1.
Salt print
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The salt print was the dominant paper-based photographic process for producing positive prints during the period from 1839 through approximately 1860. The salted paper technique was created in the mid-1830s by English scientist and this produced a tenacious coating of silver chloride in an especially light-sensitive chemical condition. The paper darkened where it was exposed to light, in 1839, washing with a solution of sodium thiosulfate was found to be the most effective way to make the results truly light-fast. The salt print process is often confused with Talbots slightly later calotype or talbotype process and this made calotype paper far more practical for use in a camera. Salted paper typically required at least an hour of exposure in the camera to yield a negative showing much more than objects silhouetted against the sky
2.
Calotype
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Calotype or talbotype is an early photographic process introduced in 1841 by William Henry Fox Talbot, using paper coated with silver iodide. The term calotype comes from the Greek καλός, beautiful, and τύπος, Talbot made his first successful camera photographs in 1835 using paper sensitised with silver chloride, which darkened in proportion to its exposure to light. This early photogenic drawing process was a process, i. e. the paper had to be exposed in the camera until the image was fully visible. A very long exposure—typically an hour or more—was required to produce an acceptable negative, the paper, shielded from further exposure to daylight, was then removed from the camera and the latent image was chemically developed into a fully visible image. This major improvement was introduced to the public as the calotype or talbotype process in 1841, the light-sensitive silver halide in calotype paper was silver iodide, created by the reaction of silver nitrate with potassium iodide. At this stage, the balance of the chemicals was such that the paper was practically insensitive to light, development was effected by brushing on more of the gallo-nitrate of silver solution while gently warming the paper. The calotype process produced a translucent original negative image from which multiple positives could be made by contact printing. This gave it an important advantage over the process, which produced an opaque original positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera. Although calotype paper could be used to make prints from calotype negatives, Talbots earlier silver chloride paper. It was simpler and less expensive, and Talbot himself considered the appearance of salted paper prints to be more attractive, the longer exposure required to make a salted print was at worst a minor inconvenience when making a contact print by sunlight. Calotype negatives were often impregnated with wax to improve their transparency, Talbot is sometimes erroneously credited with introducing the principle of latent image development. Despite their flexibility and the ease with which they could be made, in part, this was the result of Talbot having patented his processes, unlike Daguerre who had been granted a stipend by the French state in exchange for making his process publicly available. In addition, the calotype produced a clear image than the daguerreotype. Albumen print Ambrotype Collodion process Daguerreotype Tintype Aronold, H. J. P. William Henry Fox Talbot pioneer of photography, the Calotype familiarly explained, Photography, including the Daguerreotype, Calotype & Chrysotype. Buckland, G. Fox Talbot & the invention of photography, primitive Photography, A Guide to Making Cameras, Lenses, and Calotypes Lassam, and Seabourne. W H Fox Talbot, Scientist, photographer, classical scholar 1800 -1877, marshall, F. A. S. Photography, the importance of its applications in preserving pictorial records. Containing a practical description of the Talbotype process, basic Photography — a manual for the training of fashion photographers
3.
Calton Hill
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Calton Hill, is a hill in central Edinburgh, Scotland, situated beyond the east end of Princes Street and included in the citys UNESCO World Heritage Site. Views of, and from, the hill are used in photographs. In 1456, James II granted land to Edinburgh by charter wherein Calton Hill is referred to as Cragingalt, the name may have derived from Old Welsh or Old English meaning the place of the groves. The name Caldtoun remained general until about 1700, the names Calton and this was part of his policy of military preparedness that saw the Act of 1457 banning golf and football and ordering archery practice every Sunday. This natural amphitheatre was used for open-air theatre and saw performances of the early Scots play Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis by Sir David Lyndsay. In May 1518 the Carmelite Friars, were granted lands by charter from the city at Greenside, monasteries were suppressed following the Scottish Reformation of 1560, and this stood empty before conversion in 1591 into a hospital for lepers, founded by John Robertson, a city merchant. The monastery would appear to have located at the north-east end of Greenside Row. Ten skeletons found in July 2009 during roadworks to create a new tramway in Leith Walk are believed to have connected with the hospital. The Calton area was owned by the Logan family of Restalrig, the lands of Restalrig and Calton, otherwise known as Easter and Wester Restalrig, passed to the Elphinstone family. Sir James Elphinstone was made Lord Balmerino in 1604 and in 1673 the lands of Restalrig, in 1725, Calton was disjoined and sold to the royal burgh of Edinburgh. Calton remained a burgh of barony until it was incorporated into Edinburgh by the Municipality Extension Act of 1856. In 1631, the then Lord Balmerino granted a charter to The Society of the Incorporated Trades of Calton forming a society or corporation and this also gave the Society the exclusive right to trade within Calton and the right to tax others who wished to do so. This lack of restrictive practices allowed a thriving trade to develop, in the village, the street was variously known as St. Ninians Row or Low Calton. Many of the old buildings here were demolished at the time of the Waterloo Place and Regent Bridge development, the remaining old village houses of the Low Calton were removed in the 1970s. Calton was in South Leith Parish and Calton people went to church in Leith. The churchyard there was situated for burials from Calton and, in 1718. This became known as Old Calton Burial Ground, permission was granted for an access road, originally known as High Calton and now the street called Calton Hill, up the steep hill from the village to the burial ground. The group of 1760s houses near the top of this street are all that remain of the old village, the Old Calton Burial Ground was the first substantial development on Calton Hill and lies on the south-western side of the hill
4.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
5.
