1.
Hinduism
–
Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
Hinduism
–
Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing
Vedanta and
Yoga in Europe and USA, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.
Hinduism
–
Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the
Hoysaleswara temple in
Halebidu, representing the
Trimurti:
Brahma,
Shiva and
Vishnu.
Hinduism
–
The
Rigveda is the first and most important Veda and is one of the oldest
religious texts. This Rigveda
manuscript is in
Devanagari.
Hinduism
–
A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A typical
Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic
fire ritual (shown).
2.
Hindu
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
Hindu
–
A Hindu wedding ritual in India.
Hindu
–
Hindu culture in Bali,
Indonesia. The Krishna-Arjuna sculpture inspired by the
Bhagavad Gita in
Denpasar (top), and Hindu dancers in traditional dress.
Hindu
Hindu
–
Hindus at
Har Ki Pauri,
Haridwar near river
Ganges in
Uttarakhand state of India.
3.
History of Hinduism
–
History of Hinduism denotes a wide variety of related Hindu denominations native to the Indian Subcontinent, most of whom live in modern-day Nepal and India. Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of Indian religions since Iron Age India and it has thus been called the oldest living religion in the world. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots, the history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development, with the first period being that of the historical Vedic religion dated from about 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is a point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions, and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c.200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical Golden Age of Hinduism (, in this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this period through the Bhakti movement. Hinduism under both Hindu and Islamic rulers from c.1200 to 1750 CE, saw the prominence of the Bhakti movement. The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by movements, such as Unitarianism. The Partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority. During the 20th century, due to the Indian diaspora, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the United States, Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions. After the Vedic period, between 500-200 BCE and c.300 CE, at the beginning of the Epic and Puranic c. q. Preclassical period, the Hindu synthesis emerged, which incorporated śramaṇic and Buddhist influences and this synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism. During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written, which were used to disseminate mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate, the resulting Puranic Hinduism differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharmaśāstras and the smritis. Hinduism co-existed for several centuries with Buddhism, to gain the upper hand at all levels in the 8th century. From northern India this Hindu synthesis, and its divisions, spread to southern India. This process of assimilation explains the diversity of local cultures in India half shrouded in a taddered cloak of conceptual unity. James Mill, in his The History of British India, distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations and this periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods, the division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth century, while the south was never completely conquered
History of Hinduism
–
The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal from
Indus Valley Civilization
History of Hinduism
–
Swastika Seals from the Indus Valley Civilization preserved at the
British Museum
History of Hinduism
–
Babur visits a Hindu temple.
History of Hinduism
–
Photograph of the Surya Temple, The most impressive and grandest ruins in Kashmir, at Marttand-Hardy Cole's Archaeological Survey of India Report 'Illustrations of Ancient Buildings in Kashmir.' (1869)
4.
Brahman
–
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient and it is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe. Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads. The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle, in the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality. Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman, personal, impersonal or Para Brahman, or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school. In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman in each being, Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self, puligandla states it as the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world, while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that cannot be exactly defined. In Vedic Sanskrit, Brahma, brahman from root bṛh-, means to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote. Brahmana, from stems brha + Sanskrit -man- from Indo-European root -men- which denotes some manifested form of power, inherent firmness. In later Sanskrit usage, Brahma, brahman means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, the concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta, this is discussed below. Brahm is another variant of Brahman, Brahmā, Brahman, means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i. e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa. These are distinct from, A brāhmaṇa, is a commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature. A brāhmaṇa, means priest, in this usage the word is rendered in English as Brahmin. This usage is found in the Atharva Veda. Ishvara, in Advaita, is identified as a partial manifestation of the ultimate reality
Brahman
–
Impact of a drop of water in water, a common analogy for Brahman and the
Ātman
Brahman
–
Swan (Hansa, हंस) is the symbol for Brahman-Atman in Hindu iconography.
Brahman
5.
God in Hinduism
–
In Hindu monotheism, the concept of God varies from one sect to another. Hinduism is not exclusively monotheistic, and has described as spanning a wide range of henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, atheism and nontheism etc. This non-dualism postulates the identity of the Self or Atman with the Whole or Brahman, forms of explicit monotheism find mention in the canonical Bhagavad Gita. Explicit monotheism in the form of emotional or ecstatic devotion to an external and personal deity became popular in South India in the early medieval period. Ecstatic devotion to Krishna, a form of Vishnu, gained popularity throughout India during the Middle Ages, ecstatic devotion to Goddess Durga became popular in some parts of India in the later medieval and early modern ages. Vaishnavism, particularly Krishnaism, Shaktism and some forms of Shaivism remain the most explicit forms of worship of a personal God within Hinduism. Other Hindus, such as many of those who practice Shaivism, tend to assume the existence of a singular God, rather they envisage God as an impersonal Absolute, who can be worshipped only in part in a human form. The term Ishvara may refer to any of the monotheistic or monistic conceptions within Hinduism, in Hinduism, Brahman is the all-pervading, supreme, universal Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe. Brahman is sometimes referred to as the Absolute or Godhead, Brahman is conceived as personal, impersonal and/or supreme depending on the philosophical school. The sages of the Upanishads teach that Brahman is the essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard. According to Advaita, a human being has realised Brahman as his or her own true self. The Isha Upanishad says, Auṃ – That supreme Brahman is infinite, if you subtract the infinite from the infinite, the infinite remains alone. The sages of the Upanishads made their pronouncements on the basis of experience as an essential component of their philosophical reflection. Several mahā-vākyas from the Upanisads indicate what the principle of Brahma is, In the Upanisads the sages teach that brahman is infinite Being, infinite Consciousness, and infinite Bliss. Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism posits that Brahman cannot be known by empirical means — that is to say, as an object of our consciousness — because Brahman is our very consciousness and being. Therefore, it may be said that moksha, yoga, samādhi, nirvana, etc. do not merely mean to know Brahman, but rather to realise ones brahman-hood, to actually realise that one is and always was Brahman. Indeed, closely related to the Self-concept of Brahman is the idea that it is synonymous with jiva-atma, or individual souls, according to Adi Shankara the nirguna brahman is non-different from the supreme personality, God, whatever qualities we attribute to the divine. By the power of Maya the supreme lord playfully creates multiple worlds and deludes all beings and this world is only relatively real and the real self is not affected by it
God in Hinduism
–
Bhagavan
Krishna with
Radharani
6.
Maya (illusion)
–
Maya, literally illusion or magic, has multiple meanings in Indian philosophies depending on the context. In ancient Vedic literature, Māyā literally implies extraordinary power and wisdom, in later Vedic texts and modern literature dedicated to Indian traditions, Māyā connotes a magic show, an illusion where things appear to be present but are not what they seem. In Buddhism, Maya is the name of Gautama Buddhas mother, in Hinduism, Maya is also an epithet for goddess, and the name of a manifestation of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, prosperity and love. Maya is also a name for girls, Māyā is a word with unclear etymology, probably comes from the root mā which means to measure. According to William Mahony, the root of the word may be man- or to think, in early Vedic usage, the term implies, states Mahony, the wondrous and mysterious power to turn an idea into a physical reality. Franklin Southworth states the origin is uncertain, and other possible roots of māyā include may- meaning mystify, confuse, intoxicate, delude, as well as māy- which means disappear. Jan Gonda considers the word related to mā, which means mother, as do Tracy Pintchman and Adrian Snodgrass, serving as an epithet for goddesses such as Lakshmi. Maya here implies art, is the power, writes Zimmer. A similar word is found in the Avestan māyā with the meaning of magic power. Words related to and containing Māyā, such as Mayava, occur many times in the Vedas and these words have various meanings, with interpretations that are contested, and some are names of deities that do not appear in texts of 1st millennium BCE and later. The use of word Māyā in Rig veda, in the later era context of magic, illusion, power, the hymn is a call to discern ones enemies, perceive artifice, and distinguish, using ones mind, between that which is perceived and that which is unperceived. Rig veda does not connote the word Māyā as always good or always bad, it is simply a form of technique, mental power and means. Rig veda uses the word in two contexts, implying there are two kinds of Māyā, divine Māyā and undivine Māyā, the former being the foundation of truth. Elsewhere in Vedic mythology, Indra uses Maya to conquer Vritra, varunas supernatural power is called Maya. Māyā, in such examples, connotes powerful magic, which both devas and asuras use against each other, in the Yajurveda, māyā is an unfathomable plan. In the Aitareya Brahmana Maya is also referred to as Dirghajihvi, hostile to gods and sacrifices. In hymns of 8.10.22, Virāj is used by Asuras who call her as Māyā, as follows, The contextual meaning of Maya in Atharvaveda is power of creation, not illusion. Gonda suggests the meaning of Maya in Vedic literature is, wisdom and power enabling its possessor, or being able itself, to create, devise, contrive, effect
Maya (illusion)
–
"Maya, the mirror of illusions", a painting by the American artist
Arthur Bowen Davies (1910).
Maya (illusion)
–
Markandeya sees Vishnu as an infant on a fig leaf in the deluge.
Maya (illusion)
–
Sikhism
7.
Karma
–
Karma means action, work or deed, it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual influence the future of that individual. Good intent and good deed contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deed contribute to bad karma, Karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Asian religions. In these schools, karma in the present affects ones future in the current life, as well as the nature, with origins in ancient India, karma is a key concept in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Taoism. Karma is the deed, work, action, or act, and it is also the object. Halbfass explains karma by contrasting it with another Sanskrit word kriya, a good action creates good karma, as does good intent. A bad action creates bad karma, as does bad intent, Karma, also refers to a conceptual principle that originated in India, often descriptively called the principle of karma, sometimes as the karma theory or the law of karma. In the context of theory, karma is complex and difficult to define, other Indologists include in the definition of karma theory that which explains the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. The law of karma operates independent of any deity or any process of divine judgment, Buddhism and Jainism have their own karma precepts. Thus karma has not one, but multiple definitions and different meanings and it is a concept whose meaning, importance and scope varies between Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and other traditions that originated in India, and various schools in each of these traditions. OFlaherty claims that, furthermore, there is a debate regarding whether karma is a theory, a model, a paradigm. Karma theory as a concept, across different Indian religious traditions, shares common themes, causality, ethicization. A common theme to theories of karma is its principle of causality, one of the earliest association of karma to causality occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of Hinduism. For example, at 4.4. 5-6, it states, The relationship of karma to causality is a motif in all schools of Hindu, Jain. Disinterested actions, or unintentional actions do not have the positive or negative karmic effect, as interested. Another causality characteristic, shared by Karmic theories, is that like deeds lead to like effects, thus good karma produces good effect on the actor, while bad karma produces bad effect. This effect may be material, moral or emotional — that is, the effect of karma need not be immediate, the effect of karma can be later in ones current life, and in some schools it extends to future lives. The consequence or effects of karma can be described in two forms, phalas and samskaras. A phala is the visible or invisible effect that is typically immediate or within the current life, the theory of karma is often presented in the context of samskaras
Karma
–
Nepalese temple prayer wheel
Karma
–
Endless knot
Karma
–
Lotus symbolically represents karma in many Asian traditions. A blooming lotus flower is one of the few flowers that simultaneously carries seeds inside itself while it blooms. Seed is symbolically seen as cause, the flower effect. Lotus is also considered as a reminder that one can grow, share good karma and remain unstained even in muddy circumstances.
Karma
–
The motifs in Indian temples often use interconnected shaped and knots symbolizing karma and the link between all lives. Above is an interconnected motif in a Jain temple.
8.
Dharma
–
Dharma is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions — Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. There is no single word translation for dharma in western languages, in Buddhism dharma means cosmic law and order, but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha. In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for phenomena, Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of tirthankara and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings. For Sikhs, the word means the path of righteousness. The Classical Sanskrit noun dharma is a derivation from the root dhṛ, the word dharma was already in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. The antonym of dharma is adharma, the Classical Sanskrit noun dharma is a derivation from the root dhṛ, which means to hold, maintain, keep, and takes a meaning of what is established or firm, and hence law. It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit n-stem dharman-, with a meaning of bearer, supporter. In the Rigveda, the word appears as an n-stem, dhárman-, figuratively, it means sustainer and supporter. It is semantically similar to the Greek Ethos, in Classical Sanskrit, the noun becomes thematic, dharma-. The word dharma derives from Proto-Indo-European root *dʰer-, which in Sanskrit is reflected as class-1 root √dhṛ, etymologically it is related to Avestan √dar-, Latin firmus, Lithuanian derė́ti, Lithuanian dermė and darna and Old Church Slavonic drъžati. Classical Sanskrit word dharmas would formally match with Latin o-stem firmus from Proto-Indo-European *dʰer-mo-s holding, were it not for its development from earlier Rigvedic n-stem. In Classical Sanskrit, and in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Atharvaveda, in Pāli, it is rendered dhamma. In some contemporary Indian languages and dialects it occurs as dharm. Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion and it has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It is difficult to provide a concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings. There is no equivalent single word translation for dharma in western languages, there have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word dharma into German, English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused difficulties for modern commentators and translators. Dharma root is dhri, which means ‘to support, hold and it is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant
Dharma
–
Rituals and rites of passage
Dharma
–
Sannyasa and
stages of life
Dharma
–
Above rock inscription is from Indian
Emperor Asoka, from 258 BC, and found in
Afghanistan. The inscription renders the word Dharma in Sanskrit as
Eusebeia in Greek, suggesting Dharma in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.
