liège. Philip died in Bruges in 1467, Philips court can only be described as extravagant. He declined membership in the English Order of the Garter in 1422, instead, he created his own Order of the Golden Fleece, based on the Knights of the Round Table and the myth of Jason, in 1430. Philip had no fixed capital and moved the court between various palaces, the urban ones being Brussels, Bruges, and Lille
25.
Duchy of Burgundy
–
Upon the extinction of the line with the death of Duke Philip I in 1361, the duchy fell back to King John II of France and the royal House of Valois. The Burgundian duchy rose to a complex of a European scale after in 1363 King John II of France ceded the duchy to his younger son Philip of Valois. By his marriage with Countess Margaret of Flanders, he laid the foundation for a Burgundian realm further north in the Low Countries collectively known as the Burgundian Netherlands. The Burgundian sphere, in its own right, was one of the largest ducal territories that existed at the time of the emergence of Early Modern Europe. Including the thriving regions of Flanders and Brabant, it was a centre of trade. After about one hundred years of Valois-Burgundy rule, however, the last duke Charles the Bold rushed to the Burgundian Wars and was killed in the 1477 Battle of Nancy. With the abdication of the Habsburg emperor Charles V in 1556, the Burgundians settled in the area around Dijon, Chalon-sur-Saône, Mâcon, Autun and Châtillon-sur-Seine, and gave the name to the region. The Kingdom of the Burgundians was annexed by the Merovingian Kings of the Franks Childebert I in 534 following their defeat by the Franks and it was recreated, however, on several occasions when Frankish territories were redivided between the sons on the death of a Frankish king. As part of the Kingdom of the Franks, Burgundy maintained a semi-autonomous existence, with the Burgundians maintaining their own law code, however, southern Burgundy was pillaged by the Saracen invasion of the 8th century. When Charles Martel drove the invaders out, he divided Burgundy into four commands, Arles-Burgundy, Vienne-Burgundy, Alamanic Burgundy and he appointed his brother Childebrand governor of Frankish Burgundy. Under the Carolingians, Burgundian separatism lessened and Burgundy became a geographical term. As a vital military defender of the West Frankish border, Guerin was sometimes known by the Latin term for leader – Dux or Duke, by the time of Richard the Justiciar, the Duchy of Burgundy was beginning to emerge. Richard was officially recognised by the king as a duke, he stood as individual count of each county he held. As Duke of Burgundy, he was able to wield an increasing amount of power over his territory, to the collective body of his territory there came to be applied the term ducatus. Included in the ducatus of Richard were the regions of Autunais, Beaunois, Avalois, Lassois, Dijonais, Memontois, Attuyer, Oscheret, under Richard, these territories were given law and order, protected from the Normans, and served as a haven for persecuted monks. It was from his territories in Burgundy that he drew the resources needed to fight those who challenged his right to rule, under Hugh the Black came the beginning of what would be a long and troubled saga for Burgundy. His neighbours were the Robertian family, who held the title of Duke of Francia and this family, wanting to improve their standing in France and against the Carolingian kings, attempted to subject the duchy to the suzerainty of their own duchy. They failed, eventually, when they appeared close to success, they were forced to scrap the scheme, two brothers of Hugh Capet, the first Capetian King of France, took up the rule of Burgundy as duke
26.
Spinel
–
Spinel is the magnesium aluminium member of the larger spinel group of minerals. It has the formula MgAl2O4 in the crystal system. Its name comes from Latin spina, balas ruby is an old name for a rose-tinted variety of spinel. Spinel crystallizes in the system, common crystal forms are octahedra. It has an imperfect cleavage and a conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is 8, its gravity is 3. 5–4.1. It may be colorless, but is usually shades of red, blue, green, yellow, brown, black. There is a natural white spinel, now lost, that surfaced briefly in what is now Sri Lanka. The Samarian Spinel is the largest known spinel in the world, the transparent red spinels were called spinel-rubies or balas rubies. In the past, before the arrival of modern science, spinels, after the 18th century the word ruby was only used for the red gem variety of the mineral corundum and the word spinel came to be used. Balas is derived from Balascia, the ancient name for Badakhshan, mines in the Gorno Badakhshan region of Tajikistan was for centuries the main source for red and pink spinels. Spinel has long been found in the gravel of Sri Lanka and in limestones of the Badakshan Province in modern-day Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Recently gem quality spinels also found in the marbles of Luc Yen, Mahenge and Matombo, Tsavo and in the gravels of Tunduru and this is why spinel and ruby are often found together. Spinel, 2O4, is common in peridotite in the uppermost Earths mantle, Spinel, Al2O4, is a common mineral in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions in some chondritic meteorites. Synthetic spinel, accidentally produced in the middle of the 18th century, has described more recently in scientific publications in 2000 and 2004. By 2015, transparent spinel was being made in sheets and other shapes through sintering, synthetic spinel which looks like glass but has notably higher strength against pressure, can also have applications in military and commercial use. Spinel group Ceylonite The Samarian Spinel, the largest known spinel in the world, part of the Iranian Crown Jewels Black Princes Ruby Deer, Howie, an Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals, Longman, pp. 424–433, ISBN 0-582-44210-9. Gemstones of the World 3rd edition, Sterling, pp. 116–117, Spinel structure at the University of Wisconsin - Green Bay Spinel structure at the Institut for materials science of the University of Kiel Value of Spinel
27.