David Octavius Hill
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David Octavius Hill was a Scottish painter and arts activist. He formed Hill & Adamson studio with the engineer and photographer Robert Adamson between 1843 and 1847 to pioneer many aspects of photography in Scotland, David Octavius Hill was born in 1802 in Perth. His father, a bookseller and publisher, helped to re-establish Perth Academy, when his older brother Alexander joined the publishers Blackwoods in Edinburgh, David went there to study at the School of Design. He learned lithography and produced Sketches of Scenery in Perthshire which was published as an album of views, a year later Hill took on unpaid secretarial duties. In the 1830s he is listed as living at 24 Queen Street, charlotte married the author Walter Scott Dalgleish. Ann died on 5 October 1841, aged only 36 and she is buried with her family in Greyfriars Churchyard in Perth. Hill then spent some twenty years as a bachelor and he continued to produce illustrations and to paint landscapes on commission. During this perion he lived at 28 Inverleith Row in Edinburghs northern suburbs, Hill was present at the Disruption Assembly in 1843 when over 450 ministers walked out of the Church of Scotland assembly and down to another assembly hall to found the Free Church of Scotland. Brewster was himself experimenting with technology which only dated back to 1839. Hill and Adamson took a series of photographs of those who had been present, the 5 foot x 11 foot 4 inches painting was eventually completed in 1866. Hill moved to Calton Hill Stairs in 1850, adamsons studio, Rock House, on Calton Hill in Edinburgh became the centre of their photographic experiments. They photographed local and Fife landscapes and urban scenes, including images of the Scott Monument under construction in Edinburgh and they produced several groundbreaking action photographs of soldiers and - perhaps their most famous photograph - two priests walking side by side. Their partnership produced around 3,000 prints, but was cut short after four years due to the ill health and death of Adamson in 1848. He was badly affected by the death of his daughter and his work slowed, in 1866 he finished the Disruption picture which received wide acclaim, though many of the participants had died by then. The photographer F. C. Annan produced fine reduced facsimiles of the painting for sale throughout the Free Church, in 1869 illness forced him to give up his post as secretary to the R. S. A. and he died in May 1870. Hill is buried in Dean Cemetery, Edinburgh - one of the finest Victorian cemeteries in Scotland and he is portrayed in a bust sculpted by his second wife, Amelia, who is buried alongside him. Michaelson, Katherine, David Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson, catalogue for Scottish Arts Council exhibitions,1970, works in the National Galleries of Scotland Metropolitan Museum of Art - David Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson
6.
Robert Adamson (photographer)
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Robert Adamson was a Scottish chemist and pioneer photographer at Hill & Adamson. Adamson was born in St Andrews, one of ten children, and grew up in Burnside, the son of Alexander Adamson and he was educated at Madras School in St Andrews where he showed exceptional talents in mathematics and mechanics, twice winning the prize for mathematics. He became employed at a shop from a young age. Adamson was keen on becoming an engineer, but spouts of ill health led to him pursuing photography and he was taught calotype by his brother, John, and by the physicist David Brewster of the University of St Andrews in the late 1830s. As early as April 1839, Adamsons talents were recognized, and Fox Talbot, Adamsons brother John, a general practitioner, lecturer, and curator of the University Museum, produced the first calotype in Scotland in 1841. The young chemist, Adamson, established his studio at Rock House, Calton Hill Stairs in Edinburgh. Hill had desired to make portraits of the founders purely as reference material. This painting, however, would not be completed until 1866, the first studio specialising in calotypes in Edinburgh, Adamsons studio practice was said to have been confidential to the point of secrecy. Hill required calotypes from which he would paint, distinguished persons from many fields came to be photographed by the partners and within a few years they had taken the art scene by storm in Scotland. Together they made around 2500 portraits, some say 3000 or more and their prints were sold at the Princes Street gallery of Alexander Hill. After Hill and Adamson decided to publish their work, they purchased a camera in 1844. Their depictions, in soft reddish-brown or sepia, included local and Fife landscapes and urban scenes, including images of the Scott Monument and they produced several groundbreaking action photographs of soldiers and – perhaps their most famous photograph – two priests walking side by side. Their depictions of groups and children were unrivaled, as well as the great and the good, they photographed ordinary working folk, particularly the fishermen of Newhaven and their wives. Their social documentary series on Newhaven fishing families, which depicted living conditions, by mid-1847, the studio stopped production due to the failing health of Adamson. Thinking to recuperate amidst his family, Adamson returned to St. Andrews and he died unmarried on 14 January 1848, at the age of 26. In 1851, the works of Hill & Adamsons appeared at The Great Exhibition, Hill returned to painting, but it wasnt until 1872 that their work was rediscovered. In 1905,1912, and 1914, some of their works appeared in Camera Work, there were also several New York City exhibits at Alfred Stieglitzs 291 Art Gallery and at the National Arts Club
7.
David Brewster
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Sir David Brewster KH PRSE FRS FSA FSSA MICE was a Scottish physicist, mathematician, astronomer, inventor, writer, historian of science and university principal. Most noted for his contributions to the field of optics, he studied the double refraction by compression and discovered the photoelastic effect, for his work, William Whewell dubbed him the Father of modern experimental optics and the Johannes Kepler of Optics. He is well-recognized for being the inventor of the kaleidoscope and a version of the stereoscope applied to photography. He called it the lenticular stereoscope, which was the first portable and he also invented the binocular camera, two types of polarimeters, the polyzonal lens and the lighthouse illuminator. A prominent figure in the popularization of science, he is considered one of the founders of the British Association, in addition, he became the public face of higher education in Scotland, acting as Principal of the University of St Andrews and then Edinburgh between 1837 and 1868. Brewster also edited the 18-volume Edinburgh Encyclopædia, David Brewster was born at the Canongate in Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, to Margaret Key and James Brewster, the rector of Jedburgh Grammar School and a teacher of high reputation. David was the third of six children, two daughters and four sons, James, minister at Craig, Ferryden, David, George, minister at Scoonie, Fife, and Patrick, minister at the abbey church, Paisley. At the age of 12, David was sent to the University of Edinburgh and he was licensed a minister of the Church of Scotland, but only preached from the pulpit on one occasion. Though Brewster duly finished his studies and was licensed to preach. In 1799 fellow-student Henry Brougham persuaded him to study the diffraction of light, the results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the Philosophical Transactions of London and other scientific journals. A lesser-known classmate of his, Thomas Dick, also went on to become a popular astronomical writer, as early as 1807 the degree of LL. D. In 1821, he was made a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. As a reflection of this fame, Brewster portrait was printed in some cigar boxes. Brewster chose renowned achromatic lens developer Philip Carpenter as the manufacturer of the kaleidoscope in 1817. Although Brewster patented the kaleidoscope in 1817, a copy of the prototype was shown to London opticians, as a consequence, the kaleidoscope became produced in large numbers, but yielded no direct financial benefits to Brewster. It proved to be a success with two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes sold in London and Paris in just three months. A much more valuable and practical result of Brewsters optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse system, although Brewsters own discoveries were important, they were not his only service to science. He began writing in 1799 as a contributor to the Edinburgh Magazine
8.
Rembrandt
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Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was a Dutch draughtsman, painter, and printmaker. A prolific and versatile master across three media, he is considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art. Having achieved youthful success as a painter, Rembrandts later years were marked by personal tragedy. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, Rembrandts portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form a unique and intimate biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and his reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime, and never questioned since. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic whilst he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called one of the great prophets of civilization. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic and he was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do, his father was a miller, religion is a central theme in Rembrandts paintings and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Roman Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime. He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend, in 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens, as a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, Saskia came from a good family, her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandts relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and he also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck. In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat, in 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house in the upscale Breestraat, today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter, then a young upcoming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a cause for later financial difficulties. Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes, in 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month
9.
Disruption of 1843
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It came at the end of a bitter conflict within the established Church, and had huge effects not only within the Church, but also upon Scottish civic life. To some extent, this right was recognised by the Claim of Right of 1689 and this was ratified by the Act of Union in 1707. As early as 1712 this right of patronage had been restored in Scotland, for many years afterwards the General Assembly sought redress of the grievance, but the dominant moderate party within the church acted in such a way as to avoid any confrontation with the state. In 1834, however, the Evangelical party attained a majority in the General Assembly for the first time in a century, one of their actions was to pass the Veto Act, which gave parishioners the right to reject a minister nominated by their patron. The intention was to prevent the intrusion of ministers on unwilling parishioners, but the effect of the act was to polarise positions in the church, and set it on a collision course with the state. The first test came with the Auchterarder case of 1834, the parish of Auchterarder unanimously rejected the patrons nominee – and the Presbytery refused to proceed with his ordination and induction. This directly contradicted the Churchs Confession of Faith and its own self-understanding, as Burleigh puts it The notion of the Church as an independent community governed by its own officers and capable of entering into a compact with the state was repudiated. The question now moved from the issue of patronage, to the issue of the Churchs spiritual independence, an appeal to the House of Lords was rejected. The Presbytery of Dunkeld was summoned before the Court of Session for proceeding with an ordination despite a court interdict, in 1839, the General Assembly suspended seven ministers from Strathbogie for proceeding with an induction in Marnoch in defiance of Assembly orders. In 1841, the seven were deposed for acknowledging the superiority of the court in spiritual matters. In response to the threat, the Evangelicals presented to parliament a Claim, Declaration and this was rejected in January 1843, leading to the Disruption in May of that year. A further meeting was held on 23 May for the Signing of the Act of Separation by the ministers, eventually 474 of the about 1200 ministers adhered. In leaving the established Church, however, they did not reject the principle of establishment, as Chalmers declared Though we quit the Establishment, we go out on the Establishment principle, we quit a vitiated Establishment but would rejoice in returning to a pure one. We are advocates for a recognition of religion – and we are not voluntaries. Perhaps a third of the Evangelicals, the Middle party, remained within the established Church – wishing to preserve its unity, but for those who left, the issue was clear. It was not the democratising of the Church, but whether the Church was sovereign within its own domain, jesus Christ and not the King or Parliament was to be its sole head. The Disruption was basically a spiritual phenomenon – and for its proponents it stood in a line with the Reformation. Splitting the Church had major implications and those who left forfeited livings, manses and pulpits, and had, without the aid of the establishment, to found and finance a national Church from scratch
10.
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
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The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland is the sovereign and highest court of the Church of Scotland, and is thus the Churchs governing body. It generally meets each year and is chaired by a Moderator elected at the start of the Assembly, as a Presbyterian church, the Church of Scotland is governed by courts of elders rather than by bishops. At the bottom of the hierarchy of courts is the Kirk Session, the court of the parish, representatives of Kirk Sessions form the Presbytery, formerly there were also Synods at regional level, with authority over a group of presbyteries, but these have been abolished. At national level, the General Assembly stands at the top of this structure, the General Assembly usually meets for a week of intensive deliberation once a year in May. Ministers, elders and deacons are eligible to be Commissioners to the General Assembly, typically a parish minister would attend the Assembly once every four years, accompanied by an elder from that congregation. The Assembly also has representatives and a few officials. Prior to each Assembly, a minister or elder is nominated to serve as Moderator for that year, at the start of the Assembly the Moderator is duly elected, although the election is considered a formality. Meetings are usually held in the Assembly Hall on the Mound and this was built for the Free Church in the 19th century and became the Assembly Hall for the reunited Church of Scotland after the union of 1929. The Moderator presides from the Moderators chair, alongside him/her, the clerks to the Assembly and other officials are seated. The General Assembly can also meet elsewhere, a meeting of the Assembly was held in Glasgow to mark the citys status as European City of Culture. When the Scottish Parliament was instituted in 1999, the Assembly Hall was used by the Parliament until the new building at Holyrood was completed in 2004, the General Assembly has its own Standing Orders. One particular example is Standing Order 54, which any proposal requiring additional expenditure to have been first considered by the Assemblys Stewardship. The General Assembly has three functions, legislative, deliberative and judicial. The ongoing administration is delegated to councils and committees, which have to report annually to the Assembly, the Assembly decides the Law of the Church. Thus each Assembly may amend the Law of previous Assemblies, each Presbytery has to nominate Commissioners annually and these are chosen in rotation from the ministers and elders in the Presbyterys area. Elders who are commissioned need not be members of the Presbytery, in addition each Presbytery may appoint youth representatives who are young people in the congregations of the presbytery. Youth representatives are appointed by the Youth Assembly. Youth representatives have the status of corresponding members of the Assembly and those elders who have, in the past, served as Moderators of the General Assembly are generally commissioned by their presbyteries in addition to the normal number of commissioners
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