1.
Haag am Hausruck
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Haag am Hausruck is a municipality in the district of Grieskirchen in the Austrian state of Upper Austria. It is home to many great European buildings as well as its own Castle, haag is located right next to a very large and scenic forest. About 88 percent of the municipality is farmland, and 2 percent is urban
2.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
3.
Montecito, California
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Montecito is a unincorporated census-designated place in Santa Barbara County, California. As a census-designated place, Montecito had a population of 8,965 in 2010, Montecito does not include areas such as Coast Village Road, which while usually considered part of Montecito, are actually within the city limits of Santa Barbara, located directly to the west. Montecito occupies the portion of the coastal plain south of the Santa Ynez Mountains. Parts of the town are built on the foothills of the range. Notable roads spanning Montecito include East Valley Road, Mountain Drive, in addition, the U. S.101 freeway runs along the south end of town, connecting it with other cities in Santa Barbara County and the rest of Southern California. The community is ranked by Forbes magazine as one of the wealthiest communities in the United States. The site of present-day Montecito, along with the south coast of Santa Barbara County, was inhabited for over 10,000 years by the Chumash Indians. The Spanish arrived in the 18th century, but left the largely unsettled while they built the Presidio. By the end of the 1860s the bandit gangs were gone, finding an area reminiscent of Italy, they built farms and gardens similar to those they had left behind in Italy. Around the end of the 19th century, wealthy tourists from the eastern and midwestern United States began to buy land in the area and it was near enough to Santa Barbara for essential services while still being secluded. Desirable weather and several hot springs offered the promise of comfortable, healthy living. The Montecito Hot Springs Hotel was built near the largest of the springs, in a north of the town center and directly south of Montecito Peak. The hotel burned down in 1920, it was replaced a few years later by the smaller Hot Springs Club. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 9.3 square miles,99. 94% of it land and 0. 06% of it water. Montecito experiences a cool Mediterranean climate characteristic of coastal Southern California, because of Montecitos proximity to the ocean, onshore breezes significantly moderate temperatures, resulting in warmer winters and cooler summers compared with places further inland. With its gentle Mediterranean climate, Montecito has long been a location for nursery men. March and April are the months to watch gray whales migrate north from Mexico through Santa Barbara Channel, the 2010 United States Census reported that Montecito had a population of 8,965. The population density was 967.7 people per square mile, the racial makeup of Montecito was 8,267 White,55 African American,38 Native American,218 Asian,6 Pacific Islander,156 from other races, and 225 from two or more races
4.
Austrians
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Austrians are a Germanic ethnic group and nation, native to Austria that share a common Austrian culture, Austrian descent and Austrian history. The English term Austrians was applied to the population of Habsburg Austria from the 17th or 18th century, subsequently, during the 19th century, it referred to the citizens of the Empire of Austria, and from 1867 until 1918 to the citizens of Cisleithania. In the closest sense, the term Austria originally referred to the historical March of Austria, historically, Austrians were regarded as ethnic Germans and viewed themselves as such. Austria was part of the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian war in 1866 which resulted in Prussia expelling Austria from the Confederation, thus, when Germany was founded as a nation-state in 1871, Austria was not a part of it. In 1867, Austria was reformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the First Austrian Republic was founded in 1919. The Third Reich annexed Austria with the Anschluss in 1938, today, majority of Austrians do not identify as German. Austrians may be described either as a nationality or as a homogeneous Germanic ethnic group, the English word Austrian is a derivative of the proper name Austria, which is a latinization of Österreich, the German name for Austria. This word is derived from Ostarrîchi, which first appears in 996 and this, in turn, is probably a translation of the Latin Marcha Orientalis, which means eastern borderland. It was a margraviate of the Duchy of Bavaria, ruled by the House of Babenberg from AD976, during the 12th century, the Marcha Orientalis under the Babenbergs became independent of Bavaria. What is today known as Lower Austria corresponds to the Marcha Orientalis, the territory of what is today Austria in the Roman era was divided into Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. Noricum was a Celtic kingdom, while the Pannonii were of Illyrian stock, the Raetians were an ancient alpine people probably akin to the Etruscans. During the Migration period, these territories were settled by the Bavarians and other Germanic groups in the west, in the 8th century, the former territories of Raetia and Noricum fell under Carolingian rule, and were divided into the duchies of Swabia, Bavaria and Carinthia. Pannonia until the end of the 8th century was part of the Avar Khaganate, the East March during the 9th century was the boundary region separating East Francia from the Avars and the Magyars. The site of Vienna had been settled since Celtic times, the various populations of these territories were not unified under the single name of Austrians before the early modern period. The term Austrian in these times was used for identifying subjects of the Domus Austriae, although not formally a united state, the lands ruled by the Habsburgs would sometimes be known by the name Austria. In reality they remained a disparate range of states, most of which were part of the complex network of states that was the Holy Roman Empire. However, the half of the 18th century saw an increasingly centralised state begin to develop under the regency of Maria Theresa of Austria. After the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon, the emperor Franz II formally founded the Austrian Empire in 1804 and these non-Hungarian lands were not officially called the Austrian Empire
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Bauhaus
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The Bauhaus was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. Nonetheless, it was founded with the idea of creating a work of art in which all arts, including architecture. The Bauhaus style later became one of the most influential currents in modern design, Modernist architecture and art, design, the Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography. Although the school was closed, the continued to spread its idealistic precepts as they left Germany. The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated, Gropius did not share these radical views, thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the body on questions of design in Germany. The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen, beginning in June 1907, Peter Behrens pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. Behrens was a member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer worked for him in this period. The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist had turned from emotional Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity, beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise of a minimal dwelling written into the new Weimar Constitution, ernst May, Bruno Taut, and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, the Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization, the two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner. Vkhutemas was a school than the Bauhaus, but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union. With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus. In addition, El Lissitzkys book Russia, an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there. The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906
7.
Graphic design
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Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
8.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
9.
ARCO
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Atlantic Richfield Company is an American oil company with operations in the United States, Indonesia, the North Sea, and the South China Sea. It has more than 1,300 gas stations in the part of the United States. ARCO was formed by the merger of East Coast–based Atlantic Refining, a merger in 1969 brought in Sinclair Oil Corporation. It became a subsidiary of UK-based BP plc in 2000 through its BP West Coast Products LLC affiliate, on August 13,2012, it was announced that Tesoro would purchase ARCO and its refinery for $2.5 billion. However, the deal came under fire due to increasing fuel prices, many activists urged state and federal regulators to block the sale due to concerns that it would reduce competition and could lead to higher fuel prices at ARCO stations. On June 3,2013, BP sold ARCO and the Carson Refinery to Tesoro for $2.5 billion, BP sold its Southern California terminals to Tesoro Logistics LP, including the Carson Storage Facility. BP will continue to own the brand and sell it to Tesoro for Southern California, Arizona. BP exclusively licensed the ARCO rights from Tesoro for Northern California, Oregon, ARCO is known for its low-priced gasoline compared to other national brands, mainly due to an early 1980s decision to emphasize cost cutting and alternative sources of income. ARCO is headquartered in La Palma, California, the Atlantic Petroleum Storage Companys heritage dates back to 1866. It became part of the Standard Oil trust in 1874, in 1915, Atlantic opens its first gas station on Baum Boulevard in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1917, First Richfield Oil Company of California gas station at Slauson and Central Avenues in Los Angeles, Richfield Oil Company of California logo is an Eagle trademark. The Atlantic Refining Company was headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1921, Sinclair Oil Company opens first modern service station in Chicago called Greasing Palace No.1. Sinclair gets into trouble with Teapot Dome scandal, in 1966, Atlantic merges with the Richfield Oil Company of California. The first CEO was Robert Orville Anderson, the new company boasts a new trademark, a red diamond shape called the ARCO Spark designed by Bauhaus artist, designer, and architect Herbert Bayer. Key employees with ARCO Alaska were Marvin Mangus John M. Sweet, the Richfield Oil Company of California had purchased the drilling rights to the land where the discovery well was located. British Petroleum had drilling rights near the discovery well, ARCO acquired Sinclair Oil Corporation in 1969, but later divested certain Sinclair assets during the mid-1970s, resulting in Sinclair returning as a private company. In 1978, ARCO opened the first of its AMPM convenience stores in Southern California. ARCO once had a presence in the Southwestern U. S. —a stretch of Texas State Highway 225 east of Loop 610 in Houston, lyondell-Citgo would rebrand the oil tanks in the 1980s
10.