Sapphire
–
Sapphire is a gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum, an aluminium oxide. It is typically blue in color, but natural fancy sapphires also occur in yellow, purple, orange, the only color which sapphire cannot be is red - as red colored corundum is called ruby, another corundum variety. This variety in color is due to amounts of elements such as iron, titanium, chromium, copper. Commonly, natural sapphires are cut and polished into gemstones and worn in jewelry and they also may be created synthetically in laboratories for industrial or decorative purposes in large crystal boules. Sapphire is the birthstone for September and the gem of the 45th anniversary, a sapphire jubilee occurs after 65 years. Sapphire is one of the two gem-varieties of corundum, the other being ruby, although blue is the best-known sapphire color, they occur in other colors, including gray and black, and they can be colorless. A a pinkish orange variety of sapphire is called padparadscha, significant sapphire deposits are found in Eastern Australia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, China, Madagascar, East Africa, and in North America in a few locations, mostly in Montana. Sapphire and rubies are often found in the geological setting. Every sapphire mine produces a range of quality - and origin is not a guarantee of quality. For sapphire, Kashmir receives the highest premium although Burma, Sri Lanka, the cost of natural sapphires varies depending on their color, clarity, size, cut, and overall quality. For gems of exceptional quality, an independent determination from a respected laboratory such as the GIA, gemstone color can be described in terms of hue, saturation, and tone. Hue is commonly understood as the color of the gemstone, saturation refers to the vividness or brightness of the hue, and tone is the lightness to darkness of the hue. Blue sapphire exists in various mixtures of its primary and secondary hues, various tonal levels, blue sapphires are evaluated based upon the purity of their primary hue. Purple, violet, and green are the most common secondary hues found in blue sapphires, violet and purple can contribute to the overall beauty of the color, while green is considered to be distinctly negative. Blue sapphires with up to 15% violet or purple are generally said to be of fine quality, gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in blue sapphires. Gray reduces the saturation or brightness of the hue, and therefore has a negative effect. The 423-carat Logan sapphire in the National Museum of Natural History, in Washington, sapphires in colors other than blue are called fancy or parti colored sapphires. Fancy sapphires are found in yellow, orange, green sapphires, brown, purple
28.
Richard III of England
–
Richard III was King of England from 1483 until his death in 1485, at the age of 32, in the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty and his defeat at Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England. He is the subject of the historical play Richard III by William Shakespeare, when his brother King Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edwards son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. As the young king travelled to London from Ludlow, Richard met and escorted him to lodgings in the Tower of London, on 25 June, an assembly of Lords and commoners endorsed the claims. The following day, Richard III began his reign, and he was crowned on 6 July 1483. The young princes were not seen in public after August, and accusations circulated that the boys had been murdered on Richards orders, there were two major rebellions against Richard. The first, in October 1483, was led by allies of Edward IV and Richards former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. In August 1485, Henry Tudor and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, Henry Tudor landed in southern Wales with a small contingent of French troops and marched through his birthplace, Pembrokeshire, recruiting soldiers. Henrys force engaged Richards army and defeated it at the Battle of Bosworth Field in Leicestershire, Richard was struck down in the conflict, making him the last English king to die in battle on home soil and the first since Harold Godwinson. Henry then ascended the throne as Henry VII, after the battle Richards corpse was taken to Leicester and buried without pomp. His original tomb monument is believed to have been removed during the Reformation, in 2012, an archaeological excavation was commissioned by the Richard III Society on a city council car park on the site once occupied by Greyfriars Priory Church. Richards remains were reburied in Leicester Cathedral on 26 March 2015 and they returned to England following the defeat of the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton and participated in the coronation of Richards eldest brother as King Edward IV in June 1461. At this time Richard was named Duke of Gloucester and made a Knight of the Garter and Knight of the Bath, by the age of seventeen, he had an independent command. With some interruptions, Richard stayed at Middleham either from late 1461 until early 1465, while at Warwicks estate, he probably met Francis Lovell, a strong supporter later in his life, and Warwicks younger daughter, his future wife Anne Neville. As the relationship between the king and Warwick became strained, Edward IV opposed the match, during Warwicks lifetime, George was the only royal brother to marry one of his daughters, the eldest, Isabel, on 12 July 1469, without the kings permission. George joined his father-in-laws revolt against the king, while Richard remained loyal to Edward, in 1468, Richards sister Margaret had married Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and the brothers could expect a welcome there. Although only eighteen years old, Richard played crucial roles in the battles of Barnet, during his adolescence, Richard developed idiopathic scoliosis. Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married Anne Neville, by the end of 1470 Anne had previously been wedded to Edward of Westminster, only son of Henry VI, to seal her fathers allegiance to the Lancastrian party
29.
