1.
Shire (Middle-earth)
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The Shire is a region of J. R. R. Tolkiens fictional Middle-earth, described in The Lord of the Rings and other works. The Shire refers to an area settled exclusively by Hobbits and largely removed from the goings-on in the rest of Middle-earth and it is located in the northwest of the continent, in the large region of Eriador and the Kingdom of Arnor. In the languages invented by Tolkien, its name in Westron was Sûza Shire or Sûzat The Shire, while its name in Sindarin was i Drann. According to Tolkien, the Shire measured 40 leagues from the Far Downs in the west to the Brandywine Bridge in the east, and 50 leagues from the northern moors to the marshes in the south. This is confirmed in an essay by Tolkien on translating The Lord of the Rings, the Shire was originally divided into four Farthings. The outlying lands of Buckland and the Westmarch were formally added after the War of the Ring, within the Farthings there are some smaller unofficial clan homelands, the Tooks nearly all live in or near Tuckborough in Tookland, for instance. A Hobbit surname often indicates where the came from, Samwise Gamgees last name derives from Gamwich. Buckland was named for the Oldbucks, the Shire is described as a small but beautiful, idyllic and fruitful land, beloved by its inhabitants. The Hobbits had an agricultural system in the Shire but were not industrialised. The landscape included small pockets of forest, various supplies were produced in the Shire, including cereals, fruit, wood and pipe-weed. The original parts of the Shire were subdivided into four Farthings, the Three-Farthing Stone marked the tripoint where the borders of the Eastfarthing, Westfarthing and Southfarthing of the Shire came together, by the East Road. It is claimed that the Three-Farthing Stone was inspired by the Four shire stone and these were formally given to the hobbits as the East and West Marches of the Shire by King Elessar after the War of the Ring, in S. R. Buckland had been settled by then, Gorhendad Oldbuck led hobbits from the East Farthing across the river in T. A.2340. There is no mention of settlement in the Westmarch until Elessars gift, Sam Gamgees daughter Elanor and her husband Fastred later settled there, the Northfarthing was the least populous part of the Shire. It was where most of the Shires barley crop was grown, the historic Battle of Greenfields was fought here. Bindbole Wood was one of the forests of the Shire. The village of Hardbottle was the home of the Bracegirdle family, Tolkiens unfinished index to The Lord of the Rings places Hardbottle in the Southfarthing. But in Tolkiens more extensive entry in his guide for translators, long Cleeve was the home of a sept of the Took clan, descendants of Bandobras Bullroarer Took known as the North-Tooks, who settled here after the Battle of Greenfields
2.
Middle-earth
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Middle-earth is the setting of much of J. R. R. Tolkiens legendarium. The term is equivalent to the term Midgard of Norse mythology, describing the human-inhabited world, Middle-earth is the north continent of Earth in an imaginary period of the Earths past, in the sense of a secondary or sub-creational reality. Its general position is reminiscent of Europe, with the environs of the Shire intended to be reminiscent of England, in later ages, after Morgoths defeat and expulsion from Arda, his place was taken by his lieutenant Sauron. The Valar withdrew from involvement in the affairs of Middle-earth after the defeat of Morgoth. The most important wizards were Gandalf the Grey and Saruman the White, Gandalf remained true to his mission and proved crucial in the fight against Sauron. Saruman, however, became corrupted and sought to establish himself as a rival to Sauron for absolute power in Middle-earth, other races involved in the struggle against evil were Dwarves, Ents and most famously Hobbits. The early stages of the conflict are chronicled in The Silmarillion, while the stages of the struggle to defeat Sauron are told in The Hobbit. Conflict over the possession and control of precious or magical objects is a theme in the stories. The First Age is dominated by the doomed quest of the elf Fëanor, in ancient Germanic mythology, the world of Men is known by several names, such as Midgard, Middenheim, Manaheim, and Middengeard. The term Middle-earth, also referred to as middle-world, was therefore not invented by Tolkien. It is found throughout the Modern English period as a development of the Middle English word middel-erde, Tolkien first encountered the term middangeard in an Old English fragment he studied in 1914, Éala éarendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended. Hail Earendel, brightest of angels / above the middle-earth sent unto men and this quote is from the second of the fragmentary remnants of the Crist poems by Cynewulf. The name Éarendel was the inspiration for Tolkiens mariner Eärendil, who set sail from the lands of Middle-earth to ask for aid from the angelic powers, Tolkiens earliest poem about Eärendil, from 1914, the same year he read the Crist poems, refers to the mid-worlds rim. The concept of middangeard was considered by Tolkien to be the same as a usage of the Greek word οἰκουμένη - oikoumenē. It is a modernization or alteration, of an old word for the inhabited world of Men, the oikoumene, middle because thought of vaguely as set amidst the encircling Seas and between ice of the North and the fire of the South. O. English middan-geard, mediaeval E. midden-erd, middle-erd, many reviewers seem to assume that Middle-earth is another planet. However, the term Middle-earth is not found in Tolkiens earliest writings about Middle-earth, dating from the early 1920s, nor is the term used in The Hobbit. Tolkien began to use the term Middle-earth in the late 1930s, in place of the earlier terms Great Lands, Outer Lands, and Hither Lands
3.
Anduin
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In J. R. R. Tolkiens fictional Middle-earth, Anduin is the Sindarin name for the Great River of Wilderland, the longest river in the Third Age. The ancestors of the Rohirrim called it Langflood and it flowed from its sources in the Grey and Misty Mountains to the Mouths of Anduin in the Great Sea. In her Atlas of Middle-earth, Karen Wynn Fonstad estimates a total length of 1,388 miles, the Anduin began as two different streams near where the Misty Mountains met the Grey Mountains. These were called the Langwell and the Greylin by the Éothéod when they lived in the triangle of land formed by it and their old capital Framsburg was built at the confluence of these streams where the Anduin proper began. The Langwell had its source in the Misty Mountains, close to Mount Gundabad, the upper Anduin flowed parallel to the Misty Mountains in a broad vale which formed the western part of Rhovanion, lying between the mountains and Mirkwood. There it negotiated the Sarn Gebir, rushed past the Argonath, thence it plunged over the Falls of Rauros into the lower Anduin, which flowed past the Mouths of the Entwash, the marshes known as the Wetwang and the island of Cair Andros. The first five had their sources in the Misty Mountains, the Morgulduin and the Poros in the Ephel Dúath on the border of Mordor, any traveller attempting to pass into the eastern regions of Middle-earth would have to cross the Anduin at some point along its long course. The Old Forest Road which led from the High Pass into Mirkwood crossed the river at the Old Ford, in the time of the War of the Last Alliance, a bridge had been there. There were many bridges in the city of Osgiliath, broken by the forces of Mordor and by the Gondorians themselves in their retreat. During the March of the Elves in the Time of the Trees, the Nandor left the Eldarin host when faced with the heights of the Misty Mountains. Some of those people later left and became the Green-elves of Ossiriand, settlements in the Vale of Anduin during the Third Age included the northman city of Framsburg, Beorns Halls, and the Stoor settlements near the Gladden Fields. The Vale of Anduin was also home at times to many woodmen. Rhosgobel, home of Radagast the Brown, and the Elven Realm of Lothlórien also lay in the Vale of Anduin, once it had entered Gondor the river flowed past Osgiliath and Minas Tirith and then Pelargir, close to the sea. After the fall of Osgiliath the river marks the eastern limit of Gondors influence. The principal islands appear to have been Cair Andros, on the borders of Ithilien, carrock, in the north was where the Eagles deposited Thorin and Company. There was also an eyot, where the Fellowship rested during their travel between Lórien and Parth Galen, a debate was sparked as to whether landmarks should be named in honour of motion picture productions, and several newspapers ran stories when the submission was denied by the Board. The Lord of the Rings Location Guidebook, Published by Harper Collins, Anduin at the Encyclopedia of Arda
4.
J. R. R. Tolkien
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He was at one time a close friend of C. S. Lewis—they were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the Inklings. Tolkien was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 March 1972, after Tolkiens death, his son Christopher published a series of works based on his fathers extensive notes and unpublished manuscripts, including The Silmarillion. Between 1951 and 1955, Tolkien applied the term legendarium to the part of these writings. While many other authors had published works of fantasy before Tolkien and this has caused Tolkien to be popularly identified as the father of modern fantasy literature—or, more precisely, of high fantasy. In 2008, The Times ranked him sixth on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, forbes ranked him the 5th top-earning dead celebrity in 2009. Tolkiens paternal ancestors were middle-class craftsmen who made and sold clocks, watches and pianos in London, the Tolkien family had emigrated from Germany in the 18th century but had become quickly intensely English. According to the tradition, the Tolkiens had arrived in England in 1756. Several families with the surname Tolkien or similar spelling live in northwestern Germany, mainly in Lower Saxony, however, this origin of the name has not been proven. A German writer has suggested that the name is likely to derive from the village of Tolkynen near Rastenburg. Although that village is far from Lower Saxony, its name is derived from the now-extinct Old Prussian language. John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born on 3 January 1892 in Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State to Arthur Reuel Tolkien, an English bank manager, the couple had left England when Arthur was promoted to head the Bloemfontein office of the British bank for which he worked. Tolkien had one sibling, his brother, Hilary Arthur Reuel. In another incident, a family servant, who thought Tolkien a beautiful child, took the baby to his kraal to show him off. When he was three, he went to England with his mother and brother on what was intended to be a family visit. His father, however, died in South Africa of rheumatic fever before he could join them and this left the family without an income, so Tolkiens mother took him to live with her parents in Kings Heath, Birmingham. Soon after, in 1896, they moved to Sarehole, then a Worcestershire village, Mabel Tolkien taught her two children at home. Ronald, as he was known in the family, was a keen pupil and she taught him a great deal of botany and awakened in him the enjoyment of the look and feel of plants. Young Tolkien liked to draw landscapes and trees, but his lessons were those concerning languages
5.