Architype Bayer
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Architype Bayer is a geometric sans-serif typeface based upon the 1927 experimentation of Herbert Bayer. Bayer reacted to the Germanic use of capitalization for all nouns by abandoning uppercase and his new case combined characters based on the Carolingian minuscule with uppercase K rescaled to top-align on the mean line. The Bayer Architype typeface is one of a collection of several revivals of early twentieth century typographic experimentation designed by Freda Sack, Architype Albers Architype Aubette Architype Renner Architype Schwitters Architype van der Leck Architype Van Doesburg Blackwell, Lewis. Type, Hot Designers Make Cool Fonts, revival of the Fittest, Digital Versions of Classic Typefaces. ISBN 1-883915-08-2 Architype 1 types Website for The Foundry Website of Emotional Digital describing work by The Foundry
11.
Linz
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Linz is the third-largest city of Austria and capital of the state of Upper Austria. It is located in the centre of Austria, approximately 30 kilometres south of the Czech border. The population of the city is 200,839, and that of the Greater Linz conurbation is about 271,000, in 2009 Linz, together with the Lithuanian capital Vilnius, was chosen as the European Capital of Culture. Since 1 December 2014 Linz is a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities network as a City of Media Arts, Cities receive this title for enriching the urban lifestyle through the sponsorship and successful integration of media art and involving society in these electronic art forms. Linz is well known for the Linzer torte, which is said to be the oldest cake in the world, Linz is located in the centre of Europe, lying on the Paris–Budapest west–east axis and the Malmö–Trieste north–south axis. The Danube is the tourism and transport connection that runs through the city. Approximately 29. 27% of the city’s 96 km2 wide area are grassland, further 17. 95% are covered with forest. All the rest areas fall on water, traffic areas and land, since January 2014 the city is divided into 16 statistical districts, Before 2014 Linz was divided into 9 districts and 36 statistical quarters. Magdalena, St. Magdalena, Katzbach, Elmberg St, the name Linz was first recorded in AD799. Being the city where the Habsburg Emperor Friedrich III spent his last years, it was, for a period of time. It lost its status to Vienna and Prague after the death of the Emperor in 1493, one important inhabitant of the city was Johannes Kepler, who spent several years of his life in the city teaching mathematics. He discovered, on 15 May 1618, the distance-cubed-over-time-squared — or third — law of planetary motion, the local public university, Johannes Kepler University, is named after him. Another famous citizen was Anton Bruckner, who spent the years between 1855 and 1868 working as a composer and organist in the Old Cathedral, Linz. The Brucknerhaus is named after him, Adolf Hitler was born in the border town of Braunau am Inn but moved to Linz in his childhood. Hitler spent most of his youth in the Linz area, from 1898 until 1907, the family lived first in the village of Leonding on the outskirts of town, and then on the Humboldtstrasse in Linz. After elementary education in Leonding, Hitler was enrolled in the Realschule in Linz, notorious Holocaust architect Adolf Eichmann also spent his youth in Linz. To the end of his life, Hitler considered Linz to be his home town, in order to make the city economically vibrant, Hitler initiated a major industrialisation of Linz shortly before, and during, the Second World War. In addition to a depot, Linz has a benzol plant which was bombed during the Oil Campaign on 16 October 1944
12.
Darmstadt Artists' Colony
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The Darmstadt Artists’ Colony refers both to a group of Jugendstil artists as well as to the buildings in Mathildenhöhe in Darmstadt in which these artists lived and worked. The artists were largely financed by patrons and worked together with members of the group who ideally had concordant artistic tastes. The artists’ colony was founded in 1899 by Ernest Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse and his motto was, Mein Hessenland blühe und in ihm die Kunst, and he expected the combination of art and trade to provide economic impulses for his land. The artists’ goal was to be the development of modern and forward-looking forms of construction, the first exhibition of the artists’ colony took place in 1901 with the title “A Document of German Art”. The exhibits were the individual houses, the atelier and various temporary constructions. Paul Bürck, Hans Christiansen and Patriz Huber left the colony shortly afterwards, as did Peter Behrens, the Ernst Ludwig House was built as a common atelier following plans drawn up by Joseph Maria Olbrich. Olbrich had worked as an architect and was the figure in the group of artists, Peter Behrens having been involved at first only as a painter. The laying of the foundation took place on the 24th of March 1900. The atelier was both a worksite and the venue for gatherings in the artists’ colony, in the middle of the main floor is the meeting room with paintings by Paul Bürck and there are three artist studios to each side of it. There are two underground artists’ apartments and underground rooms for business purposes, the entrance is located in a niche that is decorated with gold-plated flower motifs. Two six-metre tall statues, “Man and Woman” or “Strength and Beauty”, the artists’ houses were grouped around the atelier. Towards the end of the 1980s, the building was rebuilt, the artists could buy property at favourable conditions and construct residential houses that were to feature in the exhibition. It was envisaged that the efforts to combine architecture, interior design, handicraft, only Olbrich, Christiansen, Habich and Behrens could afford to build homes of their own but there were nonetheless eight fully furnished houses in the first exhibition. Wilhelm Deiters was the manager of the artists’ colony and his house was designed by Joseph Maria Olbrich, who was also responsible for the ground floor interior. It is the smallest of the houses and its form is the result of the quadratic shape of the property on which it is built. It survived the war unscathed and was restored to its appearance in 1991-1992 following several less fortunate attempts to renovate. The building became the home of the German Polish Institute in 1996, Joseph Maria Olbrich also designed this house for Julius Glückert. It was the largest in the exhibition, Julius Glückert was a producer of furniture and an important promoter of the artists’ colony
13.
Walter Gropius
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Born in Berlin, Walter Gropius was the third child of Walter Adolph Gropius and Manon Auguste Pauline Scharnweber. In 1915 Gropius married Alma Mahler, widow of Gustav Mahler, Walter and Almas daughter, named Manon after Walters mother, was born in 1916. When Manon died of polio at age 18, in 1935, Gropius and Alma divorced in 1920. On 16 October 1923, Gropius married Ilse Frank, and they remained together until his death in 1969 and they adopted a daughter together, Beate Gropius, known as Ati. Ise Gropius died on 9 June 1983 in Lexington, Massachusetts, Walter Gropius was drafted August 1914 and served as a sergeant and then as a lieutenant in the signal corps in the First World War. He survived being buried under rubble and dead bodies, and shot out of the sky with a dead pilot. He was awarded the Iron Cross twice, Gropius then, like his father and his great-uncle Martin Gropius before him, became an architect. Gropius could not draw, and was dependent on collaborators and partner-interpreters throughout his career, in school he hired an assistant to complete his homework for him. His fellow employees at this time included Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, in 1910 Gropius left the firm of Behrens and together with fellow employee Adolf Meyer established a practice in Berlin. Together they share credit for one of the seminal modernist buildings created during this period, the Faguswerk in Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany, the factory is now regarded as one of the crucial founding monuments of European modernism. Gropius was commissioned in 1913 to design a car for the Prussian Railroad Locomotive Works in Königsberg and this locomotive was unique and the first of its kind in Germany and perhaps in Europe. Other works of early period include the office and factory building for the Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne. In 1913, Gropius published an article about The Development of Industrial Buildings, Gropiuss career was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Called up immediately as a reservist, Gropius served as a sergeant major at the Western front during the war years and was wounded, Gropius was awarded an Iron Cross while fighting for four years for Germany on the Western Front. Gropiuss career advanced in the postwar period, henry van de Velde, the master of the Grand-Ducal Saxon School of Arts and Crafts in Weimar was asked to step down in 1915 due to his Belgian nationality. His recommendation for Gropius to succeed him led eventually to Gropiuss appointment as master of the school in 1919, in principle, the Bauhaus represented an opportunity to extend beauty and quality to every home through well designed industrially produced objects. The Bauhaus program was experimental and the emphasis, was theoretical, one example product of the Bauhaus was the armchair F51, designed for the Bauhauss directors room in 1920 – nowadays a re-edition in the market, manufactured by the German company TECTA/Lauenfoerde. In 1919, Gropius was involved in the Glass Chain utopian expressionist correspondence under the pseudonym Mass
14.