Fustian
–
Fustian is a variety of heavy cloth woven from cotton, chiefly prepared for menswear. It is also used figuratively to refer to pompous, inflated or pretentious writing or speech and this literary use is because the cloth type was often used as padding, hence, the purposeless words are fustian. It embraces plain twilled cloth known as jean, and cut similar to velvet, known as velveteen, moleskin. The original medieval fustian was a stout but respectable cloth with a cotton weft and a linen warp. The term seems to have become less precise, and was applied to a coarse cloth made of wool and linen, and in the reign of Edward III of England. By the early 20th century, fustians were usually of cotton dyed various colors, in a petition to Parliament during the reign of Mary I, fustian of Naples is mentioned. In the 13th and 14th centuries priests robes and womens dresses were made of fustian, but though dresses are made from some kinds. From 1800 to 1850 it was commonly called Baragan Fustian, crucial to process of manufacture was fustian cutting. This was a process using a fustian cutting knife. This tool was around 50 cm long, and looked like a spike, about 10 cm from the tip. It was inserted along the fabric alongside two warp threads, and under the raised weft, and as it was guided forward the blade severed the weft. In corduroy, there were seven ridges to the inch, so along a 31in bolt, over a 60hr week the cutter would be expected to produce 500 yards of 7-8 ridge corduroy. Velveteen was cut the way but had 32 ridges per inch so production would be proportionately less. Cutting was one part of the process, the yarn was sized and the cloth was woven—there would be a high number of weft threads to warp. The ridges were manually cut, and the cloth sent to be finished and it was scoured to remove the size, and brushed to raise the nap. This was then singed over a gas flame, then bleached and it was now stentered to pull it out to the standard width. The cloth was woven at 31 or 32 inches and during processing has shrunk to 27 inches, stentering would stabilise the width to 28 inches. The back of the cloth would now be filled to give it stiffness and this could be with a glue based mixture that could be formed from boiled bones
30.
White boar
–
The White Boar was the personal device or badge of the English King Richard III of England, and is an early instance of the use of boars in heraldry. Edward appears to have shared use of the badge, either from Richards accession to the throne, or his own appointment as Prince of Wales, both in 1483, to his death the next year. Richards choice of the badge was no personal, but according to a slightly later document the boar had been a badge of the royal possession the Honour of Windsor. Another suggestion is that the boar was a pun on Ebor, a contraction of Eboracum, Richard was villainized after his death by the Tudor dynasty that followed his brief reign, and most of his badges would no doubt have been hurriedly discarded after his death. Only two examples survived on tomb monuments, one of which was destroyed in the 20th century, the sole remaining example is a pendant white boar on a Yorkist livery collar carved in the alabaster effigy of Sir Ralph Fitzherbert, who died in Richards reign in 1483. The archaeologist responsible for the site, Dr Glenn Foard, said, several of the objects are amazing. The most important by far is the boar, which was Richard III’s own badge. But this one is special, because it is silver-gilt and it was almost certainly worn by a knight in King Richard’s own retinue who rode with the King to his death in his last desperate cavalry charge. It was found next to the site of a small medieval marsh -. This badge was similar, but not identical, to the Chiddingly Boar found in Chiddingly, East Sussex in 1999 and this is, or was, also in silver-gilt, though much of the gilding has worn off. Badges in precious metals would have given to the more important, or perhaps intimate. No doubt there were once badges in gold, enamel and gems for more important supporters. The Richard III Society, dedicated to defending his reputation, makes use of white boars in its various forms of heraldry. It was originally called the Fellowship of the White Boar, cherry, John, in Marks, Richard and Williamson, Paul, eds. Gothic, Art for England 1400-1547,2003, V&A Publications, London, ISBN 1-85177-401-7 Planché, on the Badges of the House of York, Journal of the British Archaeological Association, Volume 20,1864. The Archaeology of the Medieval English Monarchy, ISBN 0-415-19788-0 Google books List of examples of Richards boar, based on an exhibition at the Royal National Theatre
31.
Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales
–
Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales, Earl of Chester, Duke of Cornwall, 1st Earl of Salisbury, was the only child of King Richard III of England and his queen consort, Anne Neville. He was Richards only legitimate child and died aged ten, Edward was allegedly born in December 1473 at Middleham Castle, a stronghold close to York that became Richard and Annes principal base in northern England. The date of 1473 is, however, not universally accepted, in fact, he was probably not born until 1476. The act of Parliament that settled the dispute between George of Clarence and Richard over Anne Beauchamps inheritance just as if the Countess of Warwick was naturally dead was dated May 1474. There were no provisions, however, for their heirs in case of this said divorce, but such provision was the provence of the ruling king for those of royal blood so would have been moot. Edward was mostly kept at Middleham, and was known to be a sickly child, after the citizens of London, nobles, and commons convened, a petition was drawn up that asked Richard to assume the throne. He accepted and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 July 1483 and his title to the throne was later confirmed by Parliament in January 1484 by the document Titulus Regius. Edward did not attend his parents coronation, likely due to illness and he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in a splendid ceremony in York Minster on 8 September 1483, following his parents Royal Progress across England. The reasons of his death are unknown. The Croyland Chronicle reads, Edwards sudden death left Richard without a legitimate child, contemporary historian John Rous recorded that Richard declared his nephew Edward, Earl of Warwick, his heir in his place, but there is no other evidence of this. Similarly, John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln also seemed to have designated as Richards new heir. The location of Edwards burial is unknown, however evidence for this suggestion is lacking. Edward of Middleham appeared in Sharon Penmans The Sunne in Splendour, in the latter series, it is implied that Edward was poisoned at the behest of Margaret Beaufort as part of her efforts to secure the throne for her son, the eventual Henry VII. Edward of Middleham is a character in Joan Szechtmans Loyalty Binds Me, panton, Kenneth J. Historical Dictionary of the British Monarchy. Edward of Middleham at Find a Grave
32.