Elf (Middle-earth)
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In J. R. R. Tolkiens legendarium, Elves are one of the races that inhabit a fictional Earth, often called Middle-earth, and set in the remote past. They appear in The Hobbit and in The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien had been writing about Elves long before he published The Hobbit. The modern English word elf derives from the Old English word ælf, Tolkien would make it clear in a letter that his Elves differ from those of the better known lore, referring to Scandinavian mythology. By 1915 when Tolkien was writing his first elven poems, the elf, fairy and gnome had many divergent. One of the last of the Victorian Fairy-paintings, The Piper of Dreams by Estella Canziani, according to Marjorie Burns, Tolkien eventually chose the term elf over fairy, but still retained some doubts. I hear the tiny horns Of enchanted leprechauns And the padded feet of many gnomes a-coming, as a philologist, Tolkiens interest in languages led him to invent several languages of his own as a pastime. In considering the nature of who might speak these languages, and what stories they might tell, Some of the stories Tolkien wrote as elven history have been seen to be directly influenced by Celtic mythology. For example, Flight of The Noldoli is based on the Tuatha Dé Danann and Lebor Gabála Érenn, john Garth also sees that with the underground enslavement of the Noldoli to Melkor, Tolkien was essentially rewriting Irish myth regarding the Tuatha Dé Danann into a Christian eschatology. The name Inwe, given by Tolkien to the eldest of the elves and his clan is similar to the found in Norse mythology as that of the god Ingwi-Freyr. Terry Gunnell also claims that the relationship between beautiful ships and the Elves is reminiscent of the god Njörðr and the god Freyrs ship Skíðblaðnir and he also retains the usage of the French derived term fairy for the same creatures. Tolkien wrote of them, They are made by man in his own image and likeness and they are immortal, and their will is directly effective for the achievement of imagination and desire. In The Book of Lost Tales Tolkien includes both the more serious type of elves such as Fëanor and Turgon alongside the frivolous, Jacobean type of elves such as the Solosimpi. Alongside the idea of the greater Elves, Tolkien also developed the idea of children visiting Valinor, Elves would also visit children at night and comfort them if they had been chided or were upset. This theme, linking elves with childrens dreams and nocturnal travelling was largely abandoned in Tolkiens later writing, I do know Celtic things, and feel for them a certain distaste, largely for their fundamental unreason. They have bright colour, but are like a broken stained glass window reassembled without design and they are in fact mad as your reader says — but I dont believe I am. Terry Gunner notes that the titles of the Germanic gods Freyr and Freyja are also given to Celeborn, according to Tom Shippey, the theme of diminishment from semi-divine Elf to diminutive Fairy resurfaces in The Lord of the Rings in the dialogue of Galadriel. Yet if you succeed, then our power is diminished, and Lothlórien will fade, and we must depart into the West, or dwindle to a rustic folk of dell and cave, slowly to forget and to be forgotten. Tolkien also notes an Elven bloodline was the only claim to nobility that the Men of Middle-earth can have
6.
Dwarf (Middle-earth)
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In the fantasy of J. R. R. Tolkien, the Dwarves are a race inhabiting Middle-earth, the central continent of Earth in an imagined mythological past. They are based on the dwarfs of Germanic myths, small humanoids that dwell in mountains, Tolkien was inspired by the dwarves of Norse myths and dwarves of Germanic folklore, from whom his Dwarves take their characteristic affinity with mining, metalworking, crafting and avarice. The representation of Dwarves as evil changed dramatically with The Hobbit, Tolkien was now influenced by his own selective reading of medieval texts regarding the Jewish people and their history. Medieval views of Jews also saw them as having a propensity for making well-crafted and beautiful things, for The Hobbit almost all dwarf-names are taken from the Dvergatal or Catalogue of the Dwarves, found in the Poetic Edda. The Dwarves written language is represented on maps and in illustrations by Anglo-Saxon Runes, the Dwarf calendar invented for The Hobbit reflects the Jewish calendar in beginning in late autumn. The dwarves taking Bilbo out of his complacent existence has been seen as an eloquent metaphor for the impoverishment of Western society without Jews, when writing The Lord of the Rings Tolkien continued many of the themes he had set up in The Hobbit. When giving Dwarves their own language Tolkien decided to create an analogue of a Semitic language influenced by Hebrew phonology, along with a few words in Khuzdul, Tolkien also developed runes of his own invention, said to have been invented by Elves and later adopted by the Dwarves. Tolkien further underlines the diaspora of the Dwarves with the lost stronghold of the Mines of Moria, after preparing The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien returned again to the matter of the Silmarillion, in which he gave the Dwarves a creation myth. The essay represents the last of Tolkiens writing regarding the Dwarves and was published in volume 12 of The History of Middle-earth in 1996 and their words are Semitic, obviously, constructed to be Semitic. The original editor of The Hobbit corrected Tolkiens plural dwarves to dwarfs, according to Tolkien, the real historical plural of dwarf is dwarrows or dwerrows. He referred to dwarves as a piece of bad grammar. In Appendix F of The Lord of the Rings it is explained if we still spoke of dwarves regularly. Despite Tolkiens fondness for it, the form dwarrow only appears in his writing as Dwarrowdelf, Tolkien used Dwarves, instead, which corresponds with Elf and Elves. In this matter, one has to consider the fact that the development of the term dwarf differs from the similar-sounding word scarf. The English word is related to old Norse dvergr, which, in the other case, but this word was never recorded, and the f/g-emendation dates further back in language history. Tolkien used dwarvish and dwarf as adjectives for the people he created, of the people of Middle-earth, Dwarves are the most resistant to corruption and influence of Morgoth and later Sauron. The seven rings of Power of the dwarves did not turn them to evil and it is said that very few wilfully served the side of darkness. Of those who did very little was written, of the seven houses few fought on either side during The Last Alliance at the end of the Second Age, and its known that none from the House of Durin ever fought on the side of evil
7.
Ent
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Ents are a race of beings in J. R. R. Tolkiens fantasy world Middle-earth who closely resemble trees. They are similar to the trees in folklore around the world. Their name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word for giant, the Ents appear in The Lord of the Rings as ancient shepherds of the forest and allies of the free peoples of Middle-earth during the War of the Ring. The Ent who figures most prominently in the book is Treebeard, at the time The Lord of the Rings takes place, there are no young Ents because the Entwives were lost. The Ents are akin to Huorns, whom Treebeard describes as a form of trees which become animated or, conversely. Inspired by Tolkien and similar traditions, animated or anthropomorphic tree creatures appear in a variety of media, the word Ent was taken from the Anglo-Saxon word ent, meaning giant. Tolkien borrowed the word from the Anglo-Saxon phrases orþanc enta geweorc, along with Old Norse jǫtunn, ent came from Common Germanic *etunaz. Whether it was clad in stuff like green and grey bark, at any rate the arms, at a short distance from the trunk, were not wrinkled, but covered with a brown smooth skin. The large feet had seven toes each, the lower part of the long face was covered with a sweeping grey beard, bushy, almost twiggy at the roots, thin and mossy at the ends. But at the moment the hobbits noted little but the eyes and these deep eyes were now surveying them, slow and solemn, but very penetrating. Ents are an old race that appeared in Middle-earth when the Elves did, although the Ents were sentient beings from the time of their awakening, they did not know how to speak until the Elves taught them. Treebeard said that the Elves cured us of dumbness, that it was a gift that could not be forgotten. In the Third Age of Middle-earth, the forest of Fangorn was the place known still to be inhabited by Ents, although the Ent-like Huorns may have survived elsewhere. Ents exhibit wide variation in traits, as they came to resemble somewhat the specific types of trees that they shepherded. Quickbeam, for example, guarded Rowan trees and bore some resemblance to rowans, tall and slender, smooth-skinned, with ruddy lips, Ents share some of the strengths and weaknesses of trees as well. Their skin is tough, and very much like wood, they can erode stone extremely rapidly, in the manner of tree roots - but they are vulnerable to fire. Ents are also a patient and cautious race, with a sense of time more suited to trees than short-lived mortals. For example, in the Entmoot regarding the attack on Isengard, Ents are tall and very strong, capable of tearing apart rock and stone
8.