Wassily Kandinsky
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Wassily Wassilyevich Kandinsky was a Russian painter and art theorist. He is credited with painting one of the first recognised purely abstract works, born in Moscow, Kandinsky spent his childhood in Odessa, where he graduated at Grekov Odessa Art school. He enrolled at the University of Moscow, studying law and economics, successful in his profession—he was offered a professorship at the University of Dorpat—Kandinsky began painting studies at the age of 30. In 1896 Kandinsky settled in Munich, studying first at Anton Ažbes private school and he returned to Moscow in 1914, after the outbreak of World War I. Kandinsky was unsympathetic to the theories on art in Communist Moscow. There, he taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933. He then moved to France, where he lived for the rest of his life, becoming a French citizen in 1939 and he died at Neuilly-sur-Seine in 1944. Kandinskys creation of work followed a long period of development. He called this devotion to beauty, fervor of spirit. Kandinsky was born in Moscow, the son of Lidia Ticheeva and Vasily Silvestrovich Kandinsky, Kandinsky learned from a variety of sources while in Moscow. He studied many fields while in school, including law and economics, later in life, he would recall being fascinated and stimulated by colour as a child. His fascination with colour symbolism and psychology continued as he grew, in 1889, he was part of an ethnographic research group which travelled to the Vologda region north of Moscow. In Looks on the Past, he relates that the houses and churches were decorated with such shimmering colours that upon entering them and this experience, and his study of the regions folk art, was reflected in much of his early work. The artist is the hand plays, touching one key or another. Kandinsky was also the uncle of Russian-French philosopher Alexandre Kojève, in 1896, at the age of 30, Kandinsky gave up a promising career teaching law and economics to enroll in the Munich Academy where his teachers would eventually include Franz von Stuck. He was not immediately granted admission, and began learning art on his own and that same year, before leaving Moscow, he saw an exhibit of paintings by Monet. He was particularly taken with the style of Haystacks, this. Later, he would write about this experience, That it was a haystack the catalogue informed me and this non-recognition was painful to me
15.
Paul Klee
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Paul Klee was a Swiss-German artist. His highly individual style was influenced by movements in art that included Expressionism, Cubism and he and his colleague, Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky, both taught at the Bauhaus school of art, design and architecture. His works reflect his dry humor and his sometimes childlike perspective, his personal moods and beliefs, and his musicality. First of all, the art of living, then as my ideal profession, poetry and philosophy, Paul Klee was born in Münchenbuchsee, Switzerland, as the second child of German music teacher Hans Wilhelm Klee and Swiss singer Ida Marie Klee, née Frick. His sister Mathilde was born on 28 January 1876 in Walzenhausen and their father came from Tann and studied at the Stuttgart Conservatory singing, piano, organ and violin, meeting there his future wife Ida Frick. Hans Wilhelm Klee was active as a teacher at the Bern State Seminary in Hofwil near Bern until 1931. Klee was able to develop his skills as his parents encouraged and inspired him until his death. In 1880, his family moved to Bern, where they moved 17 years later after numerous changes of residence into a house at the Kirchenfeld district. From 1886 to 1890, Klee visited primary school and received, at the age of 7 and he was so talented on violin that, aged 11, he received an invitation to play as an extraordinary member of the Bern Music Association. He stated, I didnt find the idea of going in for music creatively particularly attractive in view of the decline in the history of musical achievement. As a musician, he played and felt emotionally bound to traditional works of the eighteenth and nineteenth century, at sixteen, Klee’s landscape drawings already show considerable skill. Around 1897, Klee started his diary, which he kept until 1918, during his school years, he avidly drew in his school books, in particular drawing caricatures, and already demonstrating skill with line and volume. He barely passed his exams at the Gymnasium of Bern. With his characteristic dry wit, he wrote, After all, it’s rather difficult to achieve the exact minimum, and it involves risks. On his own time, in addition to his interests in music and art, Klee was a great reader of literature. With his parents reluctant permission, in 1898 Klee began studying art at the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich with Heinrich Knirr and he excelled at drawing but seemed to lack any natural color sense. He later recalled, During the third winter I even realized that I probably would never learn to paint, during these times of youthful adventure, Klee spent much time in pubs and had affairs with lower class women and artists models. He had a son in 1900 who died several weeks after birth
16.
Printing
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Printing is a process for reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest examples include Cylinder seals and other such as the Cyrus Cylinder. The earliest known form of printing came from China dating to before 220 A. D. Later developments in printing include the type, first developed by Bi Sheng in China around 1040 AD. Johannes Gutenberg introduced mechanical movable type printing to Europe in the 15th century, modern large-scale printing is typically done using a printing press, while small-scale printing is done free-form with a digital printer. Though paper is the most common material, it is frequently done on metals, plastics, cloth. On paper it is carried out as a large-scale industrial process and is an essential part of publishing. Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns that was used widely throughout East Asia and it originated in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220 A. D, the earliest surviving woodblock printed fragments are from China. They are of silk printed with flowers in three colours from the Han Dynasty and they are the earliest example of woodblock printing on paper appeared in the mid-seventh century in China. By the ninth century, printing on paper had taken off, by the tenth century,400,000 copies of some sutras and pictures were printed, and the Confucian classics were in print. A skilled printer could print up to 2,000 double-page sheets per day, Printing spread early to Korea and Japan, which also used Chinese logograms, but the technique was also used in Turpan and Vietnam using a number of other scripts. This technique then spread to Persia and Russia and this technique was transmitted to Europe via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards. However, Arabs never used this to print the Quran because of the limits imposed by Islamic doctrine, block printing, called tarsh in Arabic developed in Arabic Egypt during the ninth-tenth centuries, mostly for prayers and amulets. There is some evidence to suggest that these print blocks made from non-wood materials, possibly tin, lead, the techniques employed are uncertain, however, and they appear to have had very little influence outside of the Muslim world. Though Europe adopted woodblock printing from the Muslim world, initially for fabric, block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was introduced from China. Block printing first came to Europe as a method for printing on cloth, images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and elaborate. When paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, the medium transferred very quickly to small religious images
17.
Advertising
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Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising
18.
Sans-serif
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In typography and lettering, a sans-serif, sans serif, gothic, or simply sans letterform is one that does not have extending features called serifs at the end of strokes. Sans-serif fonts tend to have less line width variation than serif fonts, in most print, they are often used for headings rather than for body text. They are often used to convey simplicity and modernity or minimalism, Sans-serif fonts have become the most prevalent for display of text on computer screens. On lower-resolution digital displays, fine details like serifs may disappear or appear too large, the term comes from the French word sans, meaning without and serif of uncertain origin, possibly from the Dutch word schreef meaning line or pen-stroke. Before the term became common in English typography, a number of other terms had been used. One of these terms for sans serif was gothic, which is still used in East Asian typography and sometimes seen in font names like Century Gothic, Highway Gothic. Sans-serif fonts are sometimes, especially in older documents, used as a device for emphasis and this group features most of the early sans-serif designs. Influenced by Didone serif fonts of the period and signpainting traditions, the early sans-serif typefaces often did not feature a lower case or italics, since they were not needed for such uses. They were sometimes released by width, with a range of widths from extended to normal to condensed, with each different, meaning to modern eyes they can look quite irregular. Grotesque fonts have limited variation of stroke width, the terminals of curves are usually horizontal, and many have a spurred G and an R with a curled leg. Capitals tend to be of uniform width. Cap height and ascender height are generally the same to create a more regular effect in such as titles with many capital letters. Most avoid having a true italic in favour of a more restrained oblique or sloped design, Akzidenz Grotesk Old Face, Knockout, Grotesque No.9 and Monotype Grotesque are examples of digital fonts that retain eccentricities of early sans-serif types. The term realist has also applied to these designs due to their practicality and simplicity. As the name implies, these modern designs consist of an evolution of grotesque types. They are relatively straightforward in appearance with limited width variation, unlike earlier grotesque designs, many were issued in extremely large and versatile families from the time of release, making them easier to use for body text. Helvetica is an example of this, others such as Univers are less regular. Neo-grotesque type began in the 1950s with the emergence of the International Typographic Style and its members looked at the clear lines of Akzidenz Grotesk as an inspiration to create rational, almost neutral typefaces
19.
Typeface
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
20.
Kurt Schwitters
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Kurt Hermann Eduard Karl Julius Schwitters was a German artist who was born in Hanover, Germany. He is most famous for his collages, called Merz Pictures, Kurt Schwitters was born on 20 June 1887 in Hanover, at Rumannstraße No.2, now, No. 8, the child of Eduard Schwitters and his wife Henriette. His father was proprietor of a clothes shop. In 1893, the moved to Waldstraße 5, future site of the Merzbau. In 1901, Schwitters suffered his first epileptic seizure, a condition that would exempt him from service in World War I until late in the war. After studying art at the Dresden Academy alongside Otto Dix and George Grosz, 1909–15, Schwitters returned to Hanover, in 1911 he took part in his first exhibition, in Hanover. As the First World War progressed his work became darker, gradually developing a distinctive expressionist tone, Schwitters spent the last one-and-half years of the war working as a drafter in a factory just outside Hanover. He was conscripted into the 73rd Hanoverian Regiment in March 1917, by his own account, his time as a draftsman influenced his later work, and inspired him to depict machines as metaphors of human activity. In the war I discovered my love for the wheel and realized that machines are abstractions of the human spirit and he married his cousin Helma Fischer on 5 October 1915. In 1918, his art was to change dramatically as a consequence of Germanys economic, political. In the war, things were in terrible turmoil, what I had learned at the academy was of no use to me and the useful new ideas were still unready. Everything had broken down and new things had to be out of the fragments. It was like a revolution within me, not as it was, Schwitters was to come into contact with Herwarth Walden after exhibiting expressionist paintings at the Hanover Secession in February 1918. He showed two Abstraktionen at Waldens gallery Der Sturm, in Berlin, in June 1918 and this resulted in meetings with members of the Berlin Avant-garde, including Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, and Hans Arp in the autumn of 1918. The night he introduced himself in the Café des Westens, im a painter, he said, and I nail my pictures together. Schwitters asked to join Berlin Dada either in late 1918 or early 1919, Hausmanns anecdote about Schwitters asking to join Berlin Dada is, however, somewhat dubious, for there is well-documented evidence that Schwitters and Huelsenbeck were on amicable terms at first. When they first met in 1919, Huelsenbeck was enthusiastic about Schwitters’s work and promised his assistance, when Huelsenbeck visited him at the end of the year, Schwitters gave him a lithograph and though their friendship was by now strained, Huelsenbeck wrote him a conciliatory note
21.
Jan Tschichold
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Jan Tschichold was a typographer, book designer, teacher and writer. Tschichold was the son of a provincial signwriter, and he was trained in calligraphy and this artisan background and calligraphic training set him apart from almost all other noted typographers of the time, since they had inevitably trained in architecture or the fine arts. It also may explain why he never worked with handmade papers and custom fonts as many typographers did. After the election of Hitler in Germany, all designers had to register with the Ministry of Culture, soon after Tschichold had taken up a teaching post in Munich at the behest of Paul Renner, they both were denounced as cultural Bolshevists. Ten days after the Nazis surged to power in March 1933, Tschichold, during the arrest, Soviet posters were found in his flat, casting him under suspicion of collaboration with communists. All copies of Tschicholds books were seized by the Gestapo for the protection of the German people, after six weeks a policeman somehow found him tickets for Switzerland, and he and his family managed to escape Nazi Germany in August 1933. Apart from two longer stays in England in 1937, and 1947–1949, Tschichold lived in Switzerland for the rest of his life, Jan Tschichold died in the hospital at Locarno in 1974. Tschichold had converted to Modernist design principles in 1923 after visiting the first Weimar Bauhaus exhibition and he became a leading advocate of Modernist design, first with an influential 1925 magazine supplement, then a 1927 personal exhibition, then with his most noted work Die neue Typographie. This book was a manifesto of modern design, in which he condemned all typefaces and he also favoured non-centered design, and codified many other Modernist design rules. This book was followed with a series of manuals on the principles of Modernist typography which had a wide influence among ordinary workers and printers in Germany. Yet, despite his visits to England just before the war, although Die neue Typographie remains a classic, Tschichold slowly abandoned his rigid beliefs from around 1932 onwards as he moved back towards Classicism in print design. He later condemned Die neue Typographie as too extreme and he also went so far as to condemn Modernist design in general as being authoritarian and inherently fascistic. In working for a firm that made cheap mass-market paperbacks, he was following a line of work—in cheap popular culture forms —that he had pursued during his career. His abandonment of Modernist principles meant that, even though he was living in Switzerland after the war, between 1926 and 1929, he designed a “universal alphabet” to clean up the few multigraphs and non-phonetic spellings in the German language. For example, he devised brand new characters to replace the ch and sch. His intentions were to change the spelling by systematically replacing eu with oi, w with v, long vowels were indicated by a macron below them, though the umlaut was still above. The alphabet was presented in one typeface, which was sans-serif, typefaces Tschichold designed include Transit, Saskia, Zeus and Sabon. Sabon was designed to be a typeface that would give the same reproduction on both Monotype and Linotype systems and it was used early after its release by Bradbury Thompson to set the Washburn College Bible
22.
Architype Schwitters
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Architype Schwitters is a geometric sans-serif typeface based upon a 1927 phonetic alphabet designed by Kurt Schwitters. The digital revival, shown at right, was produced by Freda Sack, the vowel alternates, though primarily used for the short sound, are used somewhat indiscriminately in his print work. Schwitters first developed four intermediate systematic scripts that had round bold vowels combined with straight consonants, the Architype Schwitters revival is an adaptation of those. His actual Systemschrift should have each letter correspond to its point and type of articulation, letters would form complex ligatures as in Brahmic scripts. Architype Albers Architype Aubette Architype Renner Architype van der Leck Friedl, Frederich, Nicholas Ott, typography, An Encyclopedic Survey of Type Design and Techniques Through History. Type, Hot Designers Make Cool Fonts, thinking with Type, A Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Editors, & Students, Princeton Architectural Press,2004. Architype 2 types Website of Emotional Digital describing work by The Foundry Kurt Schwitters, in, Internationale Revue I10 1927–1929
23.
M.T. Abraham Foundation
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Abraham Foundation is a non-profit art institution. Its headquarters are in Paris, France, and its collections are stored in Geneva and it was founded by the descendants of Mansur Tamir Abraham after his death in 1999. The core of the focusing on European and Russian Modernism of the late 19th and 20th centuries. Petersburg for a posthumous bronze exhibition linked with an international colloquium Posthumous Bronze in Law, through MTA Publishing, the foundation promotes, publicizes and facilitates investigation related to its permanent collection. Also, it supports debates on the phenomena that shape the plastic arts from the 19th to the 21st centuries by publishing different editorial possibilities. In 2013, the Foundation published the book White City - Bauhaus Architecture in Tel Aviv, the publication Lissitzky - Kabakov, Utopia and Reality at the Hermitage Museum followed. In 2013, as part of an event led by the Israeli General Consulate in St. The entire collection of 74 bronze sculptures are on loan to the museum for two years, courtesy of the M. T, the organization was first founded in 2004 by the family of Mansur Tamir Abraham. Abraham was a native of Aden, Yemen when it was occupied by the British and he became a legal authority on African and Asian rule of law. Abraham was also a meticulous and avid art collector, focusing largely on Russian, many of the pieces he collected were at the time considered unimportant. Abraham died on January 9,1999 at the age of 86, in 2004 his children and grandchildren formed his collections into the M. T. The current president is Amir Gross Kabiri and it is based in Geneva, Switzerland, with head offices in Paris, France. It has a program through which it makes works available for public exhibition at accredited institutions. Its educational mission is fostering exhibitions that will encourage an appreciation and understanding of art, its history, context, exhibitions sponsored by the center are accompanied by educational programs for children and young adults, which are held by artists, educators, and other art professionals. The foundation also provides support for artists and students in Judaic studies. The foundation supports promising young artists and students in all fields of art history, aesthetics, through MTA Publishing, the foundation invests maximum efforts to promote, publicize and facilitate investigation related to its permanent collection. Also, it supports debates on the phenomena that shape the plastic arts from the 19th to the 21st centuries by publishing different editorial possibilities. In 2013, the Foundation published the book White City - Bauhaus Architecture in Tel Aviv, at the same year the Foundation published the book Lissitzky - Kabakov, Utopia and Reality at the Hermitage Museum
24.
Vogue (magazine)
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Vogue is an American fashion and lifestyle magazine made up of many components including fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. Vogue began as a newspaper in 1892 in the United States. The British Vogue was the first international edition launched in 1916, Turnures intention was to create a publication that celebrated the ceremonial side of life, one that attracts the sage as well as debutante, men of affairs as well as the belle. From its inception, the magazine targeted the new New York upper class, the magazine at this time was primarily concerned with fashion, with coverage of sports and social affairs included for its male readership. Despite the magazines content, it very slowly during this period. Condé Montrose Nast purchased Vogue in 1905 one year before Turnures death and he changed it to a bi-weekly magazine and started Vogue overseas in the 1910s. Under Nast, the magazine shifted its focus to women. The magazines number of publications and profit increased dramatically under Nasts management, by 1911, the Vogue brand had garnered a reputation that it continues to maintain, targeting an elite audience and expanding into the coverage of weddings. According to Condé Naste Russia, after the First World War made deliveries in the Old World impossible, the decision to print in England proved to be successful causing Nast to release the first issue of French Vogue in 1920. The magazines number of subscriptions surged during the Great Depression, during this time, noted critic and former Vanity Fair editor Frank Crowninshield served as its editor, having been moved over from Vanity Fair by publisher Condé Nast. In July of 1932, American Vogue placed its first color photograph on the cover of the magazine, the photograph was taken by photographer Edward Steichen and portrays a woman swimmer holding a beach ball in the air. Nast was responsible for introducing color printing and the two-page spread and he greatly impacted the magazine and turned it into a successful business and the womens magazine we recognize today and greatly increased the sales volumes until his death in 1942. Toward this end, Vogue extended coverage to include East Village boutiques such as Limbo on St, marks Place, as well as including features of downtown personalities such as Andy Warhols Superstar Jane Holzers favorite haunts. Vogue also continued making household names out of models, a practice continued with Suzy Parker, Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Lauren Hutton, Veruschka, Marisa Berenson, Penelope Tree. In 1973, Vogue became a monthly publication, under editor-in-chief Grace Mirabella, the magazine underwent extensive editorial and stylistic changes to respond to changes in the lifestyles of its target audience. Mirabella states that she was chosen to change Vogue because women werent interested in reading about or buying clothes that served no purpose in their changing lives and she was selected to make the magazine appeal to the the free, working, liberated woman of the seventies. She changed the magazine by adding text with interviews, arts coverage, when that type of stylihtic ceange f ell out of favor in the 1980s, Mirabella was brutally fired. Her take on it, For a magazine devoted to style, in July of 1988, after Vogue had began to lose ground to a three-year-old upstart Elle, Anna Wintour was named editor-in-chief
25.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
26.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
27.
Degenerate art
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Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany to describe Modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German, Jewish, or Communist in nature, and these included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art. Degenerate Art also was the title of an exhibition, held by the Nazis in Munich in 1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung, designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria. Similar restrictions were placed upon music, which was expected to be tonal and free of any jazz influences, films and plays were also censored. The early twentieth century was a period of wrenching changes in the arts, in the visual arts, such innovations as Fauvism, Cubism, Dada and Surrealism—following Symbolism and Post-Impressionism—were not universally appreciated. The majority of people in Germany, as elsewhere, did not care for the new art which many resented as elitist, morally suspect, under the Weimar government of the 1920s, Germany emerged as a leading center of the avant-garde. It was the birthplace of Expressionism in painting and sculpture, of the musical compositions of Arnold Schoenberg. Films such as Robert Wienes The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, the Nazis viewed the culture of the Weimar period with disgust. Their response stemmed partly from a conservative aesthetic taste, and partly from their determination to use culture as a propaganda tool, on both counts, a painting such as Otto Dixs War Cripples was anathema to them. It unsparingly depicts four badly disfigured veterans of the First World War, then a familiar sight on Berlins streets, rendered in caricatured style. Featured in the Degenerate Art exhibition, it would hang next to a label accusing Dix—himself a volunteer in World War I—of an insult to the German heroes of the Great War. As dictator, Hitler gave his personal taste in art the force of law to a never before seen. Only in Stalins Soviet Union, where Socialist Realism was the style, had a modern state shown such concern with regulation of the arts. In the case of Germany, the model was to be classical Greek and Roman art, Art historian Henry Grosshans says that Hitler saw Greek and Roman art as uncontaminated by Jewish influences. Modern art was an act of violence by the Jews against the German spirit. Such was true to Hitler even though only Liebermann, Meidner, Freundlich, took upon himself the responsibility of deciding who, in matters of culture, thought and acted like a Jew. By propagating the theory of degeneracy, the Nazis combined their anti-Semitism with their drive to control the culture, the term Entartung had gained currency in Germany by the late 19th century when the critic and author Max Nordau devised the theory presented in his 1892 book, Entartung. He attacked Aestheticism in English literature and described the mysticism of the Symbolist movement in French literature as a product of mental pathology, explaining the painterliness of Impressionism as the sign of a diseased visual cortex, he decried modern degeneracy while praising traditional German culture
28.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
29.
Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
30.
Mina Loy
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Mina Loy, born Mina Gertrude Löwy, was a British artist, writer, poet, playwright, novelist, futurist, feminist, designer of lamps, and bohemian. She was one of the last of the first generation modernists to achieve posthumous recognition and her poetry was admired by T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, Basil Bunting, Gertrude Stein, Francis Picabia and Yvor Winters, among others. She was the daughter of a Hungarian Jewish father and an English Protestant mother and she studied painting in Munich at St. Johns Wood School in 1897 for two years. While in London, as an art student, Loy became involved with Stephen Haweis and they moved to Paris to paint and were married there in 1903. Instead of taking her husbands name, Mina changed Lowy to Loy, struggling with the now-familiar feminist dilemma of trying to choose, Loys first child, Oda, was born in May 1904. By 1905 she was a frequent guest at the pre-Toklas Stein salon where—in addition to Leo and Gertrude—she met Apollinaire, Picasso and she became good friends with Gertrude. Oda died on her first birthday, and the marriage was already faltering by the time moved to Florence later in the same year, Mina had two more children—Joella in 1907 and Giles in 1908. According to Gillian Hanscombe and Virginia L. Smyers, During their ten years in Florence and she became, also, at this time, a lifelong convert to Christian Science. She was a key figure in the group formed around Others magazine, which also included Man Ray, William Carlos Williams, Marcel Duchamp. She became a Christian Scientist during this time, Loy soon became a leading member of the Greenwich Village bohemian circuit. She also met the poet-boxer Arthur Cravan, a self-styled Dadaist who was a nephew of Oscar Wildes wife, Cravan fled to Mexico to avoid the draft, when Loys divorce was final she followed him, and they married in Mexico City in 1918. Here, they lived in poverty, and years later, Loy would write of their destitution. When she found out that she was pregnant, she travelled on a ship to Buenos Aires, where she intented to wait for Cravan. Cravan was lost at sea without trace, although some claim that his body was found later in the desert. The tale of Cravans disappearance is strongly anecdotal, as recounted by Loys biographer and their daughter was born April 1919. In a chapter of her memoir entitled Colossus, Loy writes about her relationship with Cravan, irene Gammel argues that their relationship was located at the heart of avant-garde activities. Loy draws on the language of boxing throughout her memoir to define the terms of her relationship with Cravan, in 1914, while living in an expatriate community in Florence, Italy, Loy wrote the Loy Feminist Manifesto, for which she is perhaps best known today. The manifesto begins with a call on women, The feminist movement as at present instituted is Inadequate. There is no half-measure—NO scratching on the surface of the rubbish heap of tradition, will bring about Reform
31.