Middleham Castle
–
Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, in the county of North Yorkshire, England, was built by Robert Fitzrandolph, 3rd Lord of Middleham and Spennithorne, commencing in 1190. It was built near the site of a motte and bailey castle. Their brother King Edward IV was imprisoned at Middleham for a short time, following Warwicks death at Barnet in 1471 and Edwards restoration to the throne, his brother Richard married Anne Neville, Warwicks younger daughter, and made Middleham his main home. Their son Edward was also born at Middleham and later died there. Richard ascended to the throne as King Richard III, but spent little or no time at Middleham in his two-year reign, after Richards death at Bosworth in 1485 the castle remained in royal hands until the reign of James I, when it was sold. It fell into disuse and disrepair during the 17th century and it was garrisoned during the Civil War, but saw no action. The ruins are now in the care of English Heritage, the castle is a compact, massive structure, and though ruinous, most of the walls are intact. A simple rectangle in plan, the castle consists of a massive Norman keep surrounded by a curtain wall, to which were then added extensive. The keep is similar to large square keeps, but had only two stories. It is divided on both levels by a wall, and there are turrets at each corner and midway along each wall. The ground floor has two large, originally vaulted, chambers, and above are two grand halls surrounded by high windows, the entrance is by staircase to the first floor—as was common—and a later chapel outbuilding defends that approach. A repaired spiral staircase leads up to the top of the south-east corner tower, affording views of the town and countryside. The 13th century curtain wall surrounds the keep concentrically, making the castle into a compact and effective defensive structure, though it was built more for comfort than security. In the 15th century the Nevilles constructed a range of halls and outbuildings against these walls, turning the castle into a truly magnificent residence. Bridges at first-floor level were built to connect these to the keep, the entrance to the castle is through a tower in the north-east corner, though this was also a 15th-century modification. Only foundations remain of the gatehouse, facing east into the now-vanished outer ward. Apart from this east wall, however, the circuit of the walls is fairly complete, some restoration was done on the castle in modern times, but there is extensive damage to the lower faces of the keep. Windows and doorways have crumbled away, floors have fallen in, still, the castle is an impressive ruin, and the sense of its original strength and grandeur remains
33.
Duke of York
–
The Duke of York is a title of nobility in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Since the 15th century, it has, when granted, usually given to the second son of English monarchs. The equivalent title in the Scottish peerage was Duke of Albany, initially granted in the 14th century in the Peerage of England, the title Duke of York has been created eight times. Additionally, the title Duke of York and Albany has been created three times and these occurred during the 18th century, following the 1707 unification of the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into a single, united realm. The double naming was done so that a territorial designation from each of the separate realms could be included. The current Duke of York is Prince Andrew, the son of Queen Elizabeth II. Prince Andrew currently has no heirs and has been unmarried since his 1996 divorce. In medieval times, York was the city of the North of England. Yorkshire was Englands largest shire in area, York under its Viking name Jorvik was a petty kingdom in the Early Medieval period. In the interval between the fall of independent Jorvik under Eirik Bloodaxe, last King of Jorvik, and the first creation of the Dukedom of York, there were a few Earls of York. The title Duke of York was first created in the Peerage of England in 1385 for Edmund of Langley, the surviving son of Edward III. His son Edward, who inherited the title, was killed at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, the title passed to Edwards nephew Richard, the son of Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge. The younger Richard managed to obtain a restoration of the title, but when his eldest son, who inherited the title, became king in 1461 as Edward IV, the title was next created for Richard of Shrewsbury, second son of King Edward IV. Richard was one of the Princes in the Tower, and, as he died without heirs, the third creation was for Henry Tudor, second son of King Henry VII. When his elder brother Arthur, Prince of Wales, died in 1502, when Henry ultimately became King Henry VIII, his titles merged into the crown. The title was created for the time for Charles Stuart. When his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, died in 1612 and he was created Prince of Wales in 1616 and eventually became Charles I in 1625 when the title again merged into the Crown. The fifth creation was in favour of James Stuart, the son of Charles I
34.
