1.
Burr-Hamilton duel
–
The duel was the culmination of a long and bitter rivalry between the two men. Burr shot and mortally wounded Hamilton, who was carried to the home of William Bayard, the Burr–Hamilton duel is one of the most famous personal conflicts in American history. It was a duel which arose from long-standing personal bitterness that developed between the two men over the course of several years. Tensions reached a point with Hamiltons journalistic defamation of Burrs character during the 1804 New York gubernatorial race. The duel was fought at a time when the practice was being outlawed in the northern United States, Burr survived the duel and was indicted for murder in both New York and New Jersey, though these charges were later either dismissed or resulted in acquittal. The harsh criticism and animosity directed toward him following the duel brought an end to his political career, the Federalist Party, already weakened by the defeat of John Adams in the presidential election of 1800, was further weakened by Hamiltons death. The duel was the skirmish of a long conflict between Democratic-Republicans and Federalists. The conflict began in 1791 when Burr won a United States Senate seat from Philip Schuyler, Hamiltons father-in-law, hamilton’s animosity toward Burr was severe and well-documented in personal letters to his friend and compatriot James McHenry. I should consider the execution of the plan as devoting the country, Mr. Burr will probably make stipulations, but he will laugh in his sleeve while he makes them and will break them the first moment it may serve his purpose. It became clear that Jefferson would drop Burr from his ticket in the 1804 election, Hamilton campaigned vigorously against Burr, who was running as an independent, causing him to lose to Morgan Lewis, a Democratic-Republican endorsed by Hamilton. Both men had been involved in duels in the past and he also served as a second to John Laurens in a 1779 duel with General Charles Lee, and to legal client John Auldjo in a 1787 duel with William Pierce. Hamilton also claimed that he had one previous honor dispute with Burr, Burr stated that there were two, Burr and Hamilton first came into public opposition during the United States presidential election of 1800. Burr ran for Vice President on the Democratic-Republican ticket, along with presidential candidate Thomas Jefferson, against President John Adams, electoral College rules at the time gave each elector two votes for president, the candidate who received the second most votes became vice president. The Democratic-Republican Party, therefore, planned to have 72 of their 73 electors vote for both Jefferson and Burr, with the remaining elector voting only for Jefferson, however, the electors failed to execute this plan, so Burr and Jefferson tied with 73 votes each. Hamilton, however, regarded Burr as far more dangerous than Jefferson, on the 36th ballot, the House of Representatives gave Jefferson the presidency, with Burr becoming vice president. On April 24,1804, a letter was published in the Albany Register in the context of opposing Burrs candidacy, cooper went on to emphasize that he could describe in detail a still more despicable opinion which General Hamilton has expressed of Mr. Burr at a political dinner. A recurring theme in their correspondence is that Burr seeks avowal or disavowal of anything that could justify Coopers characterization, Hamilton replied that he had no other answer to give than that which has already been given. This letter was delivered to Nathaniel Pendleton on June 22 but did not reach Burr until June 25, eventually, Burr issued a formal challenge, and Hamilton accepted
Burr-Hamilton duel
–
A 20th-century artistic rendering of the July 11, 1804, duel between
Aaron Burr and
Alexander Hamilton by J. Mund.
Burr-Hamilton duel
–
Philip Schuyler, Hamilton's father-in-law, lost his Senate seat to Burr.
Burr-Hamilton duel
–
The
Wogdon pistols used in the duel
Burr-Hamilton duel
–
An 1841 map showing the location of a Hamilton Monument
2.