Aspen, Colorado
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Aspen is the Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Pitkin County, Colorado, United States. Its population was 6,658 at the 2010 United States Census, founded as a mining camp during the Colorado Silver Boom and later named Aspen because of the abundance of aspen trees in the area, the city boomed during the 1880s, its first decade of existence. In the late 20th century, the city became a retreat for celebrities. Gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson worked out of a downtown hotel, singer John Denver wrote two songs about Aspen after settling there. Today the musicians and movie stars have been joined by corporate executives, as a result of this influx of wealth, Aspen boasts some of the most expensive real estate prices in the United States and many middle-class residents can no longer afford to live there. It remains a popular tourist destination, with outdoor recreation in the surrounding White River National Forest serving as a complement to the four ski areas in the vicinity. Production expanded due to the passage of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, by 1893, Aspen had banks, a hospital, a police department, two theaters, an opera house and electric lights. Economic collapse came with the Panic of 1893, when President Cleveland called a session of Congress. Within weeks, many of the Aspen mines were closed and thousands of miners were put out of work, eventually, after wage cuts, mining revived somewhat, but production declined and by the 1930 census only 705 residents remained. Remaining, however, were fine stocks of old buildings and residences. Aspens development as a ski resort first flickered in the 1930s when investors conceived of a ski area, friedl Pfeifer, a member of the 10th Mountain Division who had trained in the area, returned to the area and linked up with industrialist Walter Paepcke and his wife Elizabeth. The Aspen Skiing Corporation was founded in 1946 and the city became a well-known resort. Paepcke also played an important role in bringing the Goethe Bicentennial Convocation to Aspen in 1949, Aspen was now on the path to becoming an internationally known ski resort and cultural center, home of the Aspen Music Festival and School. The area would continue to grow with the development of three ski areas, Buttermilk, Aspen Highlands, and Snowmass. In 1977, notorious serial killer Ted Bundy, while in the Pitkin County Courthouse in Aspen for a hearing, jumped from a second-story window. He remained free for six days, hiding out on Aspen Mountain, in 1977, Aspen was thoroughly photographed for the Aspen Movie Map project funded by the U. S. Department of Defense. The Movie Map is one of the earliest examples of virtual reality software, Aspen is notable as the smallest radio market tracked by Arbitron, ranked at #302. Aspen is a Home Rule Municipality under Colorado law, an elected council of four members and the mayor supervise the citys operations, managed on a day-to-day basis by the city manager, an appointed official who serves at their pleasure
32.
Aspen Institute
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The Aspen Institute is an international nonprofit organization founded in 1950 as the Aspen Institute of Humanistic Studies. The organization is dedicated to fostering enlightened leadership, the appreciation of timeless ideas and values, the institute is headquartered in Washington, D. C. United States, and has campuses in Aspen, Colorado and near the shores of the Chesapeake Bay at the Wye River in Maryland and its board of trustees includes leaders from politics, government, business and academia who also contribute to its support. Young-leader fellowships around the globe, which bring together for an intense multi-year program. The fellows become better leaders and apply their skills to major challenges, policy programs, which serve as nonpartisan forums for analysis, consensus building, and problem solving on a variety of issues. Public conferences and events, which provide a commons for people to share ideas, the Institute was largely the creation of Walter Paepcke, a Chicago businessman who had become inspired by the Great Books program of Mortimer Adler at the University of Chicago. Paepcke and Bayer envisioned a place where artists, leaders, thinkers, shortly thereafter, while passing through Aspen on a hunting expedition, Oil industry maverick Robert O. Anderson met with Bayer and shared in Paepckes and Bayers vision. In 1949, Paepcke organized a 20-day international celebration for the 200th birthday of German poet, the celebration attracted over 2,000 attendees, including Albert Schweitzer, Jose Ortega y Gasset, Thornton Wilder, and Arthur Rubinstein. In 1950, Paepcke founded the Aspen Institute, and later the Aspen Music Festival, Paepcke sought a forum where the human spirit can flourish, especially amid the whirlwind and chaos of modernization. He hoped that the Institute could help business leaders recapture what he called eternal verities, the values that guided them intellectually, ethically, inspired by philosopher Mortimer Adler’s Great Books seminar at the University of Chicago, Paepcke worked with Anderson to create the Aspen Institute Executive Seminar. In 1951, the Institute sponsored a national photography conference attended by Ansel Adams, Dorothea Lange, Ben Shahn, Berenice Abbott, in 2005, it held the first Aspen Ideas Festival, featuring leading minds from around the world sharing and speaking on global issues. The Institute, along with Atlantic Monthly, hosts the festival annually and it has trained philanthropists such as Carrie Morgridge. Today, the Aspen Institute seminar programs include sessions such as Global Values and Leadership, the Aspen Strategy Group convenes prominent foreign policy and national security experts to consider the important challenges facing the United States. The Business and Society Program is dedicated to developing leaders for a sustainable society and it creates opportunities for executives and educators to explore new pathways to sustainability and values-based leadership. The program hosts the Corporate Values Strategy Group and the Center for Business Education and its websites, CasePlace. org and BeyondGreyPinstripes. org, are used by business schools around the world. The Aspen Institute Communications and Society Program promotes dialogue and decision-making in the fields of communications and it convenes leaders to assess the impact of modern communications and information systems and develops new models for communications policy. The Aspen Network of Development Entrepreneurs is a network of organizations that examine entrepreneurship in emerging markets. The networks members provide financing and business services to small
33.
Wheeler Opera House
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The Wheeler Opera House is located at the corner of East Hyman Avenue and South Mill Street in Aspen, Colorado, United States. It is a building erected during the 1890s, from a design by Willoughby J. Edbrooke that blends elements of the Romanesque Revival. In 1972 it became the first property in the city to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and it is one of two buildings in town named after early developer Jerome B. Originally, the house was located on the third floor, with retail space at street level. An early 20th-century arson fire damaged the interior, and in its wake the theater fell into disuse, the building became property of the city due to tax default. Later in the century it was renovated several times, twice from designs by Herbert Bayer, for a while the Pitkin County Library was located in the building as well. Today it houses retail space and a restaurant in addition to the auditorium space, the city funds its operations through a real estate transfer tax that has built up a large surplus over the years. The Comedy Festival, then known as the HBO/US Comedy Arts Festival, was held in the building annually from 1985–2007, among the performers who have appeared at the Wheeler are Lily Tomlin, Renée Fleming, Phish, John Denver and Bill Maher. Kate Hudson made her debut there as a school student. Michael Hutchences last official recording with INXS was also recorded at the Wheeler. The Wheeler is located on the northwest corner of the intersection, to the south and east Hyman and Mill have been closed to vehicular traffic, both are now planted with shade trees and serve as pedestrian malls. The surrounding neighborhood is developed with a mixture of modern and historic buildings. To the west is a vacant lot, the terrain is level, with the lower slopes of Aspen Mountain and the ski areas base facilities several blocks to the south. The building itself is a structure three stories tall, topped by a hipped roof. All three visible facades are faced in rusticated sandstone, the west and north sides are done in plain brick. The two-bay main entrance is on East Hyman Street, in the center of the south facade, an auxiliary entrance is located at the top of a short flight of steps in the corner facade. At the north end of the west facade is a three-bay glass storefront with entrance, a small addition, containing a stairwell, protrudes from that corner to the north. On the west end of the front facade is a narrow blind brick addition, all the windows on the first floor have round segmental arches, sandstone voussoirs and awnings
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Digraph (orthography)
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Digraphs are often used for phonemes that cannot be represented using a single character, like the English sh in ship and fish. In other cases they may be relics from a period of the language when they had a different pronunciation, or represent a distinction which is made only in certain dialects. They may also be used for purely etymological reasons, like rh in English, digraphs are used in some Romanization schemes, like the zh often used to represent the Russian letter ж. As an alternative to digraphs, orthographies and Romanization schemes sometimes use letters with diacritics, like the Czech š, examples are found in Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, Albanian and Gajs Latin Alphabet. In Dutch, when the digraph ij is capitalized, both letters are capitalized, digraphs may develop into ligatures, but these are distinct concepts – a ligature involves a graphical combination of two characters, as when a and e are fused into æ. Digraphs may consist of two different characters or two instances of the same character, in the latter case, they are generally called double letters. Doubled vowel letters are used to indicate a long vowel sound. This is the case in Finnish and Estonian, for instance, where represents a longer version of the vowel denoted by ⟨u⟩, ⟨ää⟩ represents a longer version of the vowel denoted by ⟨ä⟩. Doubled consonant letters can also be used to indicate a long or geminated consonant sound, in Italian, for example, consonants written double are pronounced longer than single ones. In modern English, for example, the ⟨pp⟩ of tapping differentiates the first vowel sound from that of taping, in Spanish and Catalan, ⟨rr⟩ is used between vowels for the alveolar trill /r/, since an ⟨r⟩ alone between vowels represents an alveolar flap /ɾ/. In Spanish the digraph ⟨nn⟩ formerly indicated /ɲ/, it developed into the letter ñ, in Basque, double consonant letters generally mark palatalized versions of the single consonant letter, as in ⟨dd⟩, ⟨ll⟩, ⟨tt⟩. However, ⟨rr⟩ is a trill, contrasting with the flap, as in Spanish. In several European writing systems, including the English one, the doubling of the letter ⟨c⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is represented as the heterogeneous digraph ⟨ck⟩ instead of ⟨cc⟩ or ⟨kk⟩ respectively. In native German words, the doubling of ⟨z⟩, which corresponds to /ts/, is replaced by the digraph ⟨tz⟩, some languages have a unified orthography with digraphs that represent distinct pronunciations in different dialects. For example, in Breton there is a digraph ⟨zh⟩ that is pronounced in most dialects, similarly, the Saintongeais dialect of French has a digraph ⟨jh⟩ that is pronounced in words that correspond to in standard French. Similarly, Catalan has a digraph ⟨ix⟩ that is pronounced in Eastern Catalan, the pair of letters making up a phoneme are not always adjacent. This is the case with English silent e, for example, the sequence a. e has the sound /eɪ/ in English cake. Later still, the vowel /aː/ became /eɪ/, however, alphabets may also be designed with discontinuous digraphs
35.
City National Plaza
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City National Plaza is a twin tower skyscraper complex on South Flower Street in western Downtown Los Angeles, California. It was originally named ARCO Plaza upon opening in 1972, the present complex is on the site of the landmark Richfield Tower, that was designed in the Art Deco style by Morgan, Walls & Clements, and completed in 1929. It was the headquarters of the Atlantic Richfield Oil company, the current skyscraper complex was built as the ARCO Plaza, with a pair of 213.3 m 52-story office towers. One became the new headquarters for the Atlantic Richfield Company. An underground shopping complex was accessed by escalators from the street level plaza. The towers are the tallest twin buildings in the United States outside of New York City and this modification features silver trim and panes of light green glass panels. The ARCO Plaza complex was renamed City National Plaza, and the south and north towers, respectively, were renamed City National Tower, the low-rise building at the back of the plaza is known as the Jewel Box, and is occupied by the Gensler architectural firm. Plaza area and water sculpture featured in the 1976 film, Marathon Man, the north Paul Hastings tower was depicted as being struck by an air-to-air Sidewinder missile, in the 1983 film, Blue Thunder. In the 2015 film San Andreas, the towers were shown swaying violently during an earthquake and in a later shot. Richfield Tower List of tallest buildings in Los Angeles Cameron, Robert
36.
Double Ascension
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Double Ascension is an abstract sculpture, by Herbert Bayer. It is located at 515 South Flower Street, Los Angeles and it was dedicated on January 20,1973. The painted steel sculpture is 20 feet high and 30 feet in diameter, Bayer was commissioned by ARCO, and he titled the work Stairway to Nowhere, but changed it at the request of company officials. List of public art in Los Angeles
37.
BP
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BP P. L. C. also referred to by its former name, British Petroleum, is a British multinational oil and gas company headquartered in London, England. It also has renewable energy interests in biofuels and wind power, the company has around 17,200 service stations worldwide. Its largest division is BP America in the United States, in Russia BP owns a 19. 75% stake in Rosneft, the worlds largest publicly traded oil and gas company by hydrocarbon reserves and production. BP has a listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It has secondary listings on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange, BPs origins date back to the founding of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company in 1908, established as a subsidiary of Burmah Oil Company to exploit oil discoveries in Iran. In 1935, it became the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and in 1954 British Petroleum, in 1959, the company expanded beyond the Middle East to Alaska and it was one of the the first companies to strike oil in the North Sea. British Petroleum acquired majority control of Standard Oil of Ohio in 1978, formerly majority state-owned, the British government privatised the company in stages between 1979 and 1987. British Petroleum merged with Amoco in 1998, becoming BP Amoco plc, from 2003 to 2013, BP was a partner in the TNK-BP joint venture in Russia. BP has been involved in several major environmental and safety incidents. 1.8 million gallons of Corexit oil dispersant were used in the cleanup response, legal proceedings continued into January 2015 which determined payouts and fines under the Clean Water Act and the Natural Resources Damage Assessment. BP appealed the ruling, which raised concerns about BPs future and they settled in July 2015 in the amount of $19 billion plus the original amount. In May 1908 a group of British geologists discovered a large amount of oil at Masjid-i-Suleiman in Mohammerah and it was the first commercially significant find of oil in the Middle East. William Knox DArcy, by contract with the Emir of Mohammerah, Sheikh Khazal Khan al-Kaabi and this event changed the history of the Middle East. The oil discovery led to petrochemical industry development and also the establishment of industries that depended on oil. On 14 April 1909, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company was incorporated as a subsidiary of Burmah Oil Company, some of the shares were sold to the public. The first chairman and minority shareholder of the company became Lord Strathcona, the refinery was built and began operating in 1912. In 1913, the British Government acquired a controlling interest in the company and at the suggestion of Winston Churchill, the Royal Navy, which projected British power all over the world, came to be run 100% on oil from Iran. In 1919, the became a shale-oil producer by establishing a subsidiary named Scottish Oils which merged remaining Scottish oil-shale industries
38.
Denver Art Museum
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The Denver Art Museum — DAM is an art museum located in the Civic Center of Denver, Colorado. The museum is one of the largest art museums between the West Coast and Chicago and it is known for its collection of American Indian art, and its other collections of more than 70,000 diverse works from across the centuries and world. The museums origins can be traced back to the founding of the Denver Artists Club in 1893, the Club renamed itself the Denver Art Association in 1917 and opened its first galleries in the City and County building two years later. The museum opened galleries in the Chappell House in 1922, the house, located on Logan Street, was donated to the museum by Mrs. George Cranmer and Delos Chappell. In 1923, the Denver Art Association became the Denver Art Museum, in 1948, the DAM purchased a building on Acoma and 14th Avenue on the south side of Civic Center Park. Denver architect Burnham Hoyt renovated the building, which opened as the Schleier Memorial Gallery in 1949, while the Schleier Gallery was a significant addition, the DAM still sought to increase its space. Additional pressure came from the Kress Foundation, who offered to donate three collections valued at over $2 million on the condition that DAM construct a new building to house the works. DAM sought help from the city and county of Denver to raise funds, however, despite this setback, the museum continued to raise funds and eventually opened a new building, the South Wing, in 1954. This made it possible for DAM to receive the three Kress Foundation collections, the North Building, a seven-story 210, 000-square-foot addition, opened in 1971, allowing the museum to finally display its collections under one roof. The building was designed by Italian modernist architect Gio Ponti, with local architects James Sudler Associates of Denver, Ponti said, “Art is a treasure, and these thin but jealous walls defend it. ”It is his only completed design built in the United States. Ponti wanted the DAM building, housing the important art within, the two-towered castle-like façade has 24 sides, and more than one million reflective glass tiles, designed by Dow Corning, cover the building’s exterior. The Duncan Pavilion and the Frederic C. Hamilton Building were both added to the museum in 2006, the Duncan Pavilion, a 5, 700-square-foot second story addition to the Bach Wing, came to receive the bridge traffic from the new Hamilton Building and the existing North Building. Duncan Pavilion was designed to be kid- and family-friendly while also suitable for multi-use and it was intended to complement both buildings. The Hamilton Building was designed as a joint venture by Studio Daniel Libeskind, the new building opened on October 7,2006, and is clad in titanium and glass. The project was recognized by the American Institute of Architects as a successful Building Information Modeling project, the Duncan Pavilion is a second story addition to the Bach Wing of the Denver Art Museum and opened in February 2006. It is a link between the Daniel Libeskind-designed Hamilton Building and the 1971 Geo Ponti-designed North Building, the projects intent included preserving the integrity of the oldest part of the museum, the Bach Wing built in 1954, while providing a significant mechanical upgrade for it. The building also serves as the entrance to the rest of the museum complex. This project doubled the size of the museum, allowing for an expansion of the art on view, the complex deconstructivist geometric design of the Hamilton building consists 20 sloping planes, covered in 230,000 square feet of titanium panels
39.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
40.
List Visual Arts Center
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Established in 1985, the List Visual Arts Center is the contemporary art gallery of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The LVAC is internationally recognized for the 4-6 exhibitions it presents each year in its 6, 000-square-foot galleries, admission is free to all, as are most events sponsored by the LVAC, including family-friendly hands-on art workshops. The LVAC is housed in the Wiesner building, an I. M, the Percent-for-Art program, administered by the LVAC, allocates funds for the commission of artworks in connection with each new campus construction or major renovation project. The public sculpture collection includes works by such artists as Alexander Calder, Jorge Pardo, Henry Moore, Pablo Picasso, Sarah Sze. An interactive map of all publicly situated art is available here, the Center also maintains the Student Loan Art Collection, consisting of 500 original works of art. Through this popular annual loan program, students may borrow original works of art from the collection for their rooms or communal spaces. The artworks available for loan are exhibited in a September show, each year, new works are added to the collection, and selected older works are reassigned to the non-circulating permanent collection. New selections are made with the advice of the MIT Council for the Arts, and usually consist of artists limited edition prints or photographs
41.
Kent, Washington
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Kent is a city located in King County, Washington, United States. It is the sixth largest city in the state and third largest in the county, Kent is in the heart of the Seattle–Tacoma metroplex, located 19 miles south of Seattle and 19 miles northeast of Tacoma. Incorporated in 1890, it is the second oldest incorporated city in King County, Kents population as of April,2010 was 92,411 according to the 2010 census. The total grew to an estimated 126,952 as of July 1,2015, once a thriving agricultural area, Kent is now home to hundreds of companies. The Kent area was first permanently settled by westerners in the early 1860s along the banks of the White River, during the 1880s the town discovered hops production as the major source of income. Due to an invasion which affected hops crops in Europe. Hops were shipped from Titusville either by the river or via rail, in 1889 the town was renamed for the County of Kent, the major hops producing region in England. Hops production in the White River valley came to an end soon after its own invasion of aphids in 1891, Kent was officially incorporated on May 28,1890 with a population of 793, the second city incorporated in King County. After the turn of the 20th century the area turned to dairy farming, flooding from both the Green and the White Rivers was a constant problem. In 1906, flooding changed the course of the White River, the Green River continued to present problems until the creation of the Howard A. Hanson Dam at Eagle Gorge in 1962. During and after the Great Depression, Kent was known as the Lettuce Capital of the World, after WWII, Kent began to grow more rapidly. From 1953 to 1960 the citys size grew twelve-fold, in 1965 Boeing began building in Kent, followed a few years later by other aerospace and high-tech companies. In 1992, the Greater Kent Historical Society was formed to promote the discovery, in 1996, the City of Kent purchased the historic Bereiter house, the home of one of Kents early mayors, for use as the Kent Historical Museum. The museum is operated by the Greater Kent Historical Society, in 2009, Kent got its first sports team when WHLs Seattle Thunderbirds moved into the ShoWare Center. Kent is divided into three regions, East Hill, the Valley, and West Hill. Downtown Kent is located on the east side of the valley, there is a good view of Mt. Rainier to the southeast. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 29.19 square miles. Major waterways include the Green River, which flows north through Kent on its way to Puget Sound, the largest lake is Lake Meridian on the citys East Hill
42.
Berthold Type Foundry
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The production premises were on Wilhelmstrasse No.1 until 1868, and then on Mehringdamm 43. In 1979 the factory moved to another location between Teltow Canal and Wiesenweg in Lichterfelde, as a typefounder, Berthold had no background in producing cold type machinery until the introduction of the Diatype in 1958. The Diatype was a relatively small desktop-sized headline-setting device, based on a glass disc font master, character selection was by means of a trigger mounted on the front of the machine (giving rise to the colloquial naming of the machine as the duck-shooter. When changing font, it was a feature of the machine that it required calibration of letter-spacing by the typing of a nonsense character sequence. Measuring the width of this word at a font size would indicate if the character width. Berthold Diatronic systems were based on a glass grid master of each font weight, a marching-character display provided editing capabilities only to the line currently being composed. The next incarnation of the Diatronic system was adopted in the high-quality ad setting trade in Europe. Its major advantage was control of typography thanks to continuously variable optics. Operator feedback was by means of a green-screen CRT display showing code mnemonics only, keyboard operation was innovative, utilizing many keys with a single legend, such as <job>, <begin>, <set>, <end>, etc. System operation was effected by a combination of keys, such as <job>. Beset by financial troubles, H. Berthold AG ceased operations in 1993, since 2008 Linotype started selling Berthold fonts through its website
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Graz University of Technology
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The Graz University of Technology is the second-largest university in Styria, Austria, after the University of Graz. Austria has three universities of technology – in Graz, in Leoben, and in Vienna, the Graz University of Technology was founded in 1811 by Archduke John of Austria. TU Graz is a public university, in the academic year 2015/16,18. 1% of the students were from abroad and 22. 8% of the students were female out of the 13,171 students enrolled at the TU Graz. The University has multiple campuses, as it is situated on three sites in the city, two in the centre of Graz and one in the southeast of the city. Alte Technik Neue Technik Inffeldgasse Campus buildings at the Graz University of Technology 1811, the first subjects taught were physics, chemistry, astronomy, mineralogy, botany, and technology. 1864, The Styrian government makes it a Technische Hochschule,1874, The Technische Hochschule is taken over by the state. 1888, Opening of the Main Building by Franz Joseph I of Austria,1901, The Technische Hochschule is granted the right to award doctorates. 1955, It is divided into three faculties,1975, It is divided into five faculties and renamed Technische Universität Graz, Erherzog-Johann Universität. 2004, The new Austrian university law is fully implemented – the university is divided into seven faculties, graduates receive the academic degrees BSc, MSc or Diplom-Ingenieur/-in. The doctoral programmes are offered as postgraduate programmes. 3m Income from third-party funds 2014, in the 2016 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, it can be found in the 351 –400 bracket. In the 2015 Shanghai ranking of universities in Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences, the Graz University of Technology is in the 151 –200 range
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Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
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The Austrian Decoration for Science and Art is a state decoration of the Republic of Austria and forms part of the national honours system of that country. The Austrian Decoration for Science and Art was established by the National Council as an honour for scientific or artistic achievements by Federal Law of May 1955. At the same time, the National Council also established the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, while not technically counted as lower classes of the Decoration for Science and Art, these crosses are nevertheless affiliated with it. The number of living recipients of the Decoration for Science and Art is limited to a maximum of 72 at any one time, in each of these two groups there are 18 Austrian cititzens and 18 foreign nationals. There are no limits on the number of recipients, there are no limits on the number of recipients. Schmidt, mathematician 2002, Arik Brauer, painter, poet and singer, Peter Wolf, Austrian-born producer and composer, Eugen Biser, religious philosopher, Horst Dreier, legal philosopher, Elliott H. C. W. D.2008, Arvo Pärt, Estonian composer 2007, Herbert W.1999, Peter Simonischek, actor, Erich Gruen,1998, Senta Berger, actress, Kiki Kogelnik, artist, Edith Neumann, microbiologist. 1997, Herbert Willi, composer, Lucian O. Meysels, author, Ernest Manheim, American sociologist of Hungarian origin 1996 and it allows the government to strip recipients of their honours if deemed unworthy. The best known example of such a forfeiture is of the Nazi physician Heinrich Gross, on August 5,2008 the Austrian Science Minister Johannes Hahn decided not to withdraw the award from inventor Johann Grander. - see also Wikipedia German version and see also Austrian ministry www. kurienwissenschaftundkunst, press Release, High Honors Award of the Republic of Austria