Pilgrim badge
–
Pilgrim badges were worn in the later medieval period by Roman Catholic pilgrims. Typically made of alloy, they were sold as souvenirs at sites of Christian pilgrimage. The production of pilgrim badges flourished in the Middle Ages in Europe, particularly in the 14th and 15th centuries, tens of thousands have been found since the mid-19th century, predominantly in rivers. Together they form the largest corpus of art objects to survive to us today. Pilgrimage sites housed a saints relics, sometimes the whole body, for example, St Thomas Becket was martyred at Canterbury Cathedral in England in 1170 and his body remained there, becoming the epicentre of an enormously popular cult. In 1220 it was translated into a costly shrine, the pilgrim souvenirs associated with his cult have a particularly diverse array of imagery, including that of his shrine, his head reliquary and scenes from his life. Other major sites that produced badges were Santiago de Compostela, Cologne, Our Lady of Rocamadour and their badges bore images that were iconic and easily recognisable, such as the scallop shell, the Adoration of the Magi, the St Peter or the Jerusalem Cross. Shrines to the Virgin were common all over Christendom, as are badges associable with her and they often show her holding the Infant Christ, or represent the first letter of her name. Various cultural practices converged to bring about the pilgrim badge, Pilgrims had long sought natural souvenirs from their destination to commemorate their trip and bring home some of the sites sanctity. The earliest and still iconic pilgrim badge was the scallop shell worn by pilgrims to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela, along with badges, vendors at holy sites sold ampullae, small, tin vessels designed to carry holy water or oil from the site. The later metal examples derive from clay ampullae sold from the Early Middle Ages to pilgrims to the Holy Land and other sites in North Africa and these often bore images from the saints life. Badges and ampullae were worn while travelling and allowed others to identify the wearer as a pilgrim and they showed the wearers special relationship with the saint and could be called upon in times of crisis. Badges were an artistically legible and affordable accessory for the medieval pilgrim to wear. Pilgrim badges were cheaply mass-produced in bronze, cuttle-bone or limestone moulds or, less frequently and their easy reproducibility and modest media meant that everyone could afford them. British pilgrim badges often have a pin and clasp on the reverse whereas continental European badges more usually have sewing loops. Pilgrims wore badges on their clothing and hats or around the neck to show where they had been on pilgrimage. Some were designed to be fixed to the top of pilgrim staffs, freshly cast, lead alloy is shiny and bright but it tarnishes rapidly. To make thin, lead alloy badges, makers would have to create a eutectic alloy, only at a specific ratio would lead and tin cast thin enough to make the most of the cheapest metal
35.
Wilton Diptych
–
The Wilton Diptych is a small portable diptych of two hinged panels, painted on both sides, now in the National Gallery, London. It is a rare survival of a late Medieval religious panel painting from England. The diptych was painted for King Richard II of England who is depicted kneeling before the Virgin and he is presented to them by his patron saint, John the Baptist, and by the English royal saints Edward the Confessor and Edmund the Martyr. The painting is an example of the International Gothic style. The Wilton Diptych is painted on two panels of Baltic oak, set in frames of the material and joined by two hinges so that it may be closed to protect the inner painting. The inner faces of the panels are in excellent condition for their age, though some glazes have been lost, the painting is in tempera, the ground paint being mixed with egg yolk and laid in thin glazes. The background and many details are inlaid with gold leaf and in places the panel has been tooled beneath the gilding to enhance the decorative quality. In the panel with the Virgin and Christ Child, the garments are universally blue, Richards robe uses vermilion, another expensive pigment. Some colours have faded, the roses in the hair would originally have been a much deeper pink. Though the figures of the two inner scenes face each other, and interact by gaze and gesture, they are set in different backgrounds. The human figures are on rocky ground, with a forest behind. The heavenly figures stand in a meadow, behind which is a gold background patterned by a different punch. In the left panel the kneeling King Richard II is presented by the Saints John the Baptist, Edward the Confessor and Edmund the Martyr. In the right panel the Virgin Mary with the Christ Child in her arms is surrounded by eleven angels, against a golden background. Around his neck is a collar with broomscods, seed-pods of Cytisus scoparius, the common broom. They were also the emblem of Charles VI of France, whose daughter he married in 1396. Richard had been such a collar by Charles in 1393. A hart badge of Richards inventoried in the possession of Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1435 was set with 22 pearls, although thematically linked, the composition of the two pictures is quite different in feeling
36.
John of Gaunt
–
John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, KG was a member of the House of Plantagenet, the third of five surviving sons of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. He was called John of Gaunt because he was born in Ghent, when he became unpopular later in life, scurrilous rumours and lampoons circulated that he was actually the son of a Ghent butcher, perhaps because Edward III was not present at the birth. This story always drove him to fury, due to some generous land grants, John was one of the richest men in his era. John of Gaunts legitimate male heirs, the Lancasters, include Kings Henry IV, Henry V and his other legitimate descendants include his daughters Queen Philippa of Portugal and Elizabeth, Duchess of Exeter, and Queen Catherine of Castile. John fathered five children outside marriage, one early in life by a lady-in-waiting to his mother, the children of Katherine Swynford, surnamed Beaufort, were legitimised by royal and papal decrees after John and Katherine married in 1396. Through his daughter Philippa, he was grandfather of King Edward of Portugal, through John II of Castiles great-granddaughter Joanna the Mad, John of Gaunt is also an ancestor of the Habsburg rulers who would reign in Spain and much of central Europe. When John of Gaunt died in 1399, his estates and titles were declared forfeit to the crown, since King Richard II had named Henry a traitor, Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile to reclaim his inheritance and depose Richard. Bolingbroke then reigned as King Henry IV of England, the first of the descendants of John of Gaunt to hold the throne of England, John was the fourth son of King Edward III of England. His first wife, Blanche of Lancaster, was also his third cousin and they married in 1359 at Reading Abbey as a part of the efforts of Edward III to arrange matches for his sons with wealthy heiresses. He also became the 14th Baron of Halton and 11th Lord of Bowland, John inherited the rest of the Lancaster property when Blanches sister Maud, Countess of Leicester, died without issue on 10 April 1362. John received the title Duke of Lancaster from his father on 13 November 1362, by then well established, he owned at least thirty castles and estates across England and France and maintained a household comparable in scale and organisation to that of a monarch. He owned land in almost every county in England, a patrimony that produced a net income of between £8,000 and £10,000 a year, however, Johns ascendancy to political power coincided with widespread resentment of his influence. Although he fought in the Battle of Nájera, for example, when Edward III died in 1377 and Johns ten-year-old nephew succeeded as Richard II of England, Johns influence strengthened. However, mistrust remained, and some suspected him of wanting to seize the throne himself, John took pains to ensure that he never became associated with the opposition to Richards kingship. As de facto ruler during Richards minority, he made unwise decisions on taxation that led to the Peasants Revolt in 1381, when the rebels destroyed his home in London, the Savoy Palace. Unlike some of Richards unpopular advisors, John was away from London at the time of the uprising and thus avoided the direct wrath of the rebels. In 1386 John left England to seek the throne of Castile, claimed in Jure uxoris by right of his wife, Constance of Castile. However, crisis ensued almost immediately in his absence, and in 1387 King Richards misrule brought England to the brink of civil war
37.
Henry IV of England
–
Henry IV, also known as Henry of Bolingbroke, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1399 to 1413, and asserted the claim of his grandfather, Edward III, to the Kingdom of France. Henry was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, one of Henrys elder sisters, Philippa of Lancaster, married John I of Portugal, and the other, Elizabeth, was the mother of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter. His younger half-sister Catherine, the daughter of his fathers second wife and he also had four half-siblings by Katherine Swynford, originally his sisters governess, then his fathers longstanding mistress, and later his third wife. These four children were given the surname Beaufort after a castle their father held in Champagne, Henrys relationship with his stepmother, Katherine Swynford, was a positive one, but his relationship with the Beauforts varied. In youth he seems to have close to all of them. His brother-in-law Ralph Neville remained one of his strongest supporters, and so did his eldest half-brother John Beaufort, Thomas Swynford, a son from Katherines first marriage to Sir Hugh Swynford, was another loyal companion. Thomas was Constable of Pontefract Castle, where King Richard II is said to have died, Henrys half-sister Joan Beaufort through his fathers relationship with Katherine Swynford was the grandmother of Edward IV and Richard III. Joan had married Ralph Neville, the 1st Earl of Westmorland, when their daughter Cecily married Richard Plantagenet, the 3rd Duke of York, and had several offspring, including Edward IV and Richard III, Joan became the grandmother of two York kings of England. Henry experienced a rather more inconsistent relationship with King Richard II than his father had, first cousins and childhood playmates, they were admitted together to the Order of the Garter in 1377, but Henry participated in the Lords Appellants rebellion against the king in 1387. After regaining power, Richard did not punish Henry, although he did execute or exile many of the rebellious barons. In fact, Richard elevated Henry from Earl of Derby to Duke of Hereford, Henry spent the full year of 1390 supporting the unsuccessful siege of Vilnius by Teutonic Knights with his 300 fellow knights. During this campaign he bought 300 captured Lithuanian princes and then took them back to England. Henrys second expedition to Lithuania in 1392 illustrates the benefits to the Order of these guest crusaders. His small army consisted of over 100 men, including longbow archers and six minstrels, despite the efforts of Henry and his English crusaders, two years of attacks on Vilnius proved fruitless. In 1392–93 Henry undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he made offerings at the Holy Sepulchre, later he vowed to lead a crusade to free Jerusalem from the infidel, but he died before this could be accomplished. The relationship between Henry Bolingbroke and the king met with a second crisis, in 1398, a remark by Bolingbroke regarding Richard IIs rule was interpreted as treason by Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk. The two dukes agreed to undergo a duel of honour at Gosford Green near Caludon Castle, Mowbrays home in Coventry, yet before the duel could take place, Richard II decided to banish Henry from the kingdom to avoid further bloodshed. Mowbray himself was exiled for life, John of Gaunt died in 1399
38.
Edward III of England
–
Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
39.
House of Commons of England
–
In 1801, with the union of Great Britain and Ireland, that house was in turn replaced by the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium that advised the English monarch in medieval times and this royal council, meeting for short periods, included ecclesiastics, noblemen, as well as representatives of the counties. The chief duty of the council was to approve taxes proposed by the Crown, in many cases, however, the council demanded the redress of the peoples grievances before proceeding to vote on taxation. The first parliament to invite representatives of the towns was Montforts Parliament in 1265. At the Model Parliament of 1295, representatives of the boroughs were admitted, thus, it became settled practice that each county send two knights of the shire, and that each borough send two burgesses. Any show of independence by burgesses would thus be likely to lead to the exclusion of their towns from Parliament, the knights of the shire were in a better position, although less powerful than their noble and clerical counterparts in what was still a unicameral Parliament. They formed what became known as the House of Commons, while the clergy, although they remained subordinate to both the Crown and the Lords, the Commons did act with increasing boldness. The Commons even proceeded to some of the Kings ministers. Mare was soon released after the death of King Edward III, during the reign of the next monarch, Richard II, the Commons once again began to impeach errant ministers of the Crown. They began to insist that they could control both taxation and public expenditures, despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still remained much less powerful than the Lords and the Crown. The influence of the Crown was increased by the wars of the late fifteenth century. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the years. The domination of the monarch grew further under the House of Tudor in the sixteenth century and this trend, however, was somewhat reversed when the House of Stuart came to the English throne in 1603. The first two Stuart monarchs, James I and Charles I, provoked conflicts with the Commons over issues such as taxation, religion, and royal powers. The differences between Charles I and Parliament were great, and resulted in the English Civil War, in which the forces of Parliament were victorious. In December 1648 the House of Commons was purged by the New Model Army, prides Purge was the only military coup in English history. Subsequently, King Charles I was beheaded and the Upper House was abolished, in 1653, when leading figures in this Parliament began to disagree with the army, it was dissolved by Oliver Cromwell. However, the monarchy and the House of Lords were both restored with the Commons in 1660, the influence of the Crown had been decreased, and was further diminished after James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the Bill of Rights 1689 was enacted
40.
House of Lords
–
The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
41.
Tudor rose
–
The Tudor rose is the traditional floral heraldic emblem of England and takes its name and origins from the Tudor dynasty. When Henry VII took the crown of England from Richard III in battle, the white rose versus red rose juxtaposition was Henrys invention. The historian Thomas Penn writes, The Lancastrian red rose was an emblem that barely existed before Henry VII, contemporaries certainly did not refer to the traumatic civil conflict of the 15th century as the Wars of the Roses. For the best part of a quarter-century, from 1461 to 1485, there was one royal rose, and it was white. The roses were actually created after the war by Henry VII, on his marriage, Henry VII adopted the Tudor rose badge conjoining the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. The Tudor rose is occasionally seen divided in quarters and vertically red, more often, the Tudor rose is depicted as a double rose, white on red and is always described, heraldically, as proper. During his reign, Henry VIII had the legendary Round Table at Winchester Castle – then believed to be genuine – repainted, the new paint scheme included a Tudor rose in the centre. The Tudor rose may also appear dimidiated to form a compound badge, james I of England and VI of Scotland used a badge consisting of a Tudor rose dimidiated with a thistle and surmounted by a royal crown. The crowned and slipped Tudor Rose is used as the plant badge of England, as Scotland uses the thistle, Ireland uses the shamrock, and Wales uses the leek. As such, it is seen on the uniforms of the Yeomen Warders at the Tower of London. It features in the design of the British Twenty Pence coin minted between 1982 and 2008, and in the coat of arms of the United Kingdom. It also features on the coat of arms of Canada, the Tudor rose makes up part of the cap badge of the Intelligence Corps of the British Army. It is also used as the symbol of the English Tourist Board. And as part of the badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the Tudor Rose is used as the emblem of the Nautical Training Corps, a uniformed youth organisation founded in Brighton in 1944 with 20 units in South East England. The Corps badge has the Tudor Rose on the shank of an anchor with the motto For God, Queen and it is also used as part of the Corps cap badge. The borough of Queens in New York City uses a Tudor Rose on its flag, the Tudor rose is also used in the badges of some Portuguese Army units, after William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, namely Lisbon Classification and Selection Cabinet and Graça Fort. The city of York, South Carolina is nicknamed The White Rose City, flag of England Red Rose of Lancaster Tudor dynasty Wars of the Roses White Rose of York Royal Badges of England Boutell, Charles, A. C. Fox-Davies, R B Utting. London and Edinburgh, T C and E C Jack https, London and Edinburgh, T C and E C Jack
42.
House of Tudor
–
The House of Tudor was a royal house of Welsh and English origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales, the Tudors succeeded the House of Plantaganet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first monarch, Henry VII, descended through his mother from a branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses and his victory was reinforced by his marriage to Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward IV, symbolically uniting the former warring factions under a new dynasty. They also maintained the nominal English claim to the Kingdom of France, although none of them made substance of it, after him, his daughter Mary I lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558. In total, five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century, Henry VIII was the only male-line male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Issues around the royal succession became major political themes during the Tudor era, the House of Stuart, descended from Henry VIIIs sister Margaret, came to power in 1603 when the direct Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir. The church retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate by way of a bull the same year. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunts legitimate son, Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts legitimacy, nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunts legitimate descendants from his first marriage, the House of Lancaster. On 1 November 1455, John Beauforts granddaughter, Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, married Henry VIs half-brother Edmund Tudor and it was his father, Owen Tudor, who abandoned the Welsh patronymic naming practice and adopted a fixed surname. When he did, he did not choose, as was generally the custom, his fathers name, Maredudd, Owen Tudor was one of the bodyguards for the queen dowager Catherine of Valois, whose husband, Henry V, had died in 1422. Evidence suggests that the two were married in 1429. The two sons born of the marriage, Edmund and Jasper, were among the most loyal supporters of the House of Lancaster in its struggle against the House of York, Edmund died on 3 November 1456. On 28 January 1457, his widow Margaret Beaufort, who had just attained her fourteenth birthday, gave birth to a son, Henry Tudor, at her brother-in-laws Pembroke Castle. Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII, spent his childhood at Raglan Castle, the home of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, a leading Yorkist. Following the murder of Henry VI and death of his son, Edward, in 1471, concerned for his young nephews life, Jasper Tudor took Henry to Brittany for safety. Lady Margaret remained in England and remarried, living quietly while advancing the Lancastrian cause, capitalizing on the growing unpopularity of Richard III, she was able to forge an alliance with discontented Yorkists in support of her son. Two years after Richard III was crowned, Henry and Jasper sailed from the mouth of the Seine to the Milford Haven Waterway, upon this victory, Henry Tudor proclaimed himself King Henry VII
43.
Henry VII of England
–
Henry VII was King of England from seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, and the first monarch of the House of Tudor. He ruled the Principality of Wales until 29 November 1489 and was Lord of Ireland, Henry won the throne when his forces defeated King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. Henry was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle and he cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. Henry was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the civil war and his supportive stance of the islands wool industry and stand off with the Low Countries had long lasting benefits to all the British Isles economy. However, the capriciousness and lack of due process that many would tarnish his legacy and were soon ended upon Henry VIIs death. According to the contemporary historian Polydore Vergil, simple greed underscored the means by which royal control was over-asserted in Henrys final years, Henry VII was born at Pembroke Castle on 28 January 1457 to Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond. His father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, died three months before his birth, Henrys paternal grandfather, Owen Tudor, originally from the Tudors of Penmynydd, Isle of Anglesey in Wales, had been a page in the court of Henry V. He rose to one of the Squires to the Body to the King after military service at the Battle of Agincourt. Owen is said to have married the widow of Henry V. One of their sons was Edmund Tudor, father of Henry VII, Edmund was created Earl of Richmond in 1452, and formally declared legitimate by Parliament. Henrys main claim to the English throne derived from his mother through the House of Beaufort, Henrys mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth son of Edward III, and his third wife Katherine Swynford. Katherine was Gaunts mistress for about 25 years, when married in 1396, they already had four children. Thus Henrys claim was somewhat tenuous, it was from a woman, in theory, the Portuguese and Castilian royal families had a better claim as descendants of Catherine of Lancaster, the daughter of John of Gaunt and his second wife Constance of Castile. Gaunts nephew Richard II legitimised Gaunts children by Katherine Swynford by Letters Patent in 1397, in 1407, Henry IV, who was Gaunts son by his first wife, issued new Letters Patent confirming the legitimacy of his half-siblings, but also declaring them ineligible for the throne. Henry IVs action was of doubtful legality, as the Beauforts were previously legitimised by an Act of Parliament, but it further weakened Henrys claim. Henry also made political capital out of his Welsh ancestry, for example in attracting military support. He came from an old, established Anglesey family that claimed descent from Cadwaladr and he took it, as well as the standard of St George, on his procession through London after the victory at Bosworth. A contemporary writer and Henrys biographer, Bernard André, also much of Henrys Welsh descent
44.
Francis Bacon
–
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
45.
John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford
–
He was the principal commander of King Henry VIIs army at the Battle of Bosworth, and again led Henrys troops to victory at the Battle of Stoke two years later. He became one of the men of the Kings regime. John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, was born on 8 September 1442, the son of John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford, and his wife Elizabeth Howard. The 12th Earl was beheaded on Tower Hill on 26 February 1462 and his son Aubrey had been beheaded on the same scaffold six days earlier. Pursuing a conciliatory policy with Lancastrian families, King Edward allowed John de Vere to succeed his father, in November 1468, however, he was committed to the Tower, and confessed to plotting with the Lancastrians against the King. He was likely released before 7 January 1469, and received a pardon on 5 April of that year. However, by early July 1469 Oxford had joined the discontented Yorkists led by his brother-in-law, the Earl of Warwick, and King Edwards brother and he fled overseas in the following spring to the court of King Henry VIs wife, Margaret of Anjou. In September 1470 he joined Warwick and Clarence in the invasion of England which restored Henry VI to the throne, and on 13 October bore the Sword of State before Henry in a procession to St Pauls. He was appointed Lord High Constable of England, and as such on 15 October tried and condemned for treason the same Earl of Worcester who had in 1462 condemned Oxfords own father and brother. In March 1471, he prevented Edward IVs army from landing in Norfolk, however this early success in the battle turned to disaster when Oxfords forces began pillaging. Whereupon Oxford and his men cried Treasoune, after this defeat Oxford escaped to Scotland with 40 men, accompanied by his two brothers, George and Thomas Vere, and the Viscount Beaumont. From there he went to France, where he collected ships, although he was not attainted after leaving England in 1471, his lands were confiscated, and his wife, Margaret, is said to have been subjected to great financial hardship. On 28 May 1473, Oxford attempted a landing at St Osyth in Essex. On 30 September 1473, he seized St Michaels Mount in Cornwall, after most of his men had deserted and he had been wounded in the face with an arrow, Oxford was eventually compelled to surrender on 15 February 1474, along with his two brothers and Beaumont. Oxford was imprisoned at Hammes Castle near Calais, and was attainted early in 1475, at this time his mother, the 12th Earls widow, was forced to surrender her property to the Duke of Gloucester. In 1478 Oxford scaled the walls of Hammes and leapt into the moat and it is said that Richmond was ravished with joy incredible at this event. Oxford immediately returned to Hammes to bring the garrison there to join Richmond, to celebrate the Tudor victory at Bosworth, Oxford commissioned the building of the church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Lavenham. According to Gunn, Oxford was immediately recognized as one of the men of Henry VIIs regime
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
Media related to Heraldic badges at Wikimedia Commons