Alexander Hamilton
–
Alexander Hamilton was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration. He took the lead in the funding of the debts by the Federal government, as well as the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs. His vision included a central government led by a vigorous executive branch. This was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison who formed a rival party and they favored strong states based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as too friendly toward Britain and toward monarchy in general, Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, to a married mother of British and French Huguenot ancestry and a Scottish father. His father, James A. Hamilton, was the son of laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange. Orphaned as a child by his mothers death and his fathers abandonment, Hamilton was taken in by an older cousin and he was recognized for his intelligence and talent, and sponsored by a group of wealthy local men to travel to New York City to pursue his education. Hamilton attended Kings College, choosing to stay in the Thirteen Colonies to seek his fortune, discontinuing his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during British occupation of the city, Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War. At the start of the war in 1775, he joined a militia company, in early 1776, he raised a provincial artillery company, to which he was appointed captain. He soon became the aide to General Washington, the American forces commander-in-chief. Hamilton was dispatched by Washington on numerous missions to convey plans to his generals, after the war, Hamilton was elected as a representative to the Congress of the Confederation from New York. He resigned to practice law, and founded the Bank of New York, Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government. He led the Annapolis Convention, which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention in order to create a new constitution, Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, to overcome localism, Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen, which became the Federalist Party. A major issue in the emergence of the American two-party system was the Jay Treaty and it established friendly trade relations with Britain, to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution. Hamilton played a role in the Federalist party, which dominated national. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York and he tried to control the policies of President Adams
Alexander Hamilton
–
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton
–
The Hamilton House, Charlestown, Nevis. The current structure was rebuilt from the ruins of the house where Alexander Hamilton was born and lived as a young child.
Alexander Hamilton
–
Hamilton in his youth
Alexander Hamilton
–
Statue of Hamilton outside Hamilton Hall overlooking Hamilton Lawn at his alma mater,
Columbia University in New York City
3.
Aaron Burr
–
Aaron Burr Jr. was an American politician. He was the vice president of the United States, serving during President Thomas Jeffersons first term. Burr served as a Continental Army officer in the Revolutionary War, after which he became a successful lawyer, the highlight of Burrs tenure as president of the senate was the Senates first impeachment trial, that of Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase. In 1804, the last full year of his term as vice president. Burr was never tried for the duel, and all charges against him were eventually dropped. After leaving Washington, Burr traveled west seeking new opportunities, both economic and political and his activities eventually led to his arrest on charges of treason in 1807. The subsequent trial resulted in acquittal, but Burrs western schemes left him with large debts, in a final quest for grand opportunities, he left the United States for Europe. He remained overseas until 1812, when he returned to the United States to practice law in New York City, there he spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity. Aaron Burr Jr. was born in Newark, New Jersey, in 1756 as the child of the Reverend Aaron Burr Sr. a Presbyterian minister. His mother Esther Burr was the daughter of Jonathan Edwards, the noted Calvinist theologian, Burr had an older sister Sarah, named for her maternal grandmother. She later married Tapping Reeve, founder of the Litchfield Law School in Litchfield, Burrs father died in 1757, and his mother the following year, leaving him and his sister orphans when he was two years old. He and his sister first lived with their grandparents, but Sarah Edwards also died in 1757. Young Aaron and Sally were placed with the William Shippen family in Philadelphia, in 1759, the childrens guardianship was assumed by their 21-year-old maternal uncle Timothy Edwards. The next year, Edwards married Rhoda Ogden and moved with the children to Elizabeth, New Jersey, rhodas younger brothers Aaron Ogden and Matthias Ogden became the boys playmates. The three boys, along with their neighbor Jonathan Dayton, formed a group of friends that lasted their lifetimes, Aaron Burr was admitted to the sophomore class of the College of New Jersey at the age of 13, after being rejected once at age 11. Aside from being occupied with studies, he was a part of the American Whig Society and Cliosophic Society. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1772 at age 16 and he studied theology for an additional year, before rigorous theological training with Joseph Bellamy, a Presbyterian. He changed his career two years later, at age 19, when he moved to Connecticut to study law with his brother-in-law Tapping Reeve
Aaron Burr
–
Aaron Burr
Aaron Burr
–
Burr's maternal grandfather,
Jonathan Edwards
Aaron Burr
–
Memorial plaque presented by the National Capital Sesquicentennal Commission 1951
Aaron Burr
–
Alexander Hamilton fights his fatal duel with Vice President Aaron Burr.
4.