Dharma
–
Sikhism
9.
Artha
–
Artha is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy. The word artha literally translates as meaning, sense, goal, Artha is also a broader concept in the scriptures of Hinduism. As a concept, it has multiple meanings, all of which means of life. Artha applies to both an individual and a government, in an individuals context, artha includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of life in Hinduism. At government level, artha includes social, legal, economic, proper Arthashastra is considered an important and necessary objective of government. In Hindu traditions, Artha is connected to the three aspects and goals of human life - Dharma, Kama and Moksha. Together, these mutually non-exclusive four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha, Artha as a concept includes multiple meanings. It is difficult to capture the meaning of artha, or related terms of dharma, kama and moksha, john Lochtefeld describes artha as the means of life, and includes material prosperity. Karl Potter explains it as an attitude and capability that enables one to make a living, to remain alive and it includes economic prosperity, security and health of oneself and those one feels responsible for. Artha includes everything in ones environment that allows one to live and it is neither an end state nor an endless goal of aimlessly amassing money, claims Karl Potter, rather it is an attitude and necessary requirement of human life. John Koller takes a different viewpoint than Karl Potters interpretation, john Koller suggests artha is not an attitude, rather it is one of the necessities of human life. Artha, then, is best described as pursuit of activities and means necessary for a joyous, daya Krishna argues that artha, as well as the concept of Puruṣārthas, is a myth. The various schools and ancient Sanskrit texts provide no consensus opinion, notes Krishna, rather they present a debate, inconsistencies and conflicting verses are even present within the same script, such as the Manusmriti. Some of this, suggests Krishna, reflects differences in human needs, perhaps, conjectures Krishna, artha is just a subset of kama and karma. Vatsyayana in Kama Sutra defines artha as the acquisition of arts, land, cattle, wealth, equipages and he explains, artha is also protection of what is already acquired, and the increase of what is protected. Gavin Flood explains artha as worldly success without violating dharma, kama, Flood clarifies that artha in ancient Hindu literature, as well as purushartha, is better understood as a goal of Man. In other words, it is one of the four purposes of human life, the survival and the thriving of humans requires artha - that is, economic activity, wealth and its creation, worldly success, profit, political success and all that is necessary for human existence
Artha
–
Career, job
10.
Kama
–
Kama means desire, wish, longing in Indian literature. Kama is one of the four goals of life in Hindu traditions. It is considered an essential and healthy goal of life when pursued without sacrificing the other three goals, Dharma, Artha and Moksha. Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha, Kama means “desire, wish or longing”. In contemporary literature, kama refers usually to sexual desire, however, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature. The concept kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in Vedas, for example, Book 10 of Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. The Mahabharata, for example, provides one of the definitions of kama. Kama often implies the short form of the word kamana, Kama, however, is more than kamana. Vatsyayana, the author of Kamasutra, describes kama as happiness that is a manasa vyapara, experiencing harmonious music is kama, as is being inspired by natural beauty, the aesthetic appreciation of a work of art, and admiring with joy something created by another human being. Kama Sutra, in its discourse on kama, describes forms of art, dance. Karl Potter describes kama as an attitude and capacity, a little girl who hugs her teddy bear with a smile is experiencing kama, as are two lovers in embrace. During these experiences, the person connects and identifies the beloved as part of oneself and feels more complete, fulfilled and this, in the Indian perspective, is kāma. Hindery notes the inconsistent and diverse exposition of kama in various ancient texts of India, both Sita and Rama, frequently express their unwillingness and inability to live without the other. Gavin Flood explains kama as “love” without violating dharma, artha, in Hinduism, kama is regarded as one of the four proper and necessary goals of human life, the others being Dharma, Artha and Moksha. Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma precedes and is essential, if dharma is ignored, artha and kama lead to social chaos. Vatsyayana in Kama Sutra recognizes relative value of three goals as follows, artha precedes kama, while dharma precedes both kama and artha. Vatsyayana, in Chapter 2 of Kama sutra, presents a series of philosophical objections argued against kama, the pursuit of pleasure, claim objectors, encourages individuals to commit unrighteous deeds, bring distress, carelessness, levity and suffering later in life. These objections were then answered by Vatsyayana, with the declaration that kama is as necessary to human beings as food, just like good food is necessary for the well being of the body, good pleasure is necessary for healthy existence of a human being, suggests Vatsyayana
Kama
–
Sexual desire
Kama
–
Aesthetic pleasure from arts, nature
Kama
–
Kāma is celebrated in many Hindu temples, such as
Khajuraho and the
Konark Temple (above).
11.
Moksha
–
Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti, is a term in Hinduism and Hindu philosophy which refers to various forms of emancipation, liberation, and release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, in its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from ignorance, self-realization and self-knowledge. In Hindu traditions, moksha is a concept and included as one of the four aspects and goals of human life. Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism, the concept of moksha is found in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some schools of Indian religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with terms such as vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa. However, terms such as moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, the term nirvana is more common in Buddhism, while moksha is more prevalent in Hinduism. Moksha is derived from the root Sanskrit, मुच्, muc, in Vedas and early Upanishads, the word Sanskrit, मुच्यते, mucyate appears, which means to be set free or release - such as of a horse from its harness. The definition and meaning of moksha varies between schools of Indian religions. Moksha means freedom, liberation, from what and how is where the schools differ, Moksha is also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or saṃsāra. This liberation can be attained while one is on earth, or eschatologically, some Indian traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world. This liberation is a transformation that permits one to see the truth. For example, Vivekachudamani - an ancient book on moksha, explains one of many steps on the path to moksha, as. Samsara originated with religious movements in the first millennium BCE and these movements such as Buddhism, Jainism and new schools within Hinduism, saw human life as bondage to a repeated process of rebirth. This bondage to repeated rebirth and life, each subject to injury, disease. By release from this cycle, the involved in this cycle also ended. This release was called moksha, nirvana, kaivalya, mukti, in earliest Vedic literature, heaven and hell sufficed soteriological curiosities. The rebirth idea ultimately flowered into the ideas of saṃsāra, or transmigration - where one’s balance sheet of karma determined one’s rebirth, along with this idea of saṃsāra, the ancient scholars developed the concept of moksha, as a state that released a person from the saṃsāra cycle. Moksha release in eschatological sense in these ancient literature of Hinduism, suggests van Buitenen, comes from self-knowledge, the meaning of moksha in epistemological and psychological sense has been variously explained by scholars
Moksha
–
Two
Hindu sadhus near
Pashupatinath Temple in
Kathmandu,
Nepal. Usually sadhus live by themselves, on the fringes of society, and spend their days in their pursuit of moksha.
Moksha
–
Gajendra Moksha (pictured) is a symbolic tale in
Vaishnavism. The elephant Gajendra enters a lake where a crocodile Huhu clutches his leg and becomes his suffering. Despite his pain, he constantly remembers God Vishnu. God liberates him. Gajendra symbolically represents man, Huhu represents sins and the lake is saṃsāra.
Moksha
–
In myths and temples of India and
Bali Indonesia,
Sarasvati appears with swan. Sarasvati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning and creative arts, while swan is a symbol of spiritual perfection, liberation and moksa. The symbolism of Sarasvati and the swan is that knowledge and moksa go together.
Moksha
12.
Ethics in religion
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Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. A central aspect of ethics is the life, the life worth living or life that is simply satisfying. Most religions have a component, often derived from purported supernatural revelation or guidance. Some assert that religion is necessary to live ethically, blackburn states that there are those who would say that we can only flourish under the umbrella of a strong social order, cemented by common adherence to a particular religious tradition. Ethics in Buddhism are traditionally based on the perspective of the Buddha. Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition, according to traditional Buddhism, the foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is the Pancasila, no killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, or intoxicants. In becoming a Buddhist, or affirming ones commitment to Buddhism, Buddhist monks and nuns take hundreds more such vows. The sole reliance on traditional formulae or practices, however, can be questioned by Western Buddhists whose main concern is the solution of complex moral problems in the modern world. The Buddha provided some basic guidelines for behavior that are part of the Noble Eightfold Path. The initial percept is non-injury or non-violence to all living creatures from the lowest insect to humans and this precept defines a non-violent attitude toward every living thing. Theravada monk Bhikkhu Bodhi has observed, Buddhist ethics, as formulated in the five precepts, is charged with being entirely negative. T has to be pointed out that the five precepts, or even the longer codes of precepts promulgated by the Buddha, the precepts are only the most rudimentary code of moral training, but the Buddha also proposes other ethical codes inculcating definite positive virtues. The Mangala Sutta, for example, commends reverence, humility, contentment, gratitude, patience, generosity, other discourses prescribe numerous family, social, and political duties establishing the well being of society. And behind all these duties lie the four called the immeasurables — loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy. Christian ethics in general has tended to stress the need for love, grace, mercy, with divine assistance, the Christian is called to become increasingly virtuous in both thought and deed, see also the Evangelical counsels. Conversely, the Christian is also called to abstain from vice, Christian ethical principles are based on the teachings within the Bible. They begin with the notion of inherent sinfulness, which requires essential atonement, sin is estrangement from God which is the result of not doing Gods will. Gods will can be summed up by the precept, Love God with all heart, soul, mind, and strength
Ethics in religion
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Ahimsa - non-violence in action, words and thoughts - is considered the highest ethical value and virtue in Hinduism. Above: non-violence sculpture by
Carl Fredrik Reutersward in
Malmo, Sweden.
13.
Ahimsa
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Ahimsa means not to injure and compassion and refers to a key virtue in Indian religions. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, i. e. cause no injury, do no harm. Ahimsa is also referred to as nonviolence, and it applies to all living beings—including all animals—in ancient Indian religions, Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Ahimsa is a concept, inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy, therefore. Ahimsa has also related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of Ahimsa, most popularly, Mahatma Gandhi strongly believed in the principle of ahimsa. Ahimsas precept of cause no injury includes ones deeds, words, classical literature of Hinduism such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as modern scholars debate principles of Ahimsa when one is faced with war and situations requiring self-defence. The historic literature from India and modern discussions have contributed to theories of Just War, and theories of appropriate self-defence. The word Ahimsa—sometimes spelled as Ahinsa—is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, There is a debate on the origins of the word Ahimsa, and how its meaning evolved. Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the word may be han which means kill. Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the root word is hiṃs and the Sanskrit verb hinasti. Wackernagel-Debrunner concur with the latter explanation, ancient texts use ahimsa to mean non-injury, a broader concept than non-violence. Non-injury implies not killing others, as well as not hurting others mentally or verbally, in classical Sanskrit literature of Hinduism, another word Adrohi is sometimes used instead of Ahimsa, as one of the cardinal virtues necessary for moral life. One example is in Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.6.23, Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts. The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, the term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda, where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of non-injury, the Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads, Kaneda gives examples of the word Ahimsa in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as a concept that started evolving in the Vedas
Ahimsa
–
Mahavira, The Torch-bearer of Ahimsa
Ahimsa
–
Gandhi promoted the principle of Ahimsa very successfully by applying it to all spheres of life, particularly to politics.
14.
Asteya
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Asteya is the Sanskrit term for non-stealing. It is a virtue in Jainism and Hinduism, Asteya is considered as one of five yamas in the Yoga school of Hinduism, and as one of ten forms of temperance in Indian philosophy. The practice of asteya demands that one must not steal, nor have the intent to steal anothers property through action, speech and thoughts. Asteya is defined in Hindu scripts as the abstinence, in ones deeds or words or thoughts and it is a widely discussed virtue in ethical theories of Hinduism. For example, in the Yoga Sūtras, Asteya is listed as the third Yamas or virtue of self-restraint, along with Ahimsa, Satya, Brahmacharya and Aparigraha. Asteya is thus one of the five essential restraints in Hinduism and it is part of ethical theory in Hinduism. Sandilya Upanishad identifies ten yamas as a virtue in Yoga, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya, daya, arjava, kshama, dhrti, mitahara and saucha. It explains asteya as neither taking nor coveting anothers property through the actions of body, speech. Patañjali includes asteya in his five ethical precepts, the Epics too mention asteya as a virtue. For example, in Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, asteya is declared as part of dharma, in Chapter 259 of Moksha dharma parva, the Mahabharata explains asetya, along with satya, ahimsa and other virtues, are necessary for the conduct of the affairs of the world. These virtues are part of dharma, the Epic explains, during anarchy, one thief appropriates what belongs to others. The same thief, explains the Epic, is upset and demands justice when other thieves, however and this means the thief instinctively feels theft is wrong when he is the victim. Dharma cannot selectively apply or favor a few, it must apply to all, indignation for offended rights of property and the virtue of Asteya is thus a universal necessity of a good individual and good society, explains the Mahabharata. Numerous minor Sanskrit scholarly commentaries from ancient India also discuss Asetya, in the Saivite school, for example, Kaundinyas Pancartha Bhasya on Sanskrit scholar Lakulisa includes Asteya in its discussion and analysis of virtues. Hindu scriptures exist in many Indian languages, for example, Tirukkuṛaḷ written between 200 BC and 400 AD, and sometimes called the Tamil Veda, is one of the most cherished classics on Hinduism written in a South Indian language. It discusses the vice of stealing and fraud, dedicating Chapter 29 of Book 1 on Virtues to it, Tirukkuṛaḷ suggests fraud and stealing creates misery and poverty for everyone. Sivaya Subramuniyaswami translates Tirukkuṛaḷs first three verses in Chapter 23 as, He who wishes not to be scorned by others, the mere thought of sin is sin. Therefore, avoid even the thought of stealing from another, a fortune amassed by fraud may appear to prosper, but will all too soon perish altogether
Asteya
–
Hinduism
15.