Orc (Middle-earth)
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Although not entirely dim-witted and occasionally crafty, they are portrayed as miserable beings, hating everyone including themselves and their masters, whom they serve out of fear. They make no beautiful things, but rather design cunning devices made to hurt, in some of his unpublished early work, Tolkien appears to distinguish orcs from goblins. By the time of his work, however, the terms had become synonymous. The Hobbit generally uses the term goblin, while The Lord of the Rings prefers orc, the opponents of the dwarves in Dwarf and Goblin War of The Hobbit are described as orcs in Appendix A of The Lord of the Rings. No distinction is made by size, large orcs, including the Uruk-hai, are just as much goblins as are smaller ones, Tolkiens The Father Christmas Letters also features goblins, they share traits with those in his Middle-earth writings, including being the arch-enemies of elves. Orc is from Old English orcneas, which appears in the epic poem Beowulf, in a letter of 1954 Tolkien gave orc as demon and claimed he used the word because of its phonetic suitability—its similarity to various equivalent terms in his Middle-earth languages. About the goblins of The Hobbit, Tolkien wrote, They are not based on experience of mine, but owe, I suppose. Especially as it appears in George MacDonald, except for the feet which I never believed in. In the High-elven tongue Quenya, the word for Orc was urco, plural urqui, meaning bogey, or bogeyman, in the Grey-elven tongue Sindarin, it was orch, plural yrch. In the Dwarven tongue Khuzdul, it was rukhs, plural rakhâs, in the language of the Drúedain or Wild Men, it was gorgûn. In the Black Speech of Mordor, the equivalent was Uruk, as can be seen in Uruk-hai, Orc itself is from Rohirric and the Hobbit-language, which shared linguistic roots, but the term is clearly related to the older Elvish words. Uruk and Uruk-hai were reserved for the Uruks themselves, a breed or breeds of Orc, they called smaller, weaker Orcs snaga. The Grey Elves also referred to the Orcs as a whole as the Glamhoth, the word goblin is used to represent the original Hobbit Orc. The earliest appearance of goblins in Tolkiens writings is the 1915 poem Goblin Feet, also his first published work and it features quaint elvin creatures, and some 45 years later Tolkien was to dismiss it as juvenile. In The Book of Lost Tales the names Orcs and goblin are given to creatures who enslave, Christopher Tolkien notes that while the author clearly differentiates between goblins and Orcs in the Tale of Tinúviel, the two terms appear to be synonymous in the Tale of Turambar. The word Gongs is also used on a few occasions, it appears both distinct from Orcs and as a sub-type of Orc, Christopher Tolkien remarks that Gongs are evil beings obscurely related to Orcs. Both goblins and Orcs are occasionally mentioned as being of Melkor, Two Lexicons of elvish language also appear. Christopher Tolkien also notes, with interest, that in the Lexicon, in The Lord of the Rings, Orc is used predominantly, and goblin appears mostly in the Hobbits speech
9.
Troll (Middle-earth)
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Trolls are fictional characters in J. R. R. Tolkiens legendarium. They are portrayed as large humanoids of great strength and poor intellect, in The Hobbit, Bilbo Baggins and the Dwarf company encountered three trolls on their journey to Erebor. The trolls captured the Dwarves and prepared to eat them, but Bilbo managed to distract them until dawn and they spoke with thick Cockney accents, and even had English names, Tom, Bert, and William. In The Lord of the Rings, Treebeard remarked that Trolls were made, in mockery of Ents, as Orcs were of Elves. Trolls origins are detailed in The Silmarillion. Morgoth, the evil Vala, created the first Trolls before the First Age of Middle-earth and they were strong and vicious but stupid creatures. Their major weakness was that they turned to stone in sunlight, during the wars of Beleriand, Gothmog had a bodyguard of trolls. As Morgoth had ordered to capture Húrin alive, the managed to wipe out the trolls before being captured by orcs. Many trolls died in the War of Wrath, but some survived and joined Sauron, in the Second Age and Third Age, trolls were among Saurons most dangerous warriors. They could speak, and used a form of Westron. Hill-trolls in the Coldfells north of Rivendell killed Arador, Chieftain of the Rangers of the North, at the Black Gate the Army of the West fought hill-trolls of Gorgoroth, which are generally taken to be Olog-hai. Cave Trolls attacked the Fellowship of the Ring in Moria, One is described as having dark greenish scales and black blood. Their hide was so thick that when Boromir struck one in the arm his sword was notched, however, Frodo Baggins was able to impale the toeless foot of the same troll with the enchanted dagger Sting. Mountain Trolls are mentioned once, wielding the great battering ram Grond in shattering the gates of Minas Tirith, snow Trolls are mentioned only in the story of Helm Hammerhand. When Helm went out clad in white during the Long Winter to stalk and slay his enemies, otherwise nothing is known of them. Olog-hai are described in Appendix F of Return of the King and they were strong, agile, fierce, and cunning trolls created by Sauron, not unlike the Uruk-hai. Unlike other trolls, they could withstand sunlight while under the sway of Saurons will and they seldom spoke and were said to know no language other than the Black Speech, in which Olog-hai means troll-folk. They appeared toward the end of the Third Age and could be found near Dol Guldur, since the hill-trolls of Gorgoroth that fought in the Battle of the Morannon could also withstand sunlight, these are taken to be the Olog-hai of Appendix F
10.
Humanoid
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A humanoid is something that has an appearance resembling a human being. The earliest recorded use of the term, in 1870, referred to indigenous peoples in areas colonized by Europeans, by the 20th century, the term came to describe fossils which were morphologically similar, but not identical, to those of the human skeleton. Although this usage was common in the sciences for much of the 20th century, American psychologist and Dinosaur intelligence theorist Harry Jerison suggested the possibility of sapient dinosaurs. In a 1978 presentation at the American Psychological Association, he speculated that dromiceiomimus could have evolved into an intelligent species like human beings. In his book, Wonderful Life, Stephen Jay Gould argues that if the tape of life were re-wound and played back, over geologic time, Russell noted that there had been a steady increase in the encephalization quotient or EQ among the dinosaurs. Russell had discovered the first Troodontid skull, and noted that, while its EQ was low compared to humans, if the trend in Troodon evolution had continued to the present, its brain case could by now measure 1,100 cm3, comparable to that of a human. Troodontids had semi-manipulative fingers, able to grasp and hold objects to a certain degree, Russell proposed that this Dinosauroid, like most dinosaurs of the troodontid family, would have had large eyes and three fingers on each hand, one of which would have been partially opposed. As with most modern reptiles, he conceived of its genitalia as internal, Russell speculated that it would have required a navel, as a placenta aids the development of a large brain case. However, it would not have possessed mammary glands, and would have fed its young, as birds do and he speculated that its language would have sounded somewhat like bird song. Russells thought experiment has been met with criticism from other paleontologists since the 1980s, gregory S. Paul and Thomas R. Holtz, Jr. A humanoid robot does not necessarily look convincingly like a real person, an android or gynoid is a humanoid robot designed to look as much like a real person as possible, although these words are frequently perceived to be synonymous with humanoid. While there are many humanoid robots in fictional stories, some humanoid robots have been developed since the 1990s. Similarly to robots, virtual avatars may also be called humanoid when resembling humans, deities are often imagined in human shape, sometimes as hybrids. In animism in general, the spirits innate in certain objects are typically depicted in human shape, e. g. spirits of trees, of the woodlands, of wells or waterways, many aliens in television and science fiction films are presented as humanoid. This is usually attributed to budget constraints, as human actors can more easily portray human-like aliens, in much of science fiction, the reason for the abundance of humanoid aliens is not explained and usually requires suspension of disbelief. In some cases, however, explanations have been offered for this, in the field of ufology, humanoid refers to any of the claimed extraterrestrials which abduct human victims, such as the Greys, the Reptilians, Nordics, and Martians. In fantasy settings the term humanoid is used to refer to a fantastical creature, such as a dwarf, elf, gnome, halfling, goblin, troll, orc or an ogre. Animals that are humanoid are also shown in fantasy, humanoids are also used in some old horror movies, for example in Creature From the Black Lagoon, made in 1954 by Jack Arnold
11.
The Hobbit
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The Hobbit, or There and Back Again is a childrens fantasy novel by English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It was published on 21 September 1937 to wide acclaim, being nominated for the Carnegie Medal. The book remains popular and is recognized as a classic in childrens literature. The Hobbit is set in a time between the Dawn of Færie and the Dominion of Men, and follows the quest of home-loving hobbit Bilbo Baggins to win a share of the treasure guarded by Smaug the dragon. Bilbos journey takes him from light-hearted, rural surroundings into more sinister territory, the story is told in the form of an episodic quest, and most chapters introduce a specific creature or type of creature of Tolkiens geography. Bilbo gains a new level of maturity, competence, and wisdom by accepting the disreputable, romantic, fey, the story reaches its climax in the Battle of the Five Armies, where many of the characters and creatures from earlier chapters re-emerge to engage in conflict. Personal growth and forms of heroism are central themes of the story and these themes have led critics to view Tolkiens own experiences during World War I as instrumental in shaping the story. The authors scholarly knowledge of Germanic philology and interest in fairy tales are often noted as influences, the publisher was encouraged by the books critical and financial success and, therefore, requested a sequel. As Tolkiens work progressed on the successor The Lord of the Rings and these few but significant changes were integrated into the second edition. Further editions followed with minor emendations, including those reflecting Tolkiens changing concept of the world into which Bilbo stumbled, the work has never been out of print. Its ongoing legacy encompasses many adaptations for stage, screen, radio, board games, several of these adaptations have received critical recognition on their own merits. Bilbo Baggins, the titular protagonist, is a respectable, reserved hobbit, during his adventure, Bilbo often refers to the contents of his larder at home and wishes he had more food. Until he finds a ring, he is more baggage than help. Gandalf, an itinerant wizard, introduces Bilbo to a company of thirteen dwarves, during the journey the wizard disappears on side errands dimly hinted at, only to appear again at key moments in the story. Smaug is a dragon who long ago pillaged the kingdom of Thorins grandfather. Gandalf tricks Bilbo into hosting a party for Thorin and his band of dwarves, when the music ends, Gandalf unveils a map showing a secret door into the Mountain and proposes that the dumbfounded Bilbo serve as the expeditions burglar. The dwarves ridicule the idea, but Bilbo, indignant, joins despite himself, the group travels into the wild, where Gandalf saves the company from trolls and leads them to Rivendell, where Elrond reveals more secrets from the map. Passing over the Misty Mountains, they are caught by goblins, although Gandalf rescues them, Bilbo gets separated from the others as they flee the goblins
12.
Bilbo Baggins
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Bilbo Baggins is the title character and protagonist of J. R. R. Tolkiens 1937 novel The Hobbit, as well as a supporting character in The Lord of the Rings. Here, after the dragon was killed and the Mountain was reclaimed, underground, near Gollums lair, Bilbo accidentally found a magic ring of invisibility, which he used to escape from Gollum. By the end of the journey, Bilbo had become wiser and more confident, Bilbos journey has been compared to a pilgrimage of grace. The Hobbit can be characterized as a Christian bildungsroman which equates progress to wisdom gained in the form of a rite of passage and he rescued the dwarves from giant spiders with the magic ring and a short Elven-sword he acquired. He used the ring to sneak around in dangerous places, as well as his wits to smuggle the dwarves out of the elves prisons. When tensions arose over ownership of the treasure, he tried unsuccessfully to bring the opposing sides to compromise, using the Arkenstone. This strained his relationship with Thorin, but the two were reconciled at Thorins deathbed. At the end of the story, Bilbo returned to his home in the Shire only to find several of his relatives, believing him to be dead, were trying to claim his home. In addition to becoming wealthy from his share of the treasure, he found that he, like Adam, had traded respectability for experience. At the end, Gandalf proclaims Bilbo is no longer the Hobbit he was and this is certainly true as Bilbo has fully matured. Continuing the pilgrimage theme, a true pilgrimage does not end at the destination, but rather when the wanderer is absolved, blessed, and ready to return home. The Fellowship of the Ring, the first volume of The Lord of the Rings, the main character of the novel is Frodo Baggins, Bilbos cousin, who celebrates his 33rd birthday and legally comes of age on the same day. In T. A.2989, Bilbo, a bachelor, adopted Frodo, the orphaned son of his first cousin Primula Brandybuck and his second cousin Drogo Baggins. Though Frodo was actually his first and second cousin once removed either way, all this time Bilbo had kept his magic ring, with no idea of its significance, using it mostly to hide from his obnoxious cousins, the Sackville-Bagginses, when they came to visit. Gandalfs investigations revealed it to be the One Ring forged by the Dark Lord Sauron, the Ring had prolonged Bilbos life beyond the normal hobbit span, and at 111 he still looked 50. On the night of his and Frodos birthday, Bilbo threw himself a party and he signed his home, Bag End, and estate over to Frodo. He then gave an address to his neighbors, at the end of which he put on the Ring. As Bilbo prepared finally to leave the house, he reacted with panic, Bilbo refused to give up the Ring, referring to it as his precious – just as Gollum had
13.
The Lord of the Rings
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The Lord of the Rings is an epic high-fantasy novel written by English author J. R. R. Tolkien. The story began as a sequel to Tolkiens 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit, written in stages between 1937 and 1949, The Lord of the Rings is one of the best-selling novels ever written, with over 150 million copies sold. The work was intended by Tolkien to be one volume of a two-volume set, the other to be The Silmarillion. For economic reasons The Lord of the Rings was published in three volumes over the course of a year from 29 July 1954 to 20 October 1955, the three volumes were titled The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King. Structurally, the novel is divided internally into six books, two per volume, with appendices of background material included at the end of the third volume. Some editions combine the work into a single volume. The Lord of the Rings has since been reprinted numerous times, Tolkiens work has been the subject of extensive analysis of its themes and origins. Although a major work in itself, the story was only the last movement of a larger epic Tolkien had worked on since 1917 and these inspirations and themes have often been denied by Tolkien himself. The Lord of the Rings has inspired, and continues to inspire, artwork, music, films and television, video games, award-winning adaptations of The Lord of the Rings have been made for radio, theatre, and film. In 2003, it was named Britains best-loved novel of all time in the BBCs The Big Read, Sauron was defeated by an alliance of Elves and Men led by Gil-galad and Elendil, respectively. Isildur, son of Elendil, cut the One Ring from Saurons finger, Isildur claimed the Ring as an heirloom for his line, but when he was later ambushed and killed by the Orcs, the Ring was lost in the River Anduin at Gladden Fields. Over two thousand years later, the Ring was found by one of the river-folk called Déagol and his friend Sméagol fell under the Rings influence and strangled Déagol to acquire it. Sméagol was banished and hid under the Misty Mountains, the Ring gave him long life and changed him over hundreds of years into a twisted, corrupted creature called Gollum. Gollum lost the Ring, his precious, and as told in The Hobbit, meanwhile, Sauron assumed a new form and took back his old realm of Mordor. When Gollum set out in search of the Ring, he was captured and tortured by Sauron, Sauron learned from Gollum that Baggins of the Shire had taken the Ring. Sauron, who needed the Ring to regain his power, sent forth his powerful servants. The story begins in the Shire, where the hobbit Frodo Baggins inherits the Ring from Bilbo Baggins, his cousin, neither hobbit is aware of the Rings nature, but Gandalf the Grey, a wizard and an old friend of Bilbo, suspects it to be Saurons Ring. After Gandalf confirms his suspicions, he tells Frodo the history of the Ring, Frodo leaves the Shire, in the company of his gardener and friend, Samwise Gamgee, and two cousins, Meriadoc Brandybuck, called Merry, and Peregrin Took, called Pippin
14.
Frodo Baggins
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Frodo Baggins is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkiens legendarium, and one of the main protagonists of The Lord of the Rings. Frodo is a hobbit of the Shire who inherits the One Ring from his cousin Bilbo Baggins and he is also mentioned in Tolkiens posthumously published works, The Silmarillion and Unfinished Tales. Frodo did not appear until the draft of A Long-Expected Party. In the fourth draft, he was renamed Bingo Bolger-Baggins, son of Rollo Bolger, Tolkien did not change the name to Frodo until the third phase of writing, when much of the narrative, as far as the hobbits arrival in Rivendell, had already taken shape. Prior to this, the name Frodo had been used for the character who eventually became Peregrin Took, Frodo is introduced in The Fellowship of the Ring as the adoptive heir of Bilbo Baggins. At the age of 21 he was adopted by his cousin, Bilbo and he and Bilbo shared the same birthday, the 22nd of September. It was Bilbo who introduced the Elvish languages to Frodo, Frodo and Meriadoc Brandybuck are first cousins once removed, since Frodo is first cousin to Meriadocs father, Saradoc Brandybuck. Their common ancestors are Gorbadoc Brandybuck and Mirabella Took Brandybuck, Frodo is moreover second and third cousin to Meriadocs mother, Esmeralda Took. Frodo is also related to Peregrin Took, being his second, even Fredegar Bolger is second cousin once removed to Frodo. Frodo also shares a relationship with his gardener Samwise Gamgee although they are not related. The Council of Elrond convened on 25th October T. A.3018 in Rivendell, the Fellowship of the Ring opens as Frodo came of age and Bilbo left the Shire for good on his one hundred and eleventh birthday. Frodo inherited Bag End and Bilbos ring, which were introduced in The Hobbit. Gandalf, at time, was not certain about the origin of the Ring, so he warned Frodo to avoid using it. Realizing that he was a danger to the Shire as long as he remained there with the Ring, Frodo decided to home and take the Ring to Rivendell, home of Elrond. He left the Shire with three companions, his gardener Samwise Gamgee and his cousins Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took and they escaped just in time, for Saurons most powerful servants, the Nine Nazgûl, had entered the Shire as Black Riders, looking for Bilbo and the Ring. They followed Frodos trail across the Shire and nearly intercepted him, after leaving Bombadil, they were caught in fog on the Barrow Downs by Barrow-wights and were entranced under a spell. Frodo broke loose from the spell, attacked the barrow-wight and summoned Tom Bombadil, at the Prancing Pony, an inn in the village of Bree, Frodo received a delayed letter from Gandalf, and met Aragorn, also called Strider, a Ranger of the North. Strider became the guide while journeying through the wilderness towards Rivendell
15.
Samwise Gamgee
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Samwise Sam Gamgee /ˈsæmˌwaɪz ˈɡæmˌdʒiː/ is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkiens legendarium. Samwise is one of the characters of The Lord of the Rings, in which he fills an archetypical role as the sidekick of the primary protagonist. Sam is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring, Samwise Gamgee is first introduced in The Fellowship of the Ring. Sam is Frodo Baggins gardener, having inherited the position as Baggins gardener from his father, at the time of the War of the Ring, Sam was living in Number 3, Bagshot Row with his father. As punishment for eavesdropping on Gandalfs conversation with Frodo regarding the One Ring and they were joined by Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took, Frodos cousins, and journeyed together to Rivendell, where the Council of Elrond took place and Sam joined the Fellowship of the Ring. When the Fellowship was split up at the Falls of Rauros, Sam protected and cared for Frodo, who was growing weaker under the Rings influence, as they moved through the dangerous lands toward Mordor. Sam distrusted Gollum, who became their guide into Mordor and his suspicions were proven right when Gollum betrayed them to the giant spider Shelob. After Shelob apparently killed Frodo, Sam drove her off, when a band of orcs approached, Sam was forced to leave the apparently dead Frodo and take the Ring himself, and briefly became a Ring-bearer. He was momentarily tempted by its promise of power, but did not succumb to it, Sam also returned the Ring to Frodo, making him the only Ring-bearer to freely give up the Ring without intervention. After the hobbits return home and the Battle of Bywater, Sam travelled the length and breadth of the Shire replanting trees that had cut down during Sarumans brief reign. He used the gift of earth given to him by the Lady Galadriel, the small amount remaining he took to the Three-Farthing Stone and cast into the air, prompting the bountiful period of growth starting in the spring of the year 1420. The greatest wonder was a young mallorn tree sprouting in the Party Field, after the War of the Ring, Sam married Rose Rosie Cotton and moved to Bag End with Frodo. Sam and Rosie had 13 children, Elanor the Fair, Frodo, Rose, Merry, Pippin, Goldilocks, Hamfast, Daisy, Primrose, Bilbo, Ruby, Robin, and Tolman. Sam was elected Mayor of the Shire for seven consecutive seven-year terms, after Sam and Roses first child was born, Frodo told Sam he would leave Middle-earth, along with Bilbo Baggins, Gandalf and most of the remaining High Elves, for the Undying Lands. Before Frodo left, he gave the estate of Bag End to Sam, as well as the Red Book of Westmarch for Sam to continue, hinting that Sam might also be allowed to travel into the West eventually. After the death of his wife in the year 62 of the Fourth Age, Sam entrusted the Red Book to Elanor and he was not seen again in Middle-earth, but Elanor and her descendants preserved the tradition that he went to the Grey Havens and sailed into the West. As the last of the Ring-bearers, he was entitled to sail across the Sea, at the start of The Lord of the Rings Sam, typically for a hobbit, had never before ventured far from the immediate area where he lived. Unusually for a hobbit, however, since childhood Sam was fond of legends, Sam was particularly interested in the Elves, and always hoped to one day see one
16.
Peregrin Took
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Peregrin Took, more commonly known as Pippin, is a fictional character from J. R. R. Tolkiens fantasy novel The Lord of the Rings. Pippin is introduced as a young Hobbit, and plays a role as one of the companions of Frodo Baggins. Pippin is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring, Peregrin was the only son and heir of Paladin Took II, the Thain of the Shire. His best friend Meriadoc Brandybuck, more known as Merry, was his cousin. Peregrin means traveller in strange countries, Pippin indeed saw much more of Middle-earth than most Hobbits, he journeyed with Frodo and the Fellowship of the Ring, and fought in the War of the Ring. Late in life he travelled again to the kingdoms of Rohan, Pippins hair colour is mentioned as almost golden in The History of Middle-earth, vol. IX, Sauron Defeated, through the eyes of Pippin Gamgee, in the later drafts of this same section Tolkien omitted this statement, leaving the reader to envisage Pippins appearance. Peregrin was born in T. A.2990 the only son of Paladin Took II and he had three older sisters, Pearl Took, Pimpernel Took, and Pervinca Took. They were raised in the Tooks Great Smials and their fathers farm at Whitwell, in 3001 Pippin and his family were among the 144 special guests at the Farewell Party of Bilbo Baggins, a relative in Hobbiton. His best friend Meriadoc Brandybuck was his cousin, son of Paladins sister Esmeralda Brandybuck and he was also good friends with Frodo Baggins, a more remote cousin. In T. A.3015 Ferumbras III, the Thain of the Shire died, Pippins father Paladin succeeded as Thain, and Pippin became the heir apparent. Pippin was the youngest of the four Hobbits who set out from the Shire and he was therefore said to be still in his tweens. He was 28 at the time, while Merry, the next youngest, was 36, at Rivendell, Elrond almost denied Pippin the chance to accompany Frodo, intending to send Pippin and Merry as messengers back to the Shire. Gandalf, however, supported his and Merrys claims of friendship and loyalty, after remaining with the Fellowship until its breaking at Amon Hen, Pippin was captured along with Merry by an Orc-band, which included some of Sarumans Uruk-hai. While held captive by the Orcs, he dropped his elven brooch as a sign for Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli. During a skirmish among his captors, Pippin managed to cut his bonds using a sword held fast by a dead Uruk, in Rohan, Pippin and Merry managed to escape when the Orcs were attacked by a company of Rohirrim, the local people. Upon their escape, he and Merry befriended Treebeard, leader of the Ents and they roused the other Ents to fight against Saruman, and they attacked his stronghold of Isengard, partially crippling his power. Pippin picked up the palantír of Orthanc after Gríma Wormtongue threw it at them, later, obsessed by the mysterious stone, Pippin took it out of Gandalfs hands while the wizard slept, putting a rock in its place
17.
Meriadoc Brandybuck
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Meriadoc Brandybuck, usually referred to as Merry, is a fictional character from J. R. R. Tolkiens Middle-earth legendarium, featured throughout his most famous work, The Lord of the Rings. A lover of boats and maps, Merry is described as one of the closest friends of Frodo Baggins, Merry is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring. When he first appeared in Tolkiens early drafts, his name was Drogo Took and he was later renamed Vigo, and the name Drogo reassigned to Frodos father. After that, he was renamed Marmaduke, and finally Meriadoc Brandybuck, Frodo and Merry are first cousins once removed. Their common ancestors are Gorbadoc Brandybuck and Mirabella Took Brandybuck, Merry was born T. A.2982, in Buckland. He is the child of Saradoc Brandybuck, who was a Master of Buckland, and Esmeralda Brandybuck. Merry later married Estella Brandybuck, the sister of Fredegar Bolger. Meriadoc and Estella had at least one son, the Council of Elrond convened on 25 October, T. A.3018 in Rivendell. In The Lord of the Rings, Merry is often considered, and was described by Tolkien as, even before Bilbo Baggins left the Shire, he knew of the One Ring and its power of invisibility. He guarded Bag End after Bilbos party, protecting Frodo from the various and he is knowledgeable and has an innocent, teasing sense of humour. In one incident, Lobelia Sackville-Baggins accused Frodo of being a Brandybuck, Merry assured Frodo, It was a compliment, and so, of course, not true. Merry was also a force behind the Conspiracy of Sam, Pippin, Fredegar Bolger, thus, at the beginning of The Fellowship of the Ring, Merry was well-prepared and organized — he assembled their packs and brought ponies. His shortcut through the Old Forest distanced them from the Nazgûl for a time, in the Barrow-downs, he acquired his sword, which was actually a dagger forged in the kingdom of Arnor. At Bree, Merry was actually not present in the Prancing Pony when Frodo put on the Ring, instead, he was taking a walk. At Rivendell, he was seen studying maps and plotting their path and he was admitted to the Fellowship only a little less reluctantly than Pippin, they were the two youngest members, and Elrond had planned on sending them back to the Shire. At the entrance to Moria, he asked Gandalf the meaning of the door inscription Speak, friend, when Gandalf discovered the true interpretation, he said, Merry, of all people, was on the right track. At Amon Hen, he was captured, along with Pippin, by a band of Sarumans Uruk-hai, escaping with Pippin into Fangorn forest, Merry was rescued by Treebeard. Along with Pippin, he drank significant amounts of Ent-draught and grew taller, accompanying Treebeard to the Entmoot and later to Isengard, he and Pippin took up residence in an Isengard gate-house
18.
The Silmarillion
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The Silmarillion /sɪlməˈrɪliən/ is a collection of J. R. R. Tolkiens mythopoeic works, edited and published posthumously by his son, Christopher Tolkien, in 1977, with assistance from Guy Gavriel Kay. The Silmarillion, along with J. R. R, after the success of The Hobbit, Tolkiens publisher requested a sequel. Tolkien sent them a draft of The Silmarillion but through a misunderstanding. The result was that Tolkien began work on A Long Expected Party, the first chapter of what he described at the time as a new story about Hobbits, the first part, Ainulindalë, tells of the creation of Eä, the world that is. Valaquenta, the part, gives a description of the Valar and Maiar. The fourth part, Akallabêth, relates the history of the Downfall of Númenor and its people, the final part, Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age, is a brief account of the circumstances which led to and were presented in The Lord of the Rings. The five parts were initially separate works, but it was the elder Tolkiens express wish that they be published together. Because J. R. R. Tolkien died before he finished revising the various legends, in a few cases, this meant that he had to devise completely new material in order to resolve gaps and inconsistencies in the narrative. The Silmarillion, like Tolkiens other Middle-earth writings, was meant to have taken place at time in Earths past. In keeping with this idea, The Silmarillion is meant to have translated from Bilbos three-volume Translations from the Elvish. The first section of The Silmarillion, Ainulindalë, takes the form of a creation narrative. Eru, also called Ilúvatar, first created the Ainur, a group of spirits or demiurges. Ilúvatar brought the Ainur together and showed them a theme, from which he bade them make a great music, Melkor — whom Ilúvatar had given the greatest power and knowledge of all the Ainur — broke from the harmony of the music to develop his own song. Some Ainur joined him, while continued to follow Ilúvatar. This happened thrice, with Eru Ilúvatar successfully overpowering his rebellious subordinate with a new theme each time, Ilúvatar then stopped the music and showed them a vision of Arda and its peoples. The vision disappeared after a while, and Ilúvatar offered the Ainur a chance to enter into Arda, many Ainur descended, taking physical form and becoming bound to that world. The greater Ainur became known as the Valar, while the lesser Ainur were called the Maiar, valaquenta describes Melkor and each of the 14 Valar in detail, as well as a few of the Maiar. It also reveals how Melkor seduced many Maiar — including those who would eventually become Sauron and the Balrogs — into his service
19.
Unfinished Tales
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Thus some of these are incomplete stories, while others are collections of information about Middle-earth. Each tale is followed by a series of notes explaining inconsistencies. As with The Silmarillion, Christopher Tolkien edited and published Unfinished Tales before he had finished his study of the materials in his fathers archive, Unfinished Tales provides more detailed information about characters, events and places mentioned only briefly in The Lord of the Rings. The commercial success of Unfinished Tales demonstrated that the demand for Tolkiens stories several years after his death was not only still present, it was growing
20.
Fantasy tropes
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Fantasy tropes are a specific type of literary tropes that occur in fantasy fiction. Worldbuilding, in particular, has many common conventions, as do plot and characterization, to a lesser extent. Many works of fantasy operate using these tropes, while others use them in a revisionist manner, making the tropes over for reasons such as for comic effect. The conflict of good against evil is a theme in the popular forms of fantasy, normally, evil characters erupt from their lands to invade. In some works, mostly notably in sword and sorcery, evil is not opposed by the unambiguously good, heroic characters are a mainstay of fantasy, particularly high fantasy and sword and sorcery. Such characters are capable of more than ordinary behavior, physically, morally, sometimes they might have to grow into the role ordained for them. This may take the form of maturation, which is often through Coming of Age, many protagonists are, unknown to themselves, of royal blood. Even in so fanciful a tale as Through the Looking-Glass, Alice is made a queen in the end, commonly, these tales revolve around the maltreated hero coming into his or her own. This can reflect a wish-fulfillment dream, or symbolically embody a profound transformation, the forces of evil are often personified in a Dark Lord. Besides possessing vast magical abilities, a Dark Lord often controls great armies, the villain of the Demon Sword video game is also literally called Dark Lord. In the Lone Wolf gamebooks, the Dark Lords are a race of powerful evil beings. The protagonists of the Overlord video game franchise are classic Dark Lords in the vein of Sauron, the Dark Lord is usually seen as unmarried, though there has been occasion when one has attempted to claim a bride. Quests, a trope in literature, are common in fantasy. They can be anything from a quest to locate the MacGuffins necessary to save the world, in fantasy, magic often has an overwhelming presence, although its precise nature is delineated in the book in which it appears. It can appear in a world, or in a fantasy land that is part of reality but insulated from the mundane lands. A common trope is that the ability to work magic is innate, as a consequence the person who uses it, usually called a magician, wizard, sorcerer, warlock, mage, or magus, is a common figure in fantasy. Another feature is the item, which can endow characters with magical abilities that are not innate. Among the most common are magic swords and magic rings, self-fulfilling prophecies are amongst the most common forms of magic because they are an often used plot device
21.
Minor places in Middle-earth
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The stories of J. R. R. Tolkiens Middle-earth legendarium contain references to numerous places. Some of these places are described below. Aldburg is a fort and settlement in Rohan, in the region known as the Folde. Aldburg was initially the capital of the realm, where Eorl the Young, though his son, King Brego, moved to Edoras early in Rohans history, Aldburg remained the residence of the descendants of Éofor, Bregos third son. At the time of the War of the Ring, it was the home of King Théodens nephew Éomer, the All-welcome Inn was an inn located at the junction of the Northway and the East Road on the Hobbiton side of Frogmorton. It was much used by travellers, especially Dwarves from the Ered Luin, Amon Hen is a hill located on the western bank of the river Anduin, at the southern end of the long lake Nen Hithoel above the Falls of Rauros. It was one of the three peaks at the Falls of Rauros, the others being Amon Lhaw, the Hill of the Ear, and Tol Brandir, an island located between the two hills. The Seat of Seeing was built at the summit of Amon Hen and it was constructed in the early days of Gondor. In The Fellowship of the Ring, the Fellowship travelled down the Anduin from Lothlórien to Parth Galen, after Frodo escaped from Boromir, he sat upon the Seat of Seeing while still wearing the Ring, and was able to see events hundreds of miles distant. Amon Lhaw is one of the three peaks above the Falls of Rauros which drained the lake known as Nen Hithoel, it towered amongst the Emyn Muil on the banks of the Anduin. Its twin, Amon Hen, lay upon the western bank, between them, at the centre of the stream above Rauros, was the island peak Tol Brandir upon which none had ever set foot. Also called the Hill of Hearing and perhaps Hill of the Ear in Westron, Andrath is a narrow pass through which the North-South Road passed between the Barrow-downs on the west and the South Downs on the east. To the north of Andrath the road met the Great East Road, when the Nazgûl came north from Mordor to seek the Ring in the Shire at the end of the Third Age, their leader, the Witch-king of Angmar, camped in Andrath. It is mentioned in the appendices of The Return of the King that it is likely that the Witch-king aroused the Barrow-wights in the nearby Barrow-downs while camped at Andrath. Argonath is a monument comprising two enormous pillars carved in the likenesses of Isildur and Anárion, standing either side of the River Anduin at the northern approach to Nen Hithoel. Each of the two figures was shown wearing a crown and a helm, with an axe in its right hand, also known as the Gate of Kings or the Pillars of the Kings. See Dimrill Dale Bamfurlong is the farmland of Farmer Maggot, located in the Marish of the part of the Shire. The boggy nature of the land makes for above-ground habitation rather than the traditional hobbit-hole, Tolkien himself suggested the name Bamfurlong comes from Old English meaning roughly bean-field
22.
Gondor
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Gondor is a fictional kingdom in J. R. R. Tolkiens writings, described as the greatest realm of Men in the west of Middle-earth by the end of the Third Age. The third volume of The Lord of the Rings, The Return of the King, is concerned with the events in Gondor during the War of the Ring. The history of the kingdom is outlined in the appendices of the book, according to the narrative, Gondor was founded by the brothers Isildur and Anárion, exiles from the downfallen island kingdom of Númenor. Along with Arnor in the north, Gondor, the South-kingdom, after an early period of growth, Gondor gradually declined as the Third Age progressed, being continually weakened by internal strife and conflict with the allies of the Dark Lord Sauron. The kingdoms ascendancy was restored only with Saurons final defeat and the crowning of Aragorn, the role of the kingdom emerged gradually, when a side adventure in the plot became the focus of later writings. The textual history was traced by Christopher Tolkien in The History of Middle-earth, the history of Gondor is described in several of Tolkiens works, with different levels of detail. Within the narrative of The Lord of the Rings, the kingdom is first introduced at the Council of Elrond, with a summary of the Second. The events of the latter are elaborated in the appendices to the book, retellings at an ample scale of some particular episodes are included in Unfinished Tales. The territory that would become Gondor had been colonised by the Númenóreans from around the middle of the Second Age. Within the South-kingdom, the hometowns of Isildur and Anárion were Minas Ithil and Minas Anor respectively, Sauron, however, had survived the destruction of Númenor and secretly returned to his realm of Mordor just to the east of Gondor. Soon he launched a war against the Númenórean kingdoms, hoping to destroy them before their power was established and he captured Minas Ithil, but Isildur escaped and fled by ship to Arnor, meanwhile, Anárion was able to defend Osgiliath. Elendil and the Elven-king Gil-galad formed the Last Alliance of Elves and Men, Sauron was overthrown, but the One Ring that Isildur took from him was not destroyed, and thus Sauron was able to regain power in the next age. However, Isildur and his three sons were ambushed and killed by Orcs in the Gladden Fields. During the first millennium of the Third Age, Gondor was victorious in war and its wealth, after Saurons defeat, Gondor watched over Mordor. In T. A.490, Gondors centuries-old peace was ended by the first of many Easterling invasions and that war lasted into the following century, and from it Gondor conquered much territory in Rhûn north of Mordor. Under the rule of the four Ship-Kings, Gondor established a powerful navy, in 933, Gondor captured the southern port city Umbar, formerly held by the hostile Black Númenóreans. Later, the Haradrim defeated Gondor on land and besieged Umbar, but King Hyarmendacil I strengthened his army and navy, Mordor was desolate and guarded by fortresses. Gondor began to decline during the reigns of Atanatar and his two sons, who lived in ease and luxury, doing little to maintain Gondors strength, the first casualty of this period was the watch on Mordor, which was largely neglected
23.
Rohan (Middle-earth)
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Rohan is a kingdom in J. R. R. Tolkiens fantasy setting of Middle-earth. It is mainly a grassland, and lies north-west of its ally Gondor, and further north-west of Mordor and it is inhabited by the Rohirrim, a people of herdsmen and farmers who are well known for their horses and cavalry. Rohan is also referred to as Riddermark or the Mark, the realm is of significant importance in the authors book, The Lord of the Rings. Much of the background of Rohan is grounded in Anglo-Saxon tradition, conceptualised as the Horse Lords of Rohan allied with Gondor in early drafts of 1939, the Rohirrim took their final form in 1942 when about one third of The Lord of the Rings was completed. Its countryside is described as a land of pastures and lush tall grassland which is frequently windswept, the lands of Rohan are frequently described as appearing like seas of grass, and are therefore perfect for horses. At the time of the War of the Ring, Rohan was roughly a third the size of Gondor, the winds and air masses can come from almost any direction and the weather is highly variable in any season. The area of the border was known as the Gap of Rohan, here the Misty Mountains. However, following the conclusion of the Third Age. the realm was extended west beyond the Gap of Rohan as far as the Greyflood, the capital of Rohan is the hill fort of Edoras which is located on a hill in a valley of the White Mountains. Meduseld, the Golden Hall of the King of Rohan, is located there, Edoras is Old English for enclosures, which Tolkien held to be a translation of an unknown Rohirric name of the same meaning. The city of Edoras was built by Rohans second King, Brego son of Eorl the Young, before Edoras was completed, Rohans capital was at Aldburg in the Folde. Meduseld is described as having a golden thatch, Edoras is built at the end of the valley of Harrowdale, which lies under the great mountain Starkhorn. The river Snowbourn flows past the city on its way east towards the Entwash, the city is protected only by a high wall of timber, and a one-way road allows access to the city. Just before the gates, two rows of line the road, which are the graves of the former Kings of Rohan. Meduseld, a form of the Old English Maeduselde, is similarly meant to be a translation of an unknown Rohirric name meaning mead hall. Meduseld is a hall with roof that appears golden from far off. Edoras is Rohans only real city and it is at Meduseld that Aragorn, Gimli, Legolas, and Gandalf meet with King Théoden in the account of the early stages of the War of the Ring. Another settlement is Aldburg, capital of the Eastfold and original settlement of Eorl the Young, a third settlement is Snowbourne, named after the river of the same name which runs nearby. It is similar in appearance to the hill-fort of Edoras, Dunharrow is a refuge in the White Mountains
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Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
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The Marvellous Land of Snergs
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The Marvellous Land of Snergs is a childrens fantasy, written by Edward Wyke Smith and published in 1927. It was illustrated by the Punch cartoonist George Morrow and it is noted as an inspiration source for Tolkiens The Hobbit. The Marvellous Land of Snergs is set on an island somewhere on Earth. On the island is a colony of children, the crew of the Flying Dutchman, and the Snergs, unfortunately Golithos, a reformed ogre, and Mother Meldrum, a wicked witch, also live there. Also in the forest across the river there are tigers, brown bears, European dragons, ghouls, when Sylvia and Joe run away for a big adventure their lives are in deadly peril when they fall into the clutches of these two characters. Gorbo the Snerg and Baldry the court come to the rescue. J. R. R. Tolkien, author of The Hobbit, the similarities between the races of snergs and hobbits have led to speculation that the book was a major inspiration. They are similar in their descriptions, their love of communal feasting. In all the books there are also journeys through dangerous forests, a recent review describes the book as a classic fairy tale written in traditional style but with great gusto, whimsy and a surprising freshness
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Sinclair Lewis
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Harry Sinclair Lewis was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. His works are known for their insightful and critical views of American capitalism and materialism between the wars and he is also respected for his strong characterizations of modern working women. H. L. Mencken wrote of him, there was ever a novelist among us with a call to the trade. It is this red-haired tornado from the Minnesota wilds and he has been honored by the U. S. Postal Service with a postage stamp in the Great Americans series. Born February 7,1885, in the village of Sauk Centre, Minnesota, Sinclair Lewis began reading books at a young age and he had two siblings, Fred and Claude. His father, Edwin J. Lewis, was a physician, Lewiss mother, Emma Kermott Lewis, died in 1891. The following year, Edwin Lewis married Isabel Warner, whose company young Lewis apparently enjoyed, throughout his lonely boyhood, the ungainly Lewis—tall, extremely thin, stricken with acne and somewhat pop-eyed—had trouble gaining friends and pined after various local girls. At the age of 13 he unsuccessfully ran away from home, Lewis was also nonreligious and an atheist. In late 1902 Lewis left home for a year at Oberlin Academy to qualify for acceptance by Yale University, while at Oberlin, he developed a religious enthusiasm that waxed and waned for much of his remaining teenage years. Lewiss unprepossessing looks, fresh country manners and seemingly self-important loquacity made it difficult for him to win and keep friends at Oberlin and he did initiate a few relatively long-lived friendships among students and professors, some of whom recognized his promise as a writer. Lewiss earliest published creative work—romantic poetry and short sketches—appeared in the Yale Courant, after graduation Lewis moved from job to job and from place to place in an effort to make ends meet, write fiction for publication and to chase away boredom. While working for newspapers and publishing houses, he developed a facility for turning out shallow and he also earned money by selling plots to Jack London, including one for the latters unfinished novel The Assassination Bureau, Ltd. Lewiss first published book was Hike and the Aeroplane, a Tom Swift-style potboiler that appeared in 1912 under the pseudonym Tom Graham. Sinclair Lewiss first serious novel, Our Mr. Wrenn, The Romantic Adventures of a Gentle Man, appeared in 1914, followed by The Trail of the Hawk, A Comedy of the Seriousness of Life and The Job. That same year saw the publication of another potboiler, The Innocents, A Story for Lovers. Free Air, another refurbished serial story, was published in 1919, in 1914 Lewis married Grace Livingston Hegger, an editor at Vogue magazine. They had one son, Wells Lewis, named after British author H. G. Wells, Wells Lewis was killed in action while serving in the U. S. Army in World War II during the rescue of the Lost Battalion in the Forêt de Champ in France. On May 14,1928, he married Dorothy Thompson, a newspaper columnist
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Babbitt (novel)
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Babbitt, by Sinclair Lewis, is a satirical novel about American culture and society that critiques the vacuity of middle-class life and the social pressure toward conformity. The controversy provoked by Babbitt was influential in the decision to award the Nobel Prize in literature to Lewis in 1930, the word Babbitt entered the English language as a person and especially a business or professional man who conforms unthinkingly to prevailing middle-class standards. After the social instability and sharp economic depression that emerged in the wake of World War I, many Americans in the 1920s saw business and city growth as foundations for stability. At the same time, growing Midwestern cities, usually associated with mass production, George F. Babbitt, the novels main character, is described by the 1930 Nobel Prize committee as the ideal of an American popular hero of the middle-class. Lewis has been compared to many authors, writing before and after the publication of Babbitt, written decades later, in 1950, David Riesmans The Lonely Crowd has also been compared to Lewiss writings. Zenith is a typical midsize Midwestern city, Lewis was very critical of the similarities between most American cities, especially when compared to the diverse—and by his lights, culturally richer—cities of Europe. Frowning on the qualities of American cities, he wrote, it would not be possible to write a novel which would in every line be equally true to Munich. This is not true of Zenith, Babbitts literary home, Zenith is a fictitious city in the equally fictitious Midwestern state of Winnemac, adjacent to Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. When Babbitt was published, newspapers in Cincinnati, Duluth, Kansas City, Milwaukee, Cincinnati had perhaps the strongest claim, as Lewis had lived there while researching the book. Lewiss own correspondence suggests, however, that Zenith is meant to be any Midwestern city with a population between about 200,000 and 300,000, while conducting research for Babbitt, Lewis kept detailed journals, in which he drafted long biographies for each of his characters. For his title character this biography even included a detailed genealogy, zeniths major names and families are well-documented in these journals, and many of them emerge again in Lewiss later writings. Zeniths layout is also imagined in careful detail, Lewis drew a series of 18 maps of Zenith and outlying areas, including Babbitts house, with all its furnishings. As much as Babbitt is about the American businessman, it is also about American cities, zeniths chief virtue is conformity, and its religion is boosterism. As a realtor, George Babbitt knows well the virtues of his home city, Zenith is thus presented as more than simply prosperous, it is safe and wholesome. Lewis has been criticized and congratulated for his unorthodox writing style in Babbitt. One reviewer said There is no plot whatever, Babbitt simply grows two years older as the tale unfolds. Lewis presents a series of scenes in the life of his title character. Each item Babbitt encounters is explained, from the alarm clock, which Babbitt sees as a marker of social status, to the rough camp blanket
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W. H. Auden
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Wystan Hugh Auden was an English poet, who later became an American citizen. He was born in York, grew up in and near Birmingham in a professional middle-class family and he attended English independent schools and studied English at Christ Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29 he spent five years teaching in English public schools, then travelled to Iceland, in 1939 he moved to the United States and became an American citizen in 1946. He taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by visiting professorships in the 1950s. From 1947 to 1957 he wintered in New York and summered in Ischia, from 1958 until the end of his life he wintered in New York and summered in Kirchstetten, Austria. Audens poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion and he came to wide public attention at the age of twenty-three, in 1930, with his first book, Poems, followed in 1932 by The Orators. Three plays written in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood in 1935–38 built his reputation as a political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including the long poems For the Time Being and The Sea and the Mirror, focused on religious themes. He won the Pulitzer Prize in Poetry for his 1947 long poem The Age of Anxiety, in 1956–61 he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford, his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis of his 1962 prose collection The Dyers Hand. From around 1927 to 1939 Auden and Isherwood maintained a lasting, throughout his career he was both controversial and influential, and critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive, treating him as a lesser follower of W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot, to strongly affirmative, after his death, his poems became known to a much wider public than during his lifetime through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Auden was born in York, England, to George Augustus Auden, a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden, née Bicknell, who had trained as a missionary nurse. He was the third of three sons, the eldest, George Bernard Auden, became a farmer, while the second, John Bicknell Auden and he traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood. He believed he was of Icelandic descent, and his fascination with Icelandic legends. In 1908 his family moved to Homer Road, Solihull, near Birmingham, Audens lifelong psychoanalytic interests began in his fathers library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays, until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later, words so excite me that a story, for example. Auden attended St Edmunds School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he met Christopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist
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Brothers Hildebrandt
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Greg and Tim Hildebrandt, known as the Brothers Hildebrandt, are American twin brothers who worked collaboratively as fantasy and science fiction artists for many years. They produced illustrations for books, movie posters, childrens books, posters, novels, calendars, advertisements. Tim Hildebrandt died in June 2006, Greg and Tim Hildebrandt began painting professionally in 1959 as the Brothers Hildebrandt. With co-author Jerry Nichols, the Hildebrandt brothers created the 1979 fantasy novel Urshurak, Greg Hildebrandt, Jr. Individually, Greg is also known for his contributions to the art for the Trans-Siberian Orchestras albums and concert merchandise. He also provided the art for Black Sabbaths Mob Rules album. He started his American Beauties pinup art in 1999, Tim Hildebrandt illustrated childrens books, two Dungeons & Dragons calendars, and the poster for the film The Secret of NIMH, his art was also used in advertising by AT&T and Levis. Tim was also Associate Producer of the science fiction film. Tim Hildebrandt died on June 11,2006 at the age of 67 due to complications of diabetes, Tim won the 1992 World Fantasy Award for Best Artist. In 2010 Greg Hildebrandt received the Chesley Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement from the Association of Science Fiction, archived from the original on February 15,2005. Tim Hildebrandt at Pen & Paper, archived from the original on 2005-02-15
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The Lord of the Rings (film series)
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The Lord of the Rings is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson. They are based on the novel The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien, the films are subtitled The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers and The Return of the King. They were distributed by New Line Cinema, each film in the series also had special extended editions released on DVD a year after their respective theatrical releases. While the films follow the general storyline, they do omit some of the novels plot elements and include some additions to. The Fellowship eventually splits up and Frodo continues the quest together with his loyal companion Sam and the treacherous Gollum. Meanwhile, Aragorn, heir in exile to the throne of Gondor, Legolas, Gimli, Merry, and Pippin, the series was a major financial success, with the films collectively being among the highest-grossing film series of all time. The films were acclaimed and heavily awarded, winning 17 out of 30 total Academy Award nominations. The series received praise for its innovative special and visual effects. Director Peter Jackson first came into contact with The Lord of the Rings when he saw Ralph Bakshis 1978 animated film The Lord of the Rings, Jackson enjoyed the film and wanted to know more. Afterwards, he read an edition of the book during a twelve-hour train journey from Wellington to Auckland when he was seventeen. In 1995, Jackson was finishing The Frighteners and considered The Lord of the Rings as a new project, with the new developments in computer-generated imagery following Jurassic Park, Jackson set about planning a fantasy film that would be relatively serious and feel real. Negotiations then stalled when Universal Studios offered Jackson a remake of King Kong, Weinstein was furious, and further problems arose when it turned out Zaentz did not have distribution rights to The Hobbit, United Artists, which was in the market, did. By April 1996, the question was still not resolved. It was also revealed that Jackson originally wanted to finish King Kong before The Lord of the Rings began, but due to location problems, he decided to start with The Lord of the Rings franchise instead. When Universal cancelled King Kong in 1997, Jackson and Walsh immediately received support from Weinstein, Jackson and Walsh asked Costa Botes to write a synopsis of the book and they began to re-read the book. Two to three months later, they had written their treatment, Bilbo attends the Council of Elrond, Sam looks into Galadriels mirror, Saruman is redeemed before he dies and the Nazgûl just make it into Mount Doom before they fall. They presented their treatment to Harvey and Bob Weinstein, the latter of whom they focused on impressing with their screenwriting as he had not read the book and they agreed upon two films and a total budget of $75 million. During mid-1997, Jackson and Walsh began writing with Stephen Sinclair, sinclairs partner, Philippa Boyens, was a major fan of the book and joined the writing team after reading their treatment
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Simple living
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Simple living or voluntary simplicity encompasses a number of different voluntary practices to simplify ones lifestyle. These may include reducing ones possessions, generally referred to as minimalism, or increasing self-sufficiency, Simple living may be characterized by individuals being satisfied with what they have rather than want. Although asceticism generally promotes living simply and refraining from luxury and indulgence, Simple living is distinct from those living in forced poverty, as it is a voluntary lifestyle choice. Simple living can also be a reaction to materialism and conspicuous consumption, some cite socio-political goals aligned with the anti-consumerist or anti-war movements, including conservation, degrowth, social justice, and tax resistance. A number of religious and spiritual traditions encourage simple living, early examples include the Sramana traditions of Iron Age India, Gautama Buddha, and biblical Nazirites. The biblical figure Jesus is said to have lived a simple life and he is said to have encouraged his disciples to take nothing for their journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belts—but to wear sandals and not put on two tunics. Diogenes of Sinope, a figure in the ancient Greek philosophy of Cynicism, claimed that a simple life was necessary for virtue. Plain people are Christian groups who have for centuries practiced lifestyles in which forms of wealth or technology are excluded for religious or philosophical reasons. Groups include the Shakers, Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Amana Colonies, Bruderhof, Old German Baptist Brethren, Harmony Society, there is a Quaker belief called Testimony of Simplicity that a person ought to live her or his life simply. Jean-Jacques Rousseau strongly praised the life in many of his writings, especially in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences. Epicureanism, based on the teachings of the Athens-based philosopher Epicurus, epicureanism upheld the untroubled life as the paradigm of happiness, made possible by carefully considered choices. Specifically, Epicurus pointed out that troubles entailed by maintaining an extravagant lifestyle tend to outweigh the pleasure of partaking in it. Henry David Thoreau, an American naturalist and author, is considered to have made the classic secular statement advocating a life of simple and sustainable living in his book Walden. Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment living a plain and simple life on the shores of Walden Pond, in Victorian Britain, Henry Stephens Salt, an admirer of Thoreau, popularised the idea of Simplification, the saner method of living. Other British advocates of the life included Edward Carpenter, William Morris. C. R. Ashbee and his followers also practiced some of these ideas, British novelist John Cowper Powys advocated the simple life in his 1933 book A Philosophy of Solitude. John Middleton Murry and Max Plowman practised a simple lifestyle at their Adelphi Centre in Essex in the 1930s, irish poet Patrick Kavanagh championed a right simplicity philosophy based on ruralism in some of his work. George Lorenzo Noyes, a naturalist, mineralogist, development critic, writer and he lived a wilderness lifestyle, advocating through his creative work a simple life and reverence for nature
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Earth house
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An earth house is an architectural style characterized by the use of natural terrain to help form the walls of a house. An earth house is set partially into the ground and covered with thin growth. Modern earth houses are built with walls and insulation. Unlike traditional residential houses built on the ground, the aim of building a house is not to live under or in the ground. If ground and house are separated, a house is built “into the air”, resulting in the loss of heat and humidity, the earth house concept uses the ground as an insulating blanket that efficiently protects it from rain, low temperatures, wind and natural abrasion. An earth house does not have to be built under the ground, the earth house is a flexible construction which can be built according to the wishes of its owners, fulfilling the requirements for individuality and energy conservation. The structural engineering of an earth house creates for an organic design requiring spatial sense, earth house architecture brings to mind habitable sculptures, incorporating artistic claim and sculptural quality. The entrance to a house can be in the roof. Early earth houses had no windows, but modern earth houses can have windows inside the roof which can mean that natural sunlight enters them than in an average house. The earth house does not have to be simple in design or low in cost, The Burrow in Canterbury, UK and it featured five bedrooms and was designed by Patrick Kennedy-Sanigar, who is now trying to build a village using this type of housing. Structures, which are designed as arches, can be constructed as stiff individual objects or by means of a sprayed concrete procedure. Arches made of sprayed concrete provide for free and organic shapes, the sprayed concrete procedure was first used by natural scientist Carl Akeley in 1911. Akeley patented a device able to spray fine-grained concrete, while sprayed concrete is mainly applied in underground engineering and tunnel construction, Friedrich Kiesler was the first to use this technique for the construction of buildings. Swiss architect Peter Vetsch improved the technique over several years, to date, he has built over 40 earth houses using sprayed concrete, and he can therefore be considered the leading authority in this area of expertise. The sprayed concrete is applied to a finely meshed metal stretch net which is welded onto the supporting armature, the curvatures are bent and formed according to the intended shape of the building. A20 cm thick polyurethane solid-foam-insulation is sprayed onto the outside of the arches, a fleece filter mat is then laid on top of this and the building is covered with a thick layer of soil some 80 cm to 3 metres thick. The foundation of the buildings designed by Peter Vetsch are built conventionally, the interior walls of an earth house are furnished using loam rendering which provides superior humidity compensation. The loam rendering is finally coated with lime-white cement paint, earth houses by exponents like Peter Vetsch or Arthur Quarmby are based on the interpretation of an environmentally conscious, ecological and progressive architecture