American and British English spelling differences
–
Many of the differences between American and British English date back to a time when spelling standards had not yet developed. For instance, some spellings seen as American today were once used in Britain. But English-language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise, and thus modern English orthography varies somewhat between countries and is far from phonemic in any country, in the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries, todays British English spellings mostly follow Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language, while many American English spellings follow Websters An American Dictionary of the English Language. Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic, in A Companion to the American Revolution, John Algeo notes, it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, rather he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology. William Shakespeares first folios, for example, used spellings like center and color as much as centre, Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman spellings of words proved to be decisive, later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on todays American spellings and vice versa. For the most part, the systems of most Commonwealth countries. Australian spelling has also strayed slightly from British spelling, with some American spellings incorporated as standard, New Zealand spelling is almost identical to British spelling, except in the word fiord. There is also an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori, most words ending in an unstressed -our in British English end in -or in American English. Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation, e. g. contour, velour, paramour and troubadour the spelling is the same everywhere, most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled -or. They were first adopted into English from early Old French, after the Norman conquest of England, the ending became -our to match the Old French spelling. The -our ending was not only used in new English borrowings, however, -or was still sometimes found, and the first three folios of Shakespeares plays used both spellings before they were standardised to -our in the Fourth Folio of 1685. After the Renaissance, new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original -or ending, Websters 1828 dictionary had only -or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform and he preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, the French generally supplied us. In Jeffersons original draft it is spelled honour, Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century, honor still is, in the UK, the usual spelling as a persons name and appears in Honor Oak, a district of London. In derivatives and inflected forms of the words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used
American and British English spelling differences
–
Extract from the Orthography section of the first edition (1828) of
Webster 's "
ADEL ", which popularized the "American standard" spellings of -er (6); -or (7); the dropped -e (8); -or (10); -se (11); and the doubling of consonants with a suffix (15).
American and British English spelling differences
–
An 1814 American medical text showing British English spellings that were still in use ("tumours", "colour", "centres", etc.).
5.
Family
–
Family is the second album released by May J. and her first under the label Rhythm Zone. No singles were released form the album and it entered the daily Oricon chart at #5 and climbed to #3. DJ Kaori, Diggy-Mo, Clench and Blistah もし君と. with Kimaguren 旅立つ君に Family, Clench and Blistah Unity Crescent Moon, Daishi Dance Remix もし君と… with キマグレン, Music Video Garden feat. DJ Kaori, Diggy-Mo’, クレンチ＆ブリスタ, Music Video 旅立つ君に, Music Video Making of music videos and private movie in Okinawa
Family
6.
School
–
A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools, the names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is called a university college or university. In addition to these schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to young children. University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school, a school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods, there are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools. In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a school building. Schools are commonly organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school. The word school derives from Greek σχολή, originally meaning leisure and also that in which leisure is employed, the concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece, ancient Rome ancient India, the Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the education system began in 425 AD. The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Byzantine education system continued until the empires collapse in 1453 AD. Beginning in the 5th century CE monastic schools were established throughout Western Europe. Islam was another culture developed a school system in the modern sense of the word
School
–
Students at school in an Indian village.
School
School
–
Plato 's academy,
mosaic from
Pompeii.
School
–
Mental Calculations. In the school of S.Rachinsky by
Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky. Russia, 1895.
7.
Regiment
–
A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty
Regiment
–
The
Royal Regiment of Fusiliers on parade in England
Regiment
–
Standard
NATO symbol for a regiment of several battalions, indicated by the III. The shape, colour and pattern indicate friendly infantry.
Regiment
–
Regimental badge of the
Scots Guards.
Regiment
–
The Puerto Rican
65th Infantry Regiment 's
bayonet charge against a
Chinese division during the Korean War.
8.
Society
–
In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant and this is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity, Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. Cultural relativism as an approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of primitive, better/worse. Societies may also be structured politically, in order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of power, depending on the cultural, geographical. Thus, an isolated society with the same level of technology. A society that is unable to offer a response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as. a human product, and nothing but a human product, according to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. This is similar to the earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. This system of classification contains four categories, Hunter-gatherer bands, tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments, in addition to this there are, Humanity, mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including societys beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and this cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages, villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states, many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all cultures, typically
Society
–
A half-section of the 12th-century South Tang Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai, original by
Gu Hongzhong. The painting portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, and hosts all in a single social environment. It serves as an in-depth look into the Chinese social structure of the time.