Satya
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Satya is the Sanskrit word for truth. It also refers to a virtue in Indian religions, referring to being truthful in ones thought, speech, in Yoga, satya is one of five yamas, the virtuous restraint from falsehood and distortion of reality in ones expressions and actions. In the Vedas and later sutras, the meaning of the word satya evolves into a concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue. It means being true and consistent with reality in ones thought, speech, a related concept, sattva, also derived from sat, means true essence, nature, spiritual essence, character. Sattva is also a guṇa, a psychology concept particularly in the Samkhya school of philosophy, Satya is a central theme in the Vedas. It is equated with and considered necessary to the concept Ṛta – that which is joined, order, rule, nature, balance. Ṛta results from Satya in the Vedas, states Holdrege, as it regulates and enables the operation of the universe, Satya is considered essential, and without it, the universe and reality falls apart, cannot function. In Rigveda, opposed to rita and satya are anrita and asatya, Truth and truthfulness is considered as a form of reverence for the divine, while falsehood a form of sin. Satya includes action and speech that is factual, real, true, however, Satya isnt merely about ones past that is in context in the Vedas, it has ones current and ones future contexts as well. De Nicolás states, that in Rigveda, Satya is the modality of acting in the world of Sat, as the truth to be built, formed or established. Satya is a widely discussed concept in various Upanishads, including the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad where satya is called the means to Brahman, in hymn 1.4.14 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Satya is equated to Dharma, as Nothing is higher than the Law of Righteousness. The weak overcomes the stronger by the Law of Righteousness, truly that Law is the Truth, Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, He speaks Righteousness, and if he speaks Righteousness, they say, He speaks the Truth. Taittiriya Upanishads hymn 11.11 states, Speak the Satya, Truth is sought, praised in the hymns of Upanishads, held as one that ultimately, always prevails. The Mundaka Upanishad, for example, states in Book 3, Chapter 1, Sandilya Upanishad of Atharvanaveda, in Chapter 1, includes ten forbearances as virtues, in its exposition of Yoga. It defines Satya as the speaking of the truth that conduces to the well being of creatures, through the actions of ones mind, speech or body. Both these ideas are explained in early Upanishads, composed before 500 BC, in later Upanishads, the ideas evolve and transcend into satya as truth, and Brahman as the Being, Be-ness, real Self, the eternal. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata states, The righteous hold that forgiveness, truth, sincerity, Truth is the essence of the Vedas. The Epic repeatedly emphasizes that Satya is a virtue, because everything and everyone depends on
Satya
–
Satya is an important concept and virtue in Indian religions.
Rigveda, dated to be from the 2nd millennium BC, offers the earliest discussion of Satya. It can be seen, for example, in the fifth and sixth lines, in above Rigveda manuscript image.
16.
Temperance (virtue)
–
Temperance is defined as moderation or voluntary self-restraint. It is typically described in terms of what an individual voluntarily refrains from doing, Temperance has been described as a virtue by religious thinkers, philosophers, and more recently, psychologists, particularly in the positive psychology movement. In classical iconography, the virtue is depicted as a woman holding two vessels transferring water from one to another. It was one of the virtues in western thought found in Greek philosophy and Christianity. Temperance is one of the six virtues in the positive psychology classification, included with wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, themes of temperance can be seen across cultures and time, as illustrated here. Temperance is an part of the Eightfold Path. The third and fifth of the five precepts reflect values of temperance, misconduct concerning sense pleasures, the concept of dama in Hinduism is equivalent to temperance. It is sometimes written as damah, the word dama, and Sanskrit derivative words based on it, connote the concepts of self-control and self-restraint. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in verse 5.2.3, states that three characteristics of a good, developed person are self-restraint, compassion and love for all sentinent life, in Hinduism literature dedicated to yoga, self-restraint is expounded with the concept of yamas. According to ṣaṭsampad, self-restraint is one of the six cardinal virtues, the list of virtues that constitute a moral life evolve in vedas and upanishads. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added, some replaced, for example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a dharmic life, Dhriti, Kshama, Dama, Asteya, Saucha, Indriyani-graha, dhi, vidya, satyam, akrodha. In later verses this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, the shorter list of virtues became, Ahimsa, Dama, Asteya, Saucha, Satyam. This trend of evolving concepts continue in classical Sanskrit literature, Dama with Ahimsa, the scope of self-restraint includes ones action, the words one speaks or writes, and in ones thoughts. The necessity for temperance is explained as preventing bad karma which sooner or later haunts, the theological need for self-restraint is also explained as reigning in the damaging effect of ones action on others, as hurting another is hurting oneself because all life is one. The Greek definition of temperance translates to “moderation in action, thought, or feeling, Temperance is a major Athenian virtue, as advocated by Plato, self-restraint is one of his four core virtues of the ideal city, and echoed by Aristotle. According to Aristotle, “temperance is a mean with regard to pleasures”, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, temperance is prolific. The Old Testament emphasizes temperance as a virtue, as evidenced in both Solomons Book of Proverbs and in the Ten Commandments, with its admonitions against adultery. The New Testament does so as well, with forgiveness being central to theology, with regard to Christian theology, the word temperance is used by the King James Version in Galatians 5,23 for the Greek word ἐγκρατεία, which means self-control or discipline
Temperance (virtue)
–
Temperantia, by
Luca Giordano
Temperance (virtue)
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Representation of temperance (painted wood sculpture, dated 1683, which covers the shrine of the baptismal church Breton
Commana in France). Temperance foot backwards here a jug of wine, and presents a pitcher of water
Temperance (virtue)
–
Figure of Temperance from
Digges memorial by
Nicholas Stone, St. Mary's Church,
Chilham
17.
Compassion
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Compassion is the response to the suffering of others that motivates a desire to help them. Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to physical, spiritual. There is also an aspect of compassion which regards a quantitative dimension, such that individuals compassion is often given a property of depth, vigour, the etymology of compassion is Latin, meaning co-suffering. More involved than simple empathy, compassion commonly gives rise to a desire to alleviate anothers suffering. Compassion is often, though not inevitably, the key component in what manifests in the context as altruism. In ethical terms, the expressions down the ages of the so-called Golden Rule often embodies by implication the principle of compassion, the English noun compassion, meaning to love together with, comes from Latin. Ranked a great virtue in numerous philosophies, compassion is considered in almost all the religious traditions as among the greatest of virtues. Three theoretical perspectives of compassion have been proposed, which are contrasted by their predictions, Compassion as a synonym of empathic distress, which is characterized by the feeling of distress in connection with another persons suffering. This perspective of compassion is based on the finding that people sometimes emulate, Compassion is simply a variation of love or sadness, not a distinct emotion. From the perspective of psychology, Compassion can be viewed as a distinct emotional state, which can be differentiated from distress, sadness. Identifying with another person is a process for human beings. This process is related to compassion because sympathizing with others is possible with people from other countries, cultures, locations. A possible source of process of identifying with others comes from a universal category called Spirit. Toward the late 1970s, very different cultures and nations around the world took a turn to religious fundamentalism, the more one person knows about the human condition and the associated experiences is another route to identification. The importance of identifying with others for compassion is contrasted by the physical and psychological effects of abandonment. Compassion seems to be characteristic of democratic societies, the role of compassion as a factor contributing to individual or societal behavior has been the topic of continuous debate. In contrast to the process of identifying with other people, an absence of compassion may require ignoring or disapproving identification with other people or groups. This concept has been illustrated throughout history, The Holocaust, Genocide, European colonization of the Americas, the seemingly essential step in these atrocities could be the defining of the victims as not human or not us
Compassion
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Compassion personified: a statue at the
Epcot center in
Florida
Compassion
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Yoga aims at physical, mental and spiritual purification, with a compassionate mind and spirit being one of its most important goals. Various asanas and mudras are combined with meditation and self-reflection exercises to cultivate compassion.
Compassion
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Kannon, incarnation of the
Bodhisattva of Compassion, 16th century image from Japan
Compassion
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Avalokiteśvara looking out over the sea of suffering.
China,
Liao Dynasty.
18.
Tapas (Sanskrit)
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Tapas is a Sanskrit word that means to heat. It also connotes certain spiritual practices in Indian religions, the Tapas practice often involves solitude, and is a part of monastic practices that are believed to be a means to moksha. In certain contexts, the term means penance, pious activity, Tapas is based on the root Tap meaning to heat, to give out warmth, to shine, to burn. The term evolves to mean to suffer, to mortify the body, undergo penance in order to burn away past karma. The term Tapas means warmth, heat, fire, the meaning of the word evolves in ancient Indian literature. The earliest discussions of tapas, and compound words from the root tap relate to the necessary for biological birth. Some of the earliest reference of tapas, and compound words from the tap is found in many ancient Hindu scriptures, including the Ŗg Veda, Satapatha Brahmana. In these texts, tapas is described as the process led to the spiritual birth of ṛṣis - sages of spiritual insights. The Atharva Veda suggests all the gods were tapas-born, and all life was created from the suns tapas. In the Jāiminiya-Upanisad Brāhmaņa, life itself and creates progeny by tapas. Sanskrit tapasyā, literally produced by heat, refers to a personal endeavor of discipline, one who undertakes tapas is a Tapasvin. The fire deity of Hinduism, Agni, is central to many Hindu rituals such as yajna, Agni is considered an agent of heat, of sexual energy, of incubation, Agni is considered a great tapasvin. The word tapasvi refers to an ascetic or meditator, while tapasvinī to a female. Before he reached his enlightenment, the Buddha tried asceticism of the found in other Śramaṇa religions. Post-enlightenment, the Buddhist doctrines of the Middle Way and Noble Eightfold Path did not include ascetic practices, for this reason, the elimination of previous deeds through penance and the non-performaning of new deeds is tantamount to non-inflow in the future. From the non flow in the future, there is destruction of deeds, from the destruction of deeds, there is destruction of pain. From the destruction of pain, there is destruction of feeling, from the destruction of feeling, thus say, o monks, those free of bonds. These ascetic Tapas practices is also confirmed by Jainism texts such as Uttarajjhyayana, in the Mahayana tradition, asceticism with esoteric and mystical meanings became an accepted practice, such as in the Tendai and Shingon schools of Japanese Buddhism
Tapas (Sanskrit)
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Tapasya - Jain meditation in progress.
Tapas (Sanskrit)
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Agni, the fire deity, is common at Hindu rituals such as
weddings. Agni is considered a great tapasvin, and symbolizes the heat and patience necessary to recreate and incubate life.
Tapas (Sanskrit)
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Mahavira doing Tapa
19.
Bhakti yoga
–
Bhakti yoga is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on the cultivation of love and devotion toward God. It has been defined as a practice of devotion toward God, solely motivated by the sincere, loving desire to please God, the origins of Bhakti can be seen in the upanishads, specifically the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. The Bhagavad Gita, and the Puranas are important scriptures that expound the philosophy of bhakti yoga, Hindu movements in which bhakti yoga is the main practice are called bhakti movements – the major schools of which are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. Bhakti is a Sanskrit term that signifies an attitude of devotion to a personal God which is similar to a number of relationships between humans, such as between lovers or friends. The difference is that in bhakti, the relationship is between a soul and a supersoul, Bhakti is a yogic path, in that the devotees aim is of loving union with God. While the exact form through which God is worshiped and the nature of the union varies between different schools, the essence of the practice displays remarkable homogeneity. The Bhagavata Purana teaches nine primary forms of bhakti, as explained by Prahlada, śravaṇa, kīrtana, visnoh smaraṇa, pāda-sevana, arcana, vandana, dāsya, sākhya and these nine principles of devotional service are described as helping the devotee remain constantly in touch with God. The processes of japa and internal meditation on the aspirant devotees iṣṭa-devatā, the Indians spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated, Out of a number of practices which lead to the ultimate goal of humanity – God-Realisation – Bhakti Yoga is one of the most important. Almost the whole of humanity is concerned with Bhakti Yoga, which, in simple words, but it must be understood in all its true aspects, and not merely in a narrow and shallow sense, in which the term is commonly used and interpreted. The profound worship based on the ideals of philosophy and spirituality, prompted by divine love. Swami Sivananda wrote, “Bhakti softens the heart and removes jealousy, hatred, lust, anger, egoism, pride and it infuses joy, divine ecstasy, bliss, peace and knowledge. All cares, worries and anxieties, fears, mental torments, the devotee is freed from the Samsaric wheel of births and deaths. He attains the abode of everlasting peace, bliss and knowledge”. The ultimate goal in the practice of Bhakti yoga is to reach the state of rasa, the Bhagavad Gita is a cornerstone of Hindu bhakti theism, especially among Vaishnavists. The Bhagavad Gita stresses that love and innocent pure intentions are the most powerful forces in a devotees spiritual life. Engage your mind always in thinking of Me, become My devotee, offer obeisances to Me, being completely absorbed in Me, surely you will come to Me. One can understand Me as I am, as the Supreme Personality of Godhead, and when one is in full consciousness of Me by such devotion, he can enter into the kingdom of God. All these groups have great respect for the primary deities
Bhakti yoga
Bhakti yoga
–
A large statue in
Bangalore depicting Shiva meditating
20.
Jnana yoga
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Jñāna yoga or Jnanamarga refers to the path of knowledge, also known as the path of self realization in Hinduism. It is one of the three classical paths or types of yoga for the liberation of the Atman, the jnanamarga ideas are discussed in ancient and medieval era Hindu scriptures and texts such as the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. The jnana yoga is self-liberation through the pursuit of intellectual knowledge, the other two are karma yoga and bhakti yoga. The root jñā- is cognate to English know, as well as to the Greek γνώ-, Jnana is knowledge, and refers to any cognitive event that is correct and true over time. It particularly refers to knowledge inseparable from the experience of its object. In Hinduism, it is knowledge which gives Moksha, or spiritual release while alive or after death and this explanation in found in the ancient Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. Jñāna yoga is the path towards attaining jnana and it is one of the three classical types of yoga mentioned in Hindu philosophies, the other two being karma yoga and bhakti. In modern classifications, classical yoga, being called Raja yoga, is mentioned as a fourth one, of the three different paths to liberation, jnana marga and karma marga are the more ancient, traceable to Vedic era literature. All three paths are available to any Hindu, chosen based on inclination, aptitude and personal preference, the classical yoga emphasizes the practice of dhyana, and this is a part of all three classical paths in Hinduism, including jñāna yoga. The path of knowledge is intended for those who prefer philosophical reflection and it requires study, in the Upanishads, jnana yoga aims at the realization of the oneness of the individual self and the ultimate Self. In the Bhagavad Gita, jnana yoga is also referred to as buddhi yoga, the text considers jnana marga as the most difficult, slow, confusing for those who prefer it because it deals with formless reality, the avyakta. It is the path that intellectually oriented people tend to prefer, the chapter 4 of the Bhagavad Gita is dedicated to the general exposition of jnana yoga, while chapters 7 and 16 discuss its theological and axiological aspects. Krishna says that jñāna is the purest, and a discovery of ones Atman, Truly, in time, he who is perfected in yoga finds that in his own Atman. Classical Advaita Vedanta emphasises the path of Jnana Yoga to attain moksha, dispassion of fruits — The dispassionate indifference to the fruits, to enjoyments of objects or to the other worlds after rebirth. Manana refers to thinking on these discussions and contemplating over the ideas based on svadhyaya. Nididhyāsana refers to meditation, realization and consequent conviction of the truths, non-duality, both the theistic and monistic streams of Shaivism include jnana yoga ideas, along with those related to karma yoga, and in the case of Saiva Siddhanta ideas related to bhakti yoga. The Shaivism traditions do not consider necessary for practicing jnana yoga. Spirituality can be pursued along with life, according to Shaiva traditions
Jnana yoga
–
Adi Shankara with Disciples, by
Raja Ravi Varma (1904), propounding knowledge of absolute as of primary importance
Jnana yoga
21.
Karma yoga
–
Karma yoga, or the Yoga of action is a form of yoga based on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred Sanskrit scripture of Hinduism. Of the three paths to realization, karma yoga is the process of achieving perfection in selfless action, Karma Yoga is primarily the practice of selfless service to humanity whereby a spiritual seeker attempts to give their actions selflessly without hoping for merit, fame or glory. Practicing Karma Yoga eventually takes the seeker to the point of mental purification, oneness with humanity and inner peace by continually offering action selflessly to God, ultimately Karma Yoga practise brings true Knowledge of the Self and prepares one to be receptive to the divine light of God. The Practicing of the service in Karma Yoga is believed to lead with its purification of the mind and heart. In this practice, one is seen as being used as an instrument in the hands of God without expectation of reward in return, the Bhagavad Gita gives a summary of the karma yoga process. Their conversation is prompted by Arjuna as he is engulfed by sorrow and misgivings regarding the battle in which he has friends. In reply, Krishna then elucidates upon a number of philosophical yoga systems, one acts without being attached to the results of ones deeds. Simply put, one does not get involved in the action being performed, becoming overly excited. The result may be negative or positive, Geeta also talks about Meta-Karma Yoga. I. e. not getting irritated, annoyed or unhappy when one gets attached to the result even after trying to practice Karma Yoga, Krishna explains that work done without selfish expectations purifies ones mind and gradually makes an individual fit to see the value of reason. Another important quotation from the Bhagavad Gita which elucidates karma yoga is योगः कर्मसु कौशलं॥, any conscious action is motivated by some expectation about the outcome, yet one is to be careful to not let this expectation be selfish in a certain sense. This is accomplished by surrendering ownership of action to Krishna and this surrender is called sattvika tyaga. The Shrivaishnava tradition formalizes this by recommending the chanting of a prior to the performance of any such significant karma. This shloka, with its meaning is given below, bhagavan eva svaniyamya sva-sheSha-bhUtena maya sva-ArAdhana-eka-prayojanAya idam <name of the karma> svasmai svaprItyai svayam eva karayati. This translates to, The auspicious deity, exerting control on himself, using me as an instrument, himself effects <name of the karma>, the same shloka may be repeated after the performance of the action, except one replaces karayati to karayitavAn to indicate past tense. The common refrain सर्वं श्री-कॄष्णार्पणमस्तु॥ is used for the same effect, as with a number of other philosophies in Hinduism, karma yoga is based on a general understanding of karma and reincarnation. It is believed that a man is born with certain tendencies and this process continues until the individual attains a zero balance, where in one achieves liberation. This liberation is called Moksha which is achieved if the Hindu breaks the cycle of Samsara and it can be achieved through Jnana Yoga
Karma yoga
Karma yoga
–
Bronze statue representing the
discourse of Krishna and Arjuna, in
Kurukshetra
22.
Samkhya
–
Samkhya or Sankhya is one of the six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy. It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepts three of six pramanas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These include pratyakṣa, anumāṇa and śabda, sometimes described as one of the rationalist school of Indian philosophy, this ancient schools reliance on reason was neither exclusive nor strong. Sāmkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities, puruṣa and prakṛti, Jiva is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi, during the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called liberation, or kaivalya, the existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya philosophers. Sāṃkhya denies the final cause of Ishvara, while the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars. A key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a personal, yet essentially inactive, Samkhya is known for its theory of guṇas. Everything, all forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three guṇas, but in different proportions. The interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of nature, the Samkhya theory of guṇas was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian philosophies, including Buddhism. Samkhyas philosophical treatises also influenced the development of theories of Hindu ethics. In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya refers to the school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration. The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numbers, some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins. For the Sankhya philosophy is, in its essence, not only atheistic, dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex. Some scholars disagreed with this view, here – in Kaushitaki Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad – the germ are to be found two of the main ideas of classical Samkhya. More recent scholarship offers another perspective, Ruzsa in 2006, for example, states, Sāṅkhya has a very long history. Its roots go deeper than textual traditions allow us to see, the ancient Buddhist Aśvaghoṣa describes Arāḍa Kālāma, the teacher of the young Buddha as following an archaic form of Sāṅkhya. Anthony Warder in 2009, summarizes that Samkhya and Mīmāṃsā schools appear to have been established before Sramana traditions in India, speculations in the direction of the Samkhya can be found in the early Upanishads
Samkhya
–
King Amsuman and the yogic sage
Kapila.
Samkhya
–
Elements in Samkhya philosophy
23.
Yoga (philosophy)
–
Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism. Ancient, medieval and most modern literature often refers to the Yoga school of Hinduism simply as Yoga and it is closely related to the Samkhya school of Hinduism. The Yoga schools systematic studies to better oneself physically, mentally and spiritually has influenced all schools of Indian philosophy. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a key text of the Yoga school of Hinduism, the epistemology of the Yoga school of Hinduism, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six Pramanas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge. These include Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa and Sabda, the metaphysics of Yoga is built on the same dualist foundation as the Samkhya school. The universe is conceptualized as composed of two realities in the Samhkya-Yoga schools, Puruṣa and prakriti, jiva is considered as a state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, the end of this bondage is called liberation, or moksha, by both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism. The ethical theory of the Yoga school is based on Yamas and Niyama, the Yoga school of Hinduism differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of a personal, yet essentially inactive, deity or personal god. Advaita Vedanta, and other schools of Hinduism, accept, adopt and build many of the teachings. The origins of the Yoga school of Hinduism are unclear, some of its earliest discussions are found in 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad. The root of Yoga is found in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically control their minds and their intelligence. Rigveda, however, does not describe Yoga philosophy with the meaning or context as in medieval or modern times. Early references to practices that became part of Yoga school of Hinduism, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Gavin Flood translates it as. having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self, the practice of pranayama is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and the practice of pratyahara is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad. The Katha Upanishad, dated to be from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, in verses 2.6.6 through 2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge and it influenced and was influenced by other schools and Indian philosophies. Patanjalis Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions, the third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection. The systematic collection of ideas of the Yoga school of Hinduism is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the Yoga school of Hinduism has been included as one of the six orthodox schools in medieval era Indian texts. The other schools are Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy is most closely related to the Samkhya school
Yoga (philosophy)
–
A statue of a man in yoga posture (Kashmir,
India).
24.
Nyaya
–
Nyāya, literally means rules, method or judgment. It is also the name of one of the six schools of Hinduism. This schools most significant contributions to Indian philosophy was systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, Nyaya schools epistemology accepts four out of six Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Upamāṇa and Śabda. In its metaphysics, Nyaya school is closer to Vaisheshika school of Hinduism than others and it holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge. Moksha, it states, is gained through right knowledge and this premise led Nyaya to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyyayikas, it includes delusion, correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming ones delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality. Naiyyayika scholars approached philosophy as a form of realism, stating that anything that really exists is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding is different than simple, reflexive cognition, an influential collection of texts on logic and reason is the Nyayasutras, attributed to Aksapada Gautama, variously estimated to have been composed between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE. Nyaya is a Sanskrit word which means method, rule, specially a collection of general or universal rules, in some contexts, it means model, axiom, plan, legal proceeding, judicial sentence, or judgment. In the theory of logic, and Indian texts discussing it, in philosophical context, Nyaya encompasses propriety, logic and method. Nyaya is related to other concepts and words used in Indian philosophies, Hetu-vidya, Anviksiki, Pramana-sastra, Tattva-sastra, Tarka-vidya, Vadartha. Some of these subsume or deploy the tools of Nyaya, the historical development of Nyaya school is unclear, although Nasadiya hymns of Book 10 Chapter 129 of Rigveda recite its spiritual questions in logical propositions. In early centuries BCE, states Clooney, the early Nyaya scholars began compiling the science of rational, coherent inquiry, by 2nd century CE, Aksapada Gautama had composed Nyayasutras, a foundational text for Nyaya school, that primarily discusses logic, methodology and epistemology. The Nyaya scholars that followed refined it, expanded it, later Nyaya scholars, such as Udayana, examined various arguments on theism and attempted to prove existence of God. Other Nyaya scholars offered arguments to disprove the existence of God, the Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padarthas or categories and includes all six categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya. These sixteen categories are pramāṇa, prameya, saṁśaya, prayojana, dṛṣṭānta, siddhānta, avayava, tarka, nirṇaya, vāda, jalpa, vitaṇḍā, hetvābhāsa, chala, jāti and nigrahasthāna. The Nyaya school of Hinduism developed and refined many treatises on epistemology that widely influenced other schools of Hinduism, Nyaya treated it as theory of knowledge, and its scholars developed it as Pramana-sastras. Pramana, a Sanskrit word, literally is means of knowledge and it encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge
Nyaya
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
25.
Vedanta
–
Vedanta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It represents the divergent philosophical views of more than 10 schools—all developed on the basis of a textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi. The Prasthanatrayi is a term for the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras. Vedanta does not stand for one comprehensive or unifying doctrine, over time, Vedanta adopted ideas from other orthodox schools like Yoga and Nyaya, and, through this syncretism, became the most prominent school of Hinduism. Many extant forms of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism have been shaped and influenced by the doctrines of different schools of Vedanta. The word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads, Vedanta was concerned with the jñānakāṇḍa or Vedic knowledge part called the Upanishads. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the philosophical traditions based on to the Prasthanatrayi. The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses and these mark the culmination of Vedic thought. These were taught and debated last, in the Brahmacharya stage, Vedanta is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, the latter enquiry or higher enquiry, and is contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the karmakāṇḍa or rituals part in the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the Prasthanatrayi, literally, the Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna, considered the Sruti foundation of Vedanta. The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasthana / Yukti prasthana, considered the foundation of Vedanta. The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasthāna, considered the Smriti foundation of Vedanta, the Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the teaching of the Upanishads necessitated the systematization of these teachings and this was likely done in many ways in ancient India, but the only surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. The Bhagavad Gita, due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, the Upanishads do not present a rigorous philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical exegesis, varying interpretations of the Upanishads and their synthesis, the Brahma Sutras, led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time of which three, four, five or six are prominent. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a rather than a school of Vedanta
Vedanta
–
Vallabhacharya
Vedanta
–
Shankaracharya
26.
Advaita Vedanta
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Advaita Vedanta is a school of Hindu philosophy and religious practice, and one of the classic Indian paths to spiritual realization. The term Advaita refers to its idea that the soul is the same as the highest metaphysical Reality, Advaita Vedanta traces its roots in the oldest Upanishads. It relies on three textual sources called the Prasthanatrayi and it gives a unifying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. Advaita Vedanta is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta, which is one of the six orthodox Hindu philosophies, though its roots trace back to the 1st millennium BCE, the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedanta is considered by the tradition to be 8th century scholar Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta emphasizes Jivanmukti, the idea that moksha is achievable in this life in contrast to Indian philosophies that emphasize Videhamukti, Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most influential schools of classical Indian thought. Many scholars describe it as a form of monism, others describe the Advaita philosophy as non-dualistic, beyond Hinduism, Advaita Vedanta interacted and developed with the other traditions of India such as Jainism and Buddhism. Advaita Vedanta texts espouse a spectrum of views from idealism, including illusionism, in modern times, its views appear in various Neo-Vedanta movements. It has been termed as the example of Hindu spirituality. The Advaita Vedanta school has referred to historically by various names, such as Advaita-vada, Abheda-darshana, Dvaita-vada-pratisedha. According to Richard King, a professor of Buddhist and Asian studies, traditional Advaita Vedanta centers on the study of the sruti especially the Principal Upanishads, along with the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Within the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism are many sub-schools, of which Advaita is one, unlike Buddhism, but like Jainism, all Vedanta schools consider the existence of Atman as self evident. The Vedanta tradition also posits the concept of Brahman as the eternal, the sub-schools of Vedanta disagree on the relation between Atman and Brahman. The Advaita darsana considers them to be identical, Advaita Vedanta believes that the knowledge of ones true self or Atman is liberating. Correct knowledge, which destroys avidya, psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman, is obtained through three stages of practice, sravana, manana and nididhyasana, the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism rejects the dualism of Samkhya. Advaita, like all Vedanta schools, states that Brahman is both the efficient and the cause, that from which the origination, subsistence. What created all existence is also present in and reflected in all beings and inert matter and this Brahman it postulates is sat-cit-ananda. Second, how did cit Brahman create material world, third, if ananda Brahman is pure bliss, why did the empirical world of sufferings arise. These are the questions that Advaita Vedanta thinkers have historically attempted to answer, Advaita establishes its truths, in part, from the oldest Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita and numerous other Hindu texts
Advaita Vedanta
–
Statue of
Gaudapada, the grand guru of
Adi Shankara and the first historical proponent of Advaita Vedanta, also believed to be the founder of
Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
Advaita Vedanta
–
Adi Shankara with Disciples, by
Raja Ravi Varma (1904)
Advaita Vedanta
–
(Vidyashankara temple) at
Sringeri Sharada Peetham,
Shringeri
27.
Vishishtadvaita
–
Vishishtadvaita, the philosophy of the Sri Sampradaya, is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas, primarily the word Vedanta stood for Upanishads, afterwords, its denotation widened to include all thoughts developed out of the Upanishads. VishishtAdvaita is a school of Vedanta philosophy. It is non-dualism of the whole, in which Brahman alone exists. It can be described as qualified monism or qualified non-dualism or attributive monism and it is a school of Vedanta philosophy which believes in all diversity subsuming to an underlying unity. Vedanta Desika defines Vishishtadvaita using the statement, Asesha Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva Tatvam, Brahman, the Vishishtadvaitic thought is considered to have existed for a long time, and it is surmised that the earliest works are no longer available. The names of the earliest of these philosophers is only known through Ramanujas Veda artha Sangraha, in the line of the philosophers considered to have expounded the VisishtAdvaitic system, the prominent ones are Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka, Guhadeva, Kapardi and Bharuci. Besides these philosophers, Ramanujas teacher Yamunacharya is credited with laying the foundation for what culminates as the Sri Bhasya, Bodhayana is considered to have written an extensive vritti on the Purva and Uttara Mimamsas. Tanka is attributed with having written commentaries on Chandogya Upanishad and Brahma Sutras, nathamuni of the ninth century AD, the foremost Acharya of the Vaishnavas, collected the Tamil prabandhas, classified them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music and spread them everywhere. Ramanuja is the proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy. The philosophy itself is considered to have existed long before Ramanujas time, Ramanuja continues along the line of thought of his predecessors while expounding the knowledge expressed in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. Swaminarayan, the founder of Swaminarayan Hinduism, also propagated this philosophy, there are three key principles of Vishishtadvaita, Tattva, The knowledge of the 3 real entities namely, jiva, ajiva and Ishvara. Hita, The means of realization, as through bhakti and prapatti, purushartha, The goal to be attained, as moksha or liberation from bondage. Pramana refers to the knowledge, arrived at by thorough reasoning. Pramana forms one part of a triputi, perception refers to knowledge obtained by cognition of external objects based on sensory perception. In modern-day usage this will also include knowledge obtained by means of observation through scientific instruments since they are an extension of perception, anumana — the knowledge gained by means of inference. Inference refers to knowledge obtained by deductive reasoning and analysis, Shabda — the knowledge gained by means of shruti. Shruti refers to knowledge gained from scriptures - primarily the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, when an issue cannot be settled through sensory perception alone, it is settled based on inference, that is, whichever is the more logical argument
Vishishtadvaita
–
Sri Ramanujacharya, pioneer of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and the foremost Jeeyar of Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya.
Vishishtadvaita
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Swamy Sri Vedanta Desikan as in Kanchipuram
28.
Pasupata
–
Pashupata Shaivism is the oldest of the major Shaivite Hindu schools. The philosophy of the Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century A. D, the main texts of the school are Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā and Rāśikara-bhāshya. The date of foundation of the school is uncertain, however, the Pashupatas may have existed from the 1st century CE. Gavin Flood dates them to around the 2nd century CE and they are also referred to in the epic Mahabharata which is thought to have reached a final form by 4th century CE. The Pashupata movement was influential in South India in the period between the 7th and 14th century, but it no longer exists, Pashupata Shaivism was a devotional and ascetic movement. Pashu in Pashupati refers to the effect, the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior, whereas, Pati means the cause, the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler. To free themselves from worldy fetters Pashupatas are instructed to do a pashupata vrata, haradattacharya, in Gaṇakārikā, explains that a spiritual teacher is one who knows the eight pentads and the three functions. They recognize that those depending upon another and longing for independence not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pashupatas, spirits possess the attributes of the Supreme Deity when they become liberated from the germ of every pain, in this system the cessation of pain is of two kinds, impersonal and personal. Impersonal consists of the cessation of all pains, whereas the personal consists of development of visual and active powers like swiftness of thought. The Lord is held to be the possessor of infinite, visual, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā divides the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient is unconscious and thus dependent on the conscious, the insentient is further divided into effects and causes. The effects are of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, the causes are of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes are responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. The sentient spirit, which is subject to transmigration is of two kinds, the appetent and nonappetent, the appetent is the spirit associated with an organism and sense organs, whereas the non-appetent is the spirit without them. Union in the Pashupata system is a conjunction of the soul with God through the intellect and it is achieved in two ways, action and cessation of action. Union through action consists of pious muttering, meditation etc. cessation of suffering in other systems like Sankhya occurs through the mere termination of miseries, but in Pashupata school it is the attainment of supremacy or of divine perfections. In other philosophies, the world is that which has come into existence
Pasupata
–
History
29.
Shaivism
–
Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
Shaivism
–
The Development of the Saiva Traditions. Source: Gavinf Flood (1997), An Introduction to Hinduism, p.152.
Shaivism
–
1008 Lingas carved on a rock surface. Photograph is taken at the shore of the river
Tungabhadra,
Hampi, India
Shaivism
–
Shaivism Groupings. Source: Gavin Flood (2006), The Tantric Body, p.59.
Shaivism
–
History
30.
Hindu deities
–
Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. The terms and epithets for deity within the traditions of Hinduism vary. The deities of Hinduism have evolved from the Vedic era through the era, regionally within Nepal, India and in southeast Asia. The Hindu deity concept varies from a god as in Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, to 33 Vedic deities. Illustrations of major deities include Vishnu, Sri, Shiva, Parvati, Brahma and these deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of the same Ultimate Reality called Brahman. Major deities have inspired their own Hindu traditions, such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism, some Hindu traditions such as Smartism from mid 1st millennium CE, have included multiple major deities as henotheistic manifestations of Saguna Brahman, and as a means to realizing Nirguna Brahman. Hindu deities are represented with icons and anicons, in paintings and sculptures, called Murtis. Deities in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist, deities in Hinduism are referred to as Deva and Devi. The root of these terms mean heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus. In the earliest Vedic literature, all beings are called Asuras. By the late Vedic period, benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras, in post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful, Hindu deities are part of Indian mythology, both Devas and Devis feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati are gods and hence Devas, in the Puranas and the Itihasas with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. According to the Bhagavad Gita, all beings in the universe have both the qualities and the demonic qualities within each. The Epics and medieval era texts, particularly the Puranas, developed extensive and richly varying mythologies associated with Hindu deities, several of the Purana texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Other texts and commentators such as Adi Shankara explain that Hindu deities live or rule over the body as well in the temple of human body. Edelmann states that gods and anti-gods of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual concepts, for example, god Indra and the antigod Virocana question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self. Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon, in contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power
Hindu deities
Hindu deities
Hindu deities
Hindu deities
–
Bhagalamukhi
31.
Trimurti
–
When all three deities of the Trimurti incarnate into a single avatar, the avatar is known as Dattatreya. The Puranic period saw the rise of post-Vedic religion and the evolution of what R. C, one of the important traits of this period is a spirit of harmony between orthodox and sectarian forms. Regarding this spirit of reconciliation, R. C, majumdar says that, Its most notable expression is to be found in the theological conception of the Trimūrti, i. e. the manifestation of the supreme God in three forms of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva. Maurice Winternitz notes that there are few places in Indian literature where the Trimurti is mentioned. Historian A. L. Freda Matchett characterizes the Trimurti system as one of several frameworks into which various divine figures can be fitted at different levels. The concept of Trimurti is also present in the Maitri Upanishad, temples dedicated to various permutations of the Trimurti can be seen as early as the 8th century C. E. and there are even temples today in which the Trimurti are actively worshiped. Surya was also a member of the original Vedic Trimurti, which included Agni, some Sauras worship either Vishnu or Shiva as manifestations of Surya, others worship the Trimurti as a manifestation of Surya, and others exclusively worship Surya alone. Shaivites hold that, according to Shaiva Agama, Shiva performs five actions - creation, preservation, dissolution, concealing grace, respectively, these first three actions are associated with Shiva as Sadyojata, Vamadeva and Aghora. Thus, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra are not deities different from Shiva and this stands in contrast to the idea that Shiva is the God of destruction. To Shaivites, Shiva is God and performs all actions, of destruction is only. Ergo, the Trimurti is a form of Shiva Himself for Shaivas, Shaivites believe that Lord Shiva is the Supreme, who assumes various critical roles and assumes appropriate names and forms, and also stands transcending all these. A prominent visual example of a Shaivite version of the Trimurti is the Trimurti Sadashiva sculpture in the Elephanta Caves on Gharapuri Island and this feminine version of the Trimurti is called Tridevi. The masculine gods are then relegated as auxiliary agents of the supreme feminine Tridevi, smartism is a denomination of Hinduism that places emphasis on a group of five deities rather than just a single deity. Śankarācārya later added Kartikeya to these five, making six total and this reformed system was promoted by Śankarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the six major sects on an equal status. Despite the fact that the Vishnu Purana describes that Vishnu manifests as Brahma in order to create and as Rudra in order to destroy, for example, the Dvaita school holds Vishnu alone to be the supreme God, with Shiva subordinate, and interprets the Puranas differently. For example, Vijayindra Tîrtha, a Dvaita scholar interprets the 18 puranas differently and he interprets the Vaishnavite puranas as satvic and Shaivite puranas as tamasic and that only satvic puranas are considered to be authoritative. Moreover, Swaminarayan followed a Smarta approach by instructing his followers to venerate all five deities of the Panchayatana puja with equal reverence, Dattatreya Harihara Tridevi Trinity Triple deities Basham, A. L. The Wonder That Was India, A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before The Coming of the Muslims, gaṇeśa, Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings
Trimurti
–
Trimurti with consorts (Tridevi)
Trimurti
–
An art depiction of the Trimurti at the Hoysaleswara temple in
Halebidu.
Trimurti
–
Trimurti, painting from Andhra Pradesh
Trimurti
–
Vishnu with
Lakshmi, on the serpent
Ananta Shesha, as
Brahma emerges from a lotus risen from Vishnu's navel.
32.
Vishnu
–
Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
Vishnu
–
Four Armed Vishnu
Vishnu
–
A 4th–6th century CE Sardonyx seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper. The inscription in cursive
Bactrian reads: "
Mihira, Vishnu (right) and
Shiva ".
Vishnu
–
A 13th century
Cambodian statue of Vishnu
Vishnu
–
12th century stone sculpture of God Vishnu flanked by two apsaras one with a fan (left) and the other with
Tumburu (right).
33.
Shiva
–
ShiVa3D is a 3D game engine with a graphical editor designed to create applications and video games for desktop PCs, the web, game consoles and mobile devices. Games made with ShiVa can be exported to over 20 target platforms, numerous applications have been created using ShiVa, including the Prince of Persia 2 remake for Mobiles and Babel Rising published by Ubisoft. With ShiVa 2.0, the version of the Editor is currently under heavy development. ShiVa Editor 1. x runs exclusively on Windows XP/Vista/7/8/8.1, ShiVa 1. x games are being built by the ShiVa Authoring Tool, a free companion product to the Editor, which transforms game packages into native applications. Since not all platforms have SDKs for Windows, the Authoring Tool is available for Mac OS X as well as Windows, ShiVa Editor 2. x runs natively on Windows XP/Vista/7/8/8.1 x86/x8664, Mac OS X x8664 and Linux x8664. ShiVa is proprietary software and licensed under the ShiVa EULA. Several license packages are available, ShiVa Web Edition is free to download, exports are watermarked except for the ShiVa Web Player browser plugin, Adobe Flash and HTML5/WebGL. ShiVa Basic Edition was built for indie developers and small development studios, beta versions may be downloaded and tested. C++ Plugins can be designed and tested, but not exported
Shiva
34.
Devi
–
Devī is the Sanskrit word for goddess, the masculine form is Deva. Devi – the feminine form, and Deva – the masculine form, mean heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and are also gender specific terms for a deity in Hinduism. The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas, which were composed in the 2nd millennium BC, however, goddesses such as Saraswati and Usha have continued to be revered into the modern era. The divine feminine has the strongest presence as Devi in Hinduism, among major world religions, the goddess is viewed as central in Shakti and Saiva Hindu traditions. Devi and Deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature of the 2nd millennium BC, Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological root Dev- means a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus. The Devi Sukta of the Rigveda 10.125.1 through 10.125, however, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods. Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, while in the Smarta Tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman revered. She is the power of Shiva, and this theme is also found in the Tripura Upanishad, Bahvricha Upanishad. Devi asserts that she is creator of earth and heaven and resides there and her creation of sky as father, seas as mother is reflected as the Inner Supreme Self. Her creations are not prompted by any Higher being and she resides in all her creations and she is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, states June McDaniel is the usage of the yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, shakti. Among the major religions, the concept of goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine, has had the strongest presence since the ancient times. Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, fertility and devotion and she is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess. She is the goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses
Devi
–
12th-century Parvati sculpture
Devi
–
Durga (left) killing the demon
Mahishasura. In her most ferocious form, Durga metamorphoses into Kali (right).
Devi
–
Lakshmi
Devi
–
An image of goddess Saraswati
35.
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Deva means heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all beings are called Asuras. The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, in post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their powerful but malevolent half-brothers. Devas along with Asuras, Yakshas and Rakshasas are part of Indian mythology, Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. The concept also is used to refer to deity or god, the feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning female deity. The bode of the Devas is Dyuloka, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus god. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, the word Deva is also a proper name or part of name in Indian culture, where it refers to one who wishes to excel, overcome or the seeker of, master of or a best among-. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati are gods and hence Devas, saraswati and Ushas are some Devis or goddesses. Many of the deities taken together are worshiped as the Vishvedevas, max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every single of different devas as the only one, the supreme, the greatest.163.3, Trita art thou by interior operation. All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts, a much studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura, and contrasts it with Asura adevah. They are born from the father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor, the elder sons are envisioned as the Asuras. The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras, the Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 1.2, describes the battle between Devas and Asuras on various sensory powers, finally, the Deva-Asura battle targets the soul, where Asuras fail and Devas succeed, because soul-force is serene and inherently good, asserts Chandogya Upanishad
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Devas are benevolent supernatural beings in the Vedic era literature, with Indra (above) as their leader. The above gilt copper statue of Indra with inlaid semi-precious stones is from 16th-century
Nepal.
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Bas-relief of a Deva in
Angkor Wat,
Cambodia
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Shiva/Rudra has been a major Deva in Hinduism since the Vedic times. Above is a meditating statue of him in the
Himalayas with Hindus offering prayers.
Deva (Hinduism)
–
The concept of Hindu Devas migrated to East Asia in the 1st millennium, and was adopted by Japanese Buddhist schools as Jūni-ten. These included Indra (Taishaku-ten), Agni (Ka-ten), Yama (Emma-ten), Vayu (Fu-ten), Brahma (Bon-ten) and others. Above is a painting of the 12 Devas protecting Buddha by Tani Bunchō.
36.
Indra
–
Indra is a Vedic deity in Hinduism, a guardian deity in Buddhism, and the king of first heaven called Saudharmakalpa in Jainism. His mythologies and powers are similar, though not identical to those of the Indo-European deities such as Zeus, Jupiter, Perun, Thor, in the Vedas, Indra is the king of Svarga and the Devas. He is the god of lightning, thunder, storms, rains, Indra is the most referred to deity in the Rigveda. He is celebrated for his powers, and the one who kills the great symbolic evil named Vritra who obstructs human prosperity, Indra destroys Vritra and his deceiving forces, and thereby brings rains and the sunshine as the friend of mankind. In Buddhism, Indra has been a popular deity, referred by many names and he is featured in Buddhism somewhat differently than Hinduism, such as being shown as less war oriented and one paying homage to the Buddha. Indra rules over the much sought Devas realm of rebirth within the Samsara doctrine of Buddhist traditions, however, like the Hindu texts, Indra also is a subject of ridicule and reduced to a figurehead status in Buddhist texts, shown as a god that suffers rebirth and redeath. In the Jainism traditions, like Buddhism and Hinduism, Indra is the king of gods, Indras iconography shows him wielding a lightning thunderbolt known as Vajra, riding on a white elephant known as Airavata. In Buddhist iconography the elephant sometimes features three heads, while Jaina icons sometimes show the elephant with five heads, sometimes a single elephant is shown with four symbolic tusks. Indras heavenly home is on or near Mount Meru, the etymological roots of Indra are unclear, has been a contested topic among scholars since the 19th-century, one with many proposals. The significant proposals have been, root ind-u, or rain drop, based on the Vedic mythology that he conquered rain, root ind, or equipped with great power. Root idh or kindle, and ina or strong, root indha, or igniter, for his ability to bring light and power that ignites the vital forces of life. This is based on Shatapatha Brahmana, root idam-dra, or It seeing which is a reference to the one who first perceived the self-sufficient metaphysical Brahman. This is based on Aitareya Upanishad, roots in ancient Indo-European, Indo-Aryan deities. Later scholarship has linked Vedic Indra to the European Aynar, Abaza, Ubykh, colarusso suggests a Pontic origin and that both the phonology and the context of Indra in Indian religions is best explained from Indo-Aryan roots and a Circassian etymology. Indra is also called Śakra frequently in the Vedas and in Buddhism, Indra has many epithets in the Indian religions, notably Śakra, Vṛṣan, Vṛtrahan, Meghavāhana, Devarāja, Devendra, Surendra, Svargapati, Vajrapāṇī and Vāsava. Indra is of ancient but unclear origin, the similarities between Indra of Hindu mythologies and of Thor of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant states Max Muller. Michael Janda suggests that Indra has origins in the Indo-European *trigw-welumos smasher of the enclosure, brave and heroic Innara or Inra, which sounds like Indra, is mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni, a Hurrian-speaking people of Hittite region. Indra as a deity had a presence in northeastern Asia minor and this tablet mentions a treaty, but its significance is in four names it includes reverentially as Mi-it-ra, U-ru-w-na, In-da-ra and Na-sa-at-ti-ia
Indra
–
Indra on his mount Airavata
Indra
–
Indra as depicted in
Yakshagana, popular folk art of
Karnataka
Indra
–
Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the
Wat Arun ("Temple of Dawn") in
Bangkok,
Thailand - showing Indra on his three-headed elephant Erawan (
Airavata).
Indra
–
Krishna holding
Govardhan hill from
Smithsonian Institution ’s collections
37.
Agni
–
Agni means fire, and connotes the Vedic fire god of Hinduism. Agni also refers to one of the deities of direction. In the Vedic literature, Agni is a major and oft invoked god along with Indra, Agni is considered as the mouth of the gods and goddesses, and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a homa. He is conceptualized in ancient Hindu texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as sun and this triple presence connects him as the messenger between gods and human beings in the Vedic thought. Agni is a term that appears extensively in Buddhist texts, the Sanskrit word Agni means fire. In the early Vedic literature, Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god, one reflecting the primordial powers to consume, transform and convey. In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, the etymology of Agni is uncertain and contested. According to the 5th-century BCE Sanskrit text Nirukta-Nighantu in section 7, from root aj, which in Sanskrit means to drive and mirrors in Indo-European languages in the sense of nimble, agile. There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni, some tracing it to Indo-European mythologies, the origin myth found in many Indo-European cultures is one of a bird, or bird like being, that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind. Alternatively, this brings a elixir of immortality from heaven to earth. In either case, the bird returns everyday with sacrificial offerings for the gods, Agni is molded in similar mythical themes, in some hymns with the phrase the heavenly bird that flies. Agni originated from the forehead of Prajapati, assert these texts, with the creation of Agni came light, and with that were created day and night. Agni, state these Samhitas, is the same as the Brahman, the truth, Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the creator-maintainer-destroyer triad, then one of the trinities, as the one who ruled the earth. His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm, rain and war, while Surya ruled the sky and his position and importance evolves over time, in the creator-maintainer-destroyer aspects of existence in Hindu thought. In the Vedic pantheon, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most important position, Agni is prominent in the hymns of the Vedas and particularly the Brahmanas. In the Rig Veda there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni and his name or synonyms appear in nearly a third of 1,028 hymns in the Rigveda. The Rigveda opens with a hymn inviting Agni, who is addressed later in the hymn as the guardian of Ṛta. The Vedas describe the parents of Agni as two kindling fire sticks, whose loving action creates him, just born, he is poetically presented as a tender baby, who needs loving attention lest he vanishes
Agni
–
Agni, the fire god
Agni
–
Agni with his consort
Svaha.
Agni
–
A
Hindu Marriage Ceremony in progress.
Agni
–
Yajna being performed at Vishnu Yangna Kunda on the occasion of
Kumbhabhishekam of renovated Gunjanarsimhaswamy Temple at
Tirumakudal Narsipur.
38.
Prajapati
–
In Hinduism, Prajapati lord of people is a group of Hindu deities presiding over procreation and protection of life, and thereby a King of Kings. Prajapati is a Vedic deity presiding over procreation, and the protection of life and he was mentioned as Daksha in Hiranyagharbhasuktham as the creator deity emerging from supreme god vishvakarman above the other Vedic deities in RV10 and in Brahmana literature. According to later beliefs in the post-Vedic Era, the Prajapatis were elected democratically, at first Lord Bràhma was elected as Prajapati, Lord Vishnu was then elected democratically/unanimously as Prajapati by all the Rishis and subjects of that era and sat on the throne of Prajapati. Thereafter, Lord Shankar or Rudras were elected as Prajapatis, the throne of Prajapati succeeded further and there were about 26 Prajapatis, as mentioned in later puranas In later times, he is identified with the personifications of Time, Fire, the Sun, etc. In classical Puranic Hinduism, Hiranyagarbha is a name of Brahma, so called because he was born from a golden egg, Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 8.8.16 cites Vishvakarman as the leader of the prajāpatis, the sons of Lord Brahmā who generate progeny. The Prajapati community come brahmana warriors are seen as the descendants of Prajapati, Lord Brahmā, Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva, Prajapati also means protector & preserver. The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Book 2, Sabha Parva, Lokapala Sabhakhayana Parva, section, a possible connection between Prajapati and the Prōtogonos of the Greek Orphic tradition has been made by several scholars. It has been argued that the name of /PRA-JĀ-pati/ is etymologically equivalent to that of the god at Kolophōn
Prajapati
–
An attempt to depict the creative activities of Prajapati, a steel engraving from the 1850s
39.
Rudra
–
Rudra is a Rigvedic deity, associated with wind or storm, and the hunt. The name has been translated as the roarer, in the Rigveda, Rudra has been praised as the mightiest of the mighty. The Shri Rudram hymn from the Yajurveda is dedicated to Rudra, usage of the epithet came to exceed the original theonym by the post-Vedic period, and the name Rudra has been taken as a synonym for the god Shiva and the two names are used interchangeably. The etymology of the theonym Rudra is somewhat uncertain and it is usually derived from the root rud- which means to cry, howl. According to this etymology, the name Rudra has been translated as the roarer. An alternative etymology suggested by Prof. Pischel derives Rudra as the red one, the brilliant one from a lost root rud-, to be red or to be ruddy or respectively, according to Grassman, to shine. Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, i. e. of rudra nature, R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as the terrible in his glossary for the Shiva Sahasranama. The commentator Sāyaṇa suggests six possible derivations for rudra, however, another reference states that Sayana suggested ten derivations. The adjective shivam in the sense of propitious or kind is applied to the name Rudra in RV10.92.9, Rudra is called the archer and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages, the names Dhanvin and Bāṇahasta also refer to archery. In other contexts the word rudra can simply mean the number eleven, the word rudraksha, or eye of Rudra, is used as a name both for the berry of the Rudraksha tree, and a name for a string of the prayer beads made from those seeds. The earliest mentions of Rudra occur in the Rigveda, where three entire hymns are devoted to him, there are about seventy-five references to Rudra in the Rigveda overall. In the Rigveda Rudras role as a god is apparent in references to him as ghora. He is fierce like a wild beast. Chakravarti sums up the perception of Rudra by saying, Rudra is thus regarded with a kind of cringing fear, as a deity whose wrath is to be deprecated and whose favor curried. RV1.114 is an appeal to Rudra for mercy, where he is referred to as mighty Rudra, in RV7.46, Rudra is described as armed with a bow and fast-flying arrows. As quoted by R. G. Bhandarkar, the hymn says Rudra discharges brilliant shafts which run about the heaven and the earth, which may be a reference to lightning. Rudra was believed to cure diseases, and when people recovered from them or were free of them and he is asked not to afflict children with disease and to keep villages free of illness
Rudra
–
Rudra requesting Brahma to calm down
Rudra
–
Rudra, "a storm god and embodiment of wildness and unpredictable danger", from a 19th-century textbook on Hinduism
40.
Saraswati
–
Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning worshipped throughout Nepal and India. She is a part of the trinity of Saraswati, Lakshmi, all the three forms help the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva to create, maintain and regenerate-recycle the Universe respectively. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in the Rigveda and she has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic period through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami in her honour, the Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India, as well as some Buddhist sects. Saraswati who is revered as a goddess of knowledge, music and arts is found outside Nepal and India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali. It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati which means one with plenty of water, the word Saraswati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the Rigveda. In initial passages, the word refers to Sarasvati River and mentioned with other northwestern Indian rivers such as Drishadvati, Saraswati then connotes a river deity. In Book 2, Rigveda calls Saraswati as the best of mothers, of rivers, –Translated by John Muir In Vedic literature, Saraswati acquires the same significance for early Indians as that accredited to the river Ganges by their modern descendants. In hymns of Book 10 of Rigveda, she is declared to be the possessor of knowledge. In Upanishads and Dharma Sastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, virtuous emoluments, the meaning, Saraswati is known by many names in ancient Hindu literature. Some examples of synonyms for Saraswati include Brahmani, Brahmi, Bharadi, Vani and Vachi, Varnesvari, in Nepali language, her name is written Nepali, सरस्वती. In the Telugu, Sarasvati is also known as Chaduvula Thalli, in Konkani, she is referred to as Shārada, Veenapani, Pustaka dharini, Vidyadāyini. In Kannada, variants of her name include Sharade, Sharadamba, in Tamil, she is also known as Kalaimagal, Kalaivāni, Vāni, Bharathi. She is also addressed as Shāradā, Veenā pustaka dharani, Vākadevi, Vāni, Varadhanāyaki, in India she is locally spelled as Bengali, সরস্বতী, Saraswati. Malayalam, സരസ്വതി, Saraswati. and Tamil, சரஸ்வதி, Sarasvatī, outside Nepal and India, she is known in Burmese as Thurathadi or Tipitaka Medaw, in Chinese as Biàncáitiān, in Japanese as Benzaiten and in Thai as Suratsawadi or Saratsawadi. Saraswati is found in almost every major ancient and medieval Indian literature between 1000 BC to 1500 AD, in Hindu tradition, she has retained her significance as a goddess from the Vedic age up to the present day. In Shanti Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Saraswati is called the mother of the Vedas, in Book 2 of Taittiriya Brahmana, she is called the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music. Saraswati is the energy and power of Brahma
Saraswati
–
Saraswati by
Raja Ravi Varma
Saraswati
–
Saraswati idol carved of black stone from
Chalukya dynasty (12 century CE). Idol on display in
Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai.
Saraswati
–
Vajra Sarada,
Pala Period ca. 8th Century,
Nalanda Archaeological Museum,
Bihar.
Saraswati
–
Saraswati goddess is found in temples of Southeast Asia, islands of Indonesia and Japan. In
Japan, she is known as
Benzaiten (shown). She is depicted with a musical instrument in Japan, and is a deity of knowledge, music, and everything that flows.
41.
Varuna
–
Varuna is the Hindu god of water and the celestial ocean, as well as a god of law of the underwater world. His consort is the Hindu goddess Varuni, originally the chief god of the Vedic pantheon, Varuna was replaced by Indra and later faded away with the ascendancy of Shiva and Vishnu. Arjuna is the son of Indra/ Varuna in the great epic Mahabharata and it is believed that if we pray to him we would be protected from thunder, Varuna and Mitra are the gods of the societal affairs including the oath, and are often twinned Mitra-Varuna. Varuna is also twinned with Indra in the Rigveda, as Indra-Varuna, the Rigveda and Atharvaveda portrays Varuna as omniscient, catching liars in his snares. Both Mitra and Varuna are classified as Asuras in the Rigveda, Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats Vrtra. Varuna does not respond, and Rama arises on the fourth morning, with his bow and arrow, he angrily begins attacking the oceans with celestial weapons—burning up the waters and killing its life and creatures. The Vanaras are dazzled and fearful at witnessing the enraged Rama demolish the oceans, just as Rama invokes the brahmastra, considered the most powerful weapon capable of destroying all creation, Varuna arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, explaining that he himself was at a loss to answer Ramas question, begging him not to destroy the oceans with the missile, he suggests that Rama re-direct the weapon at a demonic race that lives in the heart of the ocean. Ramas arrows destroys the demons, and establishes a purer, liberated environment there, Varuna promises that he would keep the oceans still for all of Ramas army to pass, and Nala constructs a bridge across to Lanka. Rama justifies his angry assault on the oceans as he followed the process of petitioning and worshipping Varuna. Also unrelated to Vedic Varuna are Avestan Vourukasha and Varena, the former is the Avestas mythological sea that covers the earth, while Varena is a mythological four-cornered fourteenth region of the world. In the Buddhism of the Far East, Varuna is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, in Japan, Varuna had been called Suiten in Japanese Buddhism. Varuna joins these other eleven Devas of Buddhism, found in Japan and other parts of southeast Asia, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirrti, Vayu, Ishana, Kubera, Brahma, Prithvi, Surya, the meaning of suiten-gū is a shrine of Varuna. After Shinbutsu bunri the separation of Shinto deities from Buddhist deities, Ādityas Ahura Mazda Asura Guardians of the directions Hindu deities Mitra Paravar Rigvedic deities Shukra The king and the god Veles
Varuna
–
The God Varuna on his mount
makara, 1675-1700 Painted in: India, Rajasthan, Bundi placed in
LACMA museum
Varuna
–
Hindu God
Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding Varuna to part the seas and reveal
Kerala.
Varuna
–
Raja Ravi Varma Painting—'Rama Conquers Varuna'
Varuna
–
Jhulelal, an incarnation of Varuna is the chief deity worshipped by
Sindhi Hindus.
42.
Vayu
–
Vāyu is a primary Hindu deity, the lord of the winds, the father of Bhima and the spiritual father of Hanuman. He is also known as Vāta, Pavana, and sometimes Prāṇa, the word for air or wind is one of the classical elements in Hinduism. The Sanskrit word Vāta literally means blown, Vāyu blower, hence, the primary referent of the word is the deity of Life, who is sometimes for clarity referred to as Mukhya-Vāyu or Mukhya Prāna. Sometimes the word vāyu, which is generally used in the sense of the physical air or wind, is used as a synonym for prāna. Vāta, a name for Vāyu, is the root of the Sanskrit and Hindi term for atmosphere. Pavan is also a fairly common Hindu name, Pavana played an important role in Anjanas begetting Hanuman as her child so Hanuman is also called Pavanaputra son of Pavana and Vāyuputra. In the Mahabharata, Bhima was the son and an incarnation of Vāyu and he utilised his huge power and skill with the mace for supporting Dharma. In the hymns, Vayu is described as having exceptional beauty and moving noisily in his shining coach, a white banner is his main attribute. Like the other deities, he is a fighter and destroyer, powerful. In the Upanishads, there are numerous statements and illustrations of the greatness of Vāyu, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states that the gods who control bodily functions once engaged in a contest to determine who among them is the greatest. When a deity such as that of vision would leave a mans body, one by one the deities all took their turns leaving the body, but the man continued to live on, though successively impaired in various ways. This caused the other deities to realize that they can only when empowered by Vayu. In another episode, Vāyu is said to be the only deity not afflicted by demons of sin who were on the attack, the Chandogya Upanishad states that one cannot know Brahman except by knowing Vāyu as the udgitha. Mukhya-Vāyu also incarnated as Madhvacharya to teach worthy souls to worship the Supreme God Vishnu, the first Avatar of Vayu is considered to be Hanuman. His exploits are elucidated in Ramayana, the second Avatar of Vayu is Bheema, one of the Pandavas appearing in the epic, Mahabharata. The Third Avatar is traditionally ascribed to Madhvacharya, a 13th Century Indian philosopher, in the Buddhism of the Far East, Vayu is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, who are found in or around Buddhist shrines. In Japan, he has been called Fu-ten and he joins these other eleven Devas of Buddhism, found in Japan and other parts of southeast Asia, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirrti, Vayu, Ishana, Kubera, Varuna Brahma, Prithvi, Surya, Chandra. List of wind deities Vayu-Vata - in his Zoroastrian context Maruts, attendants of Indra, rudra, the Vedic wind or storm God
Vayu
–
Vayu, on his mount, the
gazelle symbolizing swiftness
43.
Durga
–
Durga, also known as Devi, Shakti and by numerous other names, is a principal and popular form of Hindu goddess. She is the goddess, whose mythology centers around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity. She is the form of the protective mother goddess, willing to unleash her anger against wrong. Durga is depicted in the Hindu pantheon as a woman riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon. She appears in Indian texts as the wife of god Shiva and she is a central deity in Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, where she is equated with the concept of ultimate reality called Brahman. Estimated to have been composed between 400-600 CE, this text is considered by Shakta Hindus to be as important scripture as the Bhagavad Gita. She has a significant following all over India and in Nepal, particularly in its states such as West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam. Durga is revered after spring and autumn harvests, specially during the festival of Navaratri, the word Durga literally means impassable, inaccessible, invincible, unassailable. It is related to the word Durg which means fortress, something difficult to access, according to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur and gam. According to Alain Daniélou, Durga means beyond reach. The word Durga, and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28,5.34,8.27,8.47,8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda. A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, while the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature. The word is found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata. These usages are in different contexts, for example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska. Durga as a goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed. There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and nine appellations, Skandamata, Kushmanda, Shailaputri, Kaalratri, Brahmacharini, Kaliputri, Chandraghanta and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names that are used to describe her is very popularly in use by eastern Hindus and is called Ashtottara Shatanamavali of Goddess Durga
Durga
–
Durgā
Durga
–
Durga on a lion
Durga
–
Durga idol in
Hiranandani Gardens.
Durga
–
A traditional Durga idol at a pandal in
Kolkata.
44.
Ganesha
–
Ganesha, also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists, although he is known by many attributes, Ganeshas elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences, as the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions, several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesha emerged as a deity in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, during the Gupta period. He was formally included among the five deities of Smartism in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity, the principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Brahma Purana and Brahmanda Purana are other two Puranic genre encyclopedic texts that deal with Ganesha, Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name, the name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, the term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name Lord of the Gaņas to mean Lord of Hosts or Lord of created categories, Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning group, and pati, meaning ruler or lord. Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha, Vinayaka, Vighnarāja, Dvaimātura, Gaṇādhipa, Ekadanta, Heramba, Lambodara, Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak, the names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles. A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai or Pillaiyar, a. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a child while pillaiyar means a noble child. He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify tooth or tusk, also elephant tooth or tusk. Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have meant the young of the elephant
Ganesha
–
Basohli miniature, circa 1730.
National Museum,
New Delhi.
Ganesha
–
Ganesha as 'Shri Mayureshwara' with consorts Buddhi and Siddhi,
Morgaon,
Maharashtra (the central shrine for the regional
Ashtavinayak complex)
Ganesha
–
A 13th-century statue of Ganesha,
Mysore District,
Karnataka
Ganesha
–
A typical four-armed form. Miniature of
Nurpur school (circa 1810)
45.
Hanuman
–
Hanuman is an ardent devotee of Rama. He is one of the figures in the Hindu epic Ramayana. As one of the Chiranjivi, he is mentioned in several other texts, including the Mahabharata. Hanuman participated in Ramas war against the demon king Ravana, several later texts also present him as an incarnation of Shiva. He is the son of Anjana and Kesari and is described as the son of the wind-god Pawan. The Sanskrit texts mention several legends about how Hanuman got his name, one legend is that Indra, the king of the gods, struck Hanumans jaw during his childhood. The child received his name from the Sanskrit words Hanu and -man, the name thus means one with prominent or disfigured jaw. Another theory says the name derives from the Sanskrit words Han and maana, some Jain texts mention that Hanuman spent his childhood on an island called Hanuruha, which is the origin of his name. According to another theory, the name Hanuman derives from the word for male monkey. Linguistic variations of Hanuman include Hanumat, Anuman, Hanumantha, Hanumanthudu, other names of Hanuman include, Anjaneya, Anjaniputra, Anjaneyar, Anjaneyudu, Anjanisuta all meaning the son of Anjana. Similar in meaning to - Vaanaraanaamadheesham, shreeraamadootam, the one who is the messenger of Rama. Atulita Bala Dhaamam, the one who is the repository of incomparable strength, hemshailaabha Deham, the one whose body resembles a golden mountain. Danujvana Krushanum, the one who is the destroyer of forces of demons, gyaaninaam Agraganyam, the one who is considered foremost among knowledgeable beings. Sakala Guna Nidhaanam, the one who is the repository of all the virtues, raghupati Priya Bhaktam, the one who is the dearest of all devotees to Rama. Sankata Mochana, the one who liberates from dangers In the 3rd chapter of Kishkindha Kaanda of Valmiki Ramayana, summarized as follows, Ablest sentence maker. The knower of all Vedas and Scriptures, scholar in nine schools of grammars. Possessing faultless speech and facial features Hanuman is mentioned in both the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, the word Vrsakapi or Vrishakapi, later used as an epithet for Hanuman, is mentioned in the Rigveda. Some writers, such as Nilakantha believe that the Vrishakapi of Rigveda alludes to Hanuman, however, other scholars believe that Hanuman is not mentioned in the Vedic mythology, the Vrsakapi of Rigveda refers to another deity or is a common name for the monkeys
Hanuman
–
Hanuman painted in Pahari Style
Hanuman
–
Indonesian Balinese wooden statue of Hanuman
Hanuman
–
Standing Hanuman,
Chola Dynasty, 11th century,
Tamil Nadu, India
Hanuman
–
Murti of Hanuman and his mother
Anjana, at the Anjani Mata temple,
Chomu.
46.
Kartikeya
–
Karthikeya is the Hindu god of war. He is the Commander-in-Chief of the army of the devas and he is also the primary deity of the Kaumaram sect of Hinduism. Murugan is worshiped primarily in areas of Tamil speaking populations, including Tamil Nadu in India, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Réunion. It is one of the few sites in Sri Lanka that is venerated by, Hindu Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese people. In northern India, he is known as Kartikeya. He is known as Subrahmanya, Muruga or Palani Andava in Tamil Nadu and he was also known as Mahasena and the Kadamba dynasty worshiped him by this name. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to him as the son of Rudra, the Taittiriya Aranyaka contains the Gayatri Mantra for Shanmukha. The Chandogya Upanishad refers to Skanda as the way leads to wisdom. Baudhāyanas Dharmasūtra calls Skanda Mahāsena Having a Great Army and Subrahmaṇya beloved of Brahmins, the āraṇyaparvan of the Mahabharata relates the legend of Kartikeya Skanda in considerable detail. The Skanda Purana is devoted to the narrative of Kartikeya, the Upanishads also constantly make a reference to a Supreme Being called Guha, the indweller. The Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai is a devotional poem included in the Pattuppāṭṭu ten idylls of the age of the third Sangam. In the Tirumurukāṟtruuppaṭai, he is described as a god of youth, His face shines a myriad rays light. Other Sangam period works in Tamil that refer to Murugan in detail include the Paripāṭal, the Akananūru, the first elaborate account of Kartikeyas origin occurs in the Mahabharata. In a complicated story, he is said to have been born from Agni and Svaha, the actual wives then become the Pleiades. The Lord asked him what kind of boon he required, in reply to which he asked that no power in the universe should destroy him except the Lords power itself. Lord Shiva granted the boon to him, after succeeding in his penance, Suraabaathman began to torture humans as well as the devas. He then conquered the Indraloka and made Indra captive, one day, upon losing her husband as a prisoner, Indraani prayed to Lord Shiva in earth to help her. Meanwhile, Ajaamukhi was in search of Indraani to produce her as a prize for her brother Suraabaathman as a result of victory of their war against the devas, Ajaamughi along with her servant finally found Indraani praying to Lord Shiva
Kartikeya
–
Murugan with his wives by
Raja Ravi Varma
Kartikeya
–
Indra gives
Devasena as wife to Kartikeya; scene from the Mahabharata.
Kartikeya
–
Kartikeya (right),
Ganesha,
Shiva, and
Parvati.
Kartikeya
–
Kartikeya, by Surendra Nath Ganguly, circa 1913
47.
Krishna
–
Krishna is a major Hindu deity. He is one of the most widely revered and popular Indian divinities, worshipped as the incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, Krishna is also known by numerous names, such as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, Vasudeva and Makhan chor in affection. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishnas life are generally titled as Krishna Leela and he is a central character in the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives, a god-child, a prankster, a lover, a divine hero. The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature, worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, sometimes referred to as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. Krishna-related literature has inspired performance arts such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, the name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning black, dark or dark blue. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning darkening, the name is also interpreted sometimes as all attractive. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama, based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by other names, epithets and titles. Among the most common names are Mohan enchanter, Govinda meaning chief herdsman, Gopala, some of the distinct names may be regionally important—for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, with common features. His iconography typically depicts him as black or dark reflecting his name, however ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material he is made from, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is described as the color of Jambul. Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock feather wreathe or crown, in this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, symbolism for the divine herdsman Govinda, alternatively, he is shown as an amorous man with the gopis, often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of the scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata
Krishna
–
Statue of Lord Krishna
Krishna
Krishna
–
14th-century fresco of Krishna on the interior wall of City Palace,
Udaipur
Krishna
–
Krishna with cows, herdsmen and
Gopis, Pahari painting [Himalayan] from
Smithsonian Institution
48.
Lakshmi
–
Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity. She is the wife and shakti of Vishnu, a god in Hinduism. Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples, Lakshmi was also a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics, Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine strength of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was born from the churning of the primordial ocean, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consort Sita and Rukmini. In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi, the marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the supreme goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a pedestal and holds lotus in her hand. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of life considered important to the Hindu way of life, dharma, kāma, artha. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE, Lakshmis iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima are celebrated in her honor, Lakshmi is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean goddess of wealth and fortune, the good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his meditation on creation of life. Sri is described as beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy, the gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents, in the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour
Lakshmi
–
Raja Ravi Varma 's Lakshmi
Lakshmi
–
Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BC
Lakshmi
–
Coins of
Gandhara, 1st century BC
Lakshmi
–
Coinage of
Gupta Empire
49.
Parvati
–
Parvati, also known as Urvi/Renu, is the Hindu goddess of fertility, love and devotion, as well as of divine strength and power. She is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess Shakti and she is the mother goddess in Hinduism, and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu stories of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses. Parvati is the wife of the Hindu god Shiva - the protector and regenerator of universe and she is the daughter of the mountain king Himavan and mother Mena. Parvati is the mother of Hindu deities Ganesha and Kartikeya, some communities also believe her to be the sister of the god Vishnu and the river-goddess Ganga. With Shiva, Parvati is a deity in the Shaiva sect. In Hindu belief, she is the energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings. In Hindu temples dedicated to her and Shiva, she is represented as the argha or yoni. She is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace Hindu temples all over South Asia, parvata is one of the Sanskrit words for mountain, Parvati derives her name from being the daughter of king Himavan and mother Mena. King Parvat is considered lord of the mountains and the personification of the Himalayas, Parvati is known by many names in Hindu literature. Other names which associate her with mountains are Shailaja, Adrija or Nagajaa or Shailaputri, Haimavathi, the Lalita sahasranama contains a listing of 1,000 names of Parvati. Two of Parvatis most famous epithets are Uma and Aparna, the name Uma is used for Sati in earlier texts, but in the Ramayana, it is used as a synonym for Parvati. In the Harivamsa, Parvati is referred to as Aparna and then addressed as Uma and she is also Ambika, Shakti, Mataji, Maheshwari, Durga, Bhairavi, Bhavani, Shivaradni, and many hundreds of others. Parvati is also the goddess of love and devotion, or Kamakshi, regional stories of Gauri suggest an alternate origin for Gauris name and complexion. In parts of India, Gauris skin color is golden or yellow in honor of her being the goddess of ripened corn/harvest, some scholars hold that Parvati does not explicitly appear in Vedic literature, though the Kena Upanishad contains a goddess called Uma-Haimavati. She appears as the shakti, or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. Her primary role is as a mediator who reveals the knowledge of Brahman to the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu, and Indra, Sati-Parvati appears in the epic period, as both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata present Parvati as Shivas wife. However, it is not until the plays of Kalidasa and the Puranas that the stories of Sati-Parvati, Kinsley adds that Parvati may have emerged from legends of non-aryan goddesses that lived in mountains
Parvati
–
A 12th century sculpture of Parvati,
Parvati
–
Parvati as a two-armed consort goddess of Shiva (left), and as four-armed
Lalita with her sons
Ganesha and
Skanda,
Odisha, India. 11th century sculpture from the British Museum. 1872,0701.54.
Parvati
Parvati
–
Uma Maheshwar in
Shivdwar Temple in district
Sonbhadra,India
50.
Radha
–
Radha is also the principal god of worship in the Nimbarka Sampradaya, as Nimbarka, the founder of the tradition, declared that Radha and Krishna together constitute the absolute truth. Radha is the most important gopi in Rasa lila with Lord Krishna, Radha is often referred to as Rādhārānī or Rādhikā in speech, prefixed with the respectful term Srimati. The word Radha can also mean longing, the Sanskrit term Rādhā means “Fortunate, Successful”. In Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism it is understood that the origin of name Rādhā are Sanskrit words ārādha, the accurate understanding would be service, specifically devotional service, since it comes from love and thus is joyful. In the Vaishnava devotional or bhakti traditions of Hinduism that focus on Krishna, for some of the adherents of these traditions, her importance approaches or even exceeds that of Krishna. She is considered to be his original shakti, the goddess in both the Nimbarka Sampradaya and following the advent of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu also within the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition. Radha Chalisa mentions that Krishna accompanies one who chants Radha with pure heart, other gopis are usually considered to be self willing maidservants of Radha. Radharanis superiority is seen in Krishnas flute, which repeats the name Radha, between Radha and Rukmini, Radha is superior. Radhas connection to Krishna is of two types, svakiya-rasa and parakiya-rasa, the Gaudiya tradition focuses upon parakiya-rasa as the highest form of love, wherein Radha and Krishna share thoughts even through separation. The love the feel for Krishna is also described in this esoteric manner as the highest platform of spontaneous love of God. Nimbarka was the first Vaishnava acharya to disseminate teachings about Radha, barsana and Vrindavan in Mathura District, Northern India contain a large number of temples dedicated to both Radha and Krishna, including the Radhavallabh Temple. Sri Sri Radha Parthasarathi Mandir in Delhi is also the Radha krishna Temple, krsna, The Supreme Personality of Godhead by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Hindu Goddesses, Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions by David Kinsley Hawley J. S. Wulff The Divine Consort, Radha and the Goddesses of India, Beacon Press, Boston, Radha by Krishna Dharabasi, a Nepali novel awarded with Madan Puraskar, Most prestigious literary award
Radha
–
Goddess Radha on the left side of lord
Krishna
Radha
–
Brooklyn Museum - Radha Pining for Her Beloved Page from a dated Rasikapriya Series
Radha
–
Krishna and Radha Seated on a Terrace -
Brooklyn Museum
Radha
–
Ras lila of Radha and Krishna.
,_folio_3_from_the_Shiva_Purana,_c._1828.jpg)