Society
Society
–
The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae)
social ethology.
Society
–
Canis lupus
social ethology
9.
Samuel Johnson
–
Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and is described by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history. He is also the subject of perhaps the most famous biography in English literature, born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford for just over a year, before his lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London, where he began to write for The Gentlemans Magazine and his early works include the biography Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, and the play Irene. After nine years of work, Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755 and it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship. This work brought Johnson popularity and success, until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnsons was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary. His later works included essays, an annotated edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he travelled to Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, Johnson was a tall and robust man. His odd gestures and tics were disconcerting to some on first meeting him, after a series of illnesses, he died on the evening of 13 December 1784, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Born on 18 September 1709, to Michael Johnson, a bookseller and he did not cry and, with doubts surrounding the newborns health, his aunt exclaimed that she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street. Since it was feared that the baby die, the vicar of St Marys was summoned to perform a baptism. Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, Johnsons health improved and he was put to wet-nurse with Joan Marklew. He soon contracted scrofula, known at time as the Kings Evil because it was thought royalty could cure it. Sir John Floyer, former physician to King Charles II, recommended that the young Johnson should receive the royal touch, however, the ritual was ineffective, and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scars across his face and body. Johnson demonstrated signs of intelligence as a child, and his parents, to his later disgust. His education began at the age of three, and was provided by his mother, who had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer. When Samuel turned four, he was sent to a nearby school, a year later, Johnson went to Lichfield Grammar School, where he excelled in Latin. During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his years
Samuel Johnson
–
Samuel Johnson c. 1772, painted by Sir
Joshua Reynolds
Samuel Johnson
Samuel Johnson
–
Johnson's birthplace in Market Square,
Lichfield
Samuel Johnson
–
Entrance of Pembroke College, Oxford
10.
A Dictionary of the English Language
–
Johnson took nearly nine years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. Remarkably, he did so single-handedly, with clerical assistance to copy out the illustrative quotations that he had marked in books. Johnson produced several revised editions during his life, until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 173 years later, Johnsons was viewed as the pre-eminent English dictionary. A hundred years earlier, books had been regarded with something approaching veneration, such an explosion of the printed word demanded a set pattern of grammar, definition, and spelling for those words. This could be achieved by means of a dictionary of the English language. Johnsons dictionary was not the first English dictionary, nor even among the first dozen, over the previous 150 years more than twenty dictionaries had been published in England, the oldest of these being a Latin-English wordbook by Sir Thomas Elyot published in 1538. The next to appear was by Richard Mulcaster, a headmaster, Mulcaster compiled what he termed a generall table we commonlie use. It were a thing verie praise worthy. if som well learned. would gather all words which we use in the English tung. into one dictionary, in 1598 an Italian–English dictionary by John Florio was published. It was the first English dictionary to use quotations to give meaning to the word, surprisingly and this was to change, to a small extent, in schoolmaster Robert Cawdreys Table Alphabeticall, published in 1604. Though it contained only 2,449 words, and no word beginning with the letters W, X, or Y, several more dictionaries followed, in Latin, English, French and Italian. Benjamin Martins Lingua Britannica Reformata and Ainsworths Thesaurus Linguae Latinae are both significant, in that they define entries in separate senses, or aspects, of the word. But perhaps the greatest single fault of these early lexicographers was, as historian Henry Hitchings put it, in that sense Dr. Johnsons dictionary was the first to comprehensively document the English lexicon. Johnsons dictionary was prepared at 17 Gough Square, London, an eclectic household, by 1747 Johnson had written his Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language, which spelled out his intentions and proposed methodology for preparing his document. Johnsons Plan received the patronage of Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, Chesterfield did not care about praise, but was instead interested by Johnsons abilities. Seven years after first meeting Johnson to discuss the work, Chesterfield wrote two essays in The World that recommended the Dictionary. He complained that the English language was lacking structure and argued, We must have recourse to the old Roman expedient in times of confusion, upon this principle, I give my vote for Mr Johnson to fill that great and arduous post. However, Johnson did not appreciate the tone of the essay, such treatment I did not expect, for I never had a patron before. Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, a Dictionary of the English Language was somewhat large and very expensive
A Dictionary of the English Language
–
Samuel Johnson's Folio and Abridged Dictionaries together
A Dictionary of the English Language
–
Title page from the second edition of the Dictionary
A Dictionary of the English Language
–
Close up of pages for M entries in the Folio and Abridged Dictionaries of 1755 and 1756 by Samuel Johnson
11.
Nobility
–
The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
Nobility
–
Detail from
Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry), c. 1410, month of April
Nobility
–
Nobility offered protection in exchange for service
Nobility
–
French aristocrats, c. 1774
Nobility
–
A French political cartoon of the three orders of
feudal society (1789). The rural third estate carries the clergy and the nobility.
12.
Magnanimity
–
Magnanimity is the virtue of being great of mind and heart. It encompasses, usually, a refusal to be petty, a willingness to face danger, Magnanimity is a latinization of the Greek word μεγαλοψυχία, megalopsychia which means greatness of soul and was identified by Aristotle as the crowning virtue. Although the word magnanimity has a connection to Aristotelian philosophy. Noah Webster of the American Language defines Magnanimity as such, MAGNANIMITY, in his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle considered it the suitable virtue for a great man, arising from his other virtues. Edmund Spenser, in The Faerie Queene, had each knight allegorically represent a virtue, Prince Arthur represented magnificence, the uncompleted work does not include Prince Arthurs book, and the significance is not clear. Democritus states that magnanimity consists in enduring tactlessness with mildness, as an adjective, the concept is expressed as magnanimous, e. g. Because of his actions, the king then bestows the title Magnanimous upon Hjalti. One form of magnanimity is the generosity of the victor to the defeated, for example, magnanimity has been codified between societies by the Geneva Conventions. Magnanimous relief efforts can serve to offset the damage of war. C. S. Lewis, in his book The Abolition of Man, refers to the chest of man as the seat of magnanimity, or sentiment, with this magnanimity working as the liaison between visceral and cerebral man. Lewis asserts that, in his time, the denial of the emotions that are found in the eternal and sublime -- that which is humbling as an objective reality -- had led to men without chests
Magnanimity
–
The magnanimity of
Alexander towards the captive
Porus.
13.
Meanness
–
Meanness is a personal quality whose classical form, discussed by many from Aristotle to Thomas Aquinas, characterizes it as a vice of lowness, but whose modern form deals more with cruelty. These, in particular the one, largely summarize the aspects of the classical definition of meanness that have been propounded by philosophers, Aristotelian and otherwise. It is the deficiency of giving to or the excess of taking from others, the other vice is prodigality, which Aristotle describes as both less common than meanness and less of a vice. Meanness can take many forms, as there are ways in which one can deviate from the liberal/generous virtue. Aristotle said that meanness we always impute to those who care more than they ought for wealth, the translation of what Aristotle meant is not without problems. Aristotles actual word ἐλευθερία corresponds with both liberality and freedom and its opposite, ανἐλευθερία, is both meanness and servility. Philosophers such as Susanne E. Foster have attempted to reconcile these by explaining that the connotation is that meanness is enslavement by ones material possessions. A slave has no possessions to give and is not the recipient of gifts from others, whereas a person, in a gift-exchanging culture, can give. Meanness, therefore, is the vice of a person behaving, in such a culture. Another problem that has taxed philosophers analysing Aristotle is that the continuum is from excess to deficiency. Philosophers have attempted to explain this, and characterize what Aristotle was trying to say as an excess or a deficiency in some other form, howard J. Exactly which vice of the two that brackets a virtue is excess and which is deficiency is entirely arbitrary. Curzer also contends that Aristotles statement that meanness is worse than prodigality is a mistake, in his Summa Theologica, Thomas Aquinas explicitly cited Aristotle and held meanness — parvificentia in his original Latin — to be the opposite of magnificence. Whilst a magnificent person is willing to pay for projects and good causes. Theodore Parker, like Aristotle, opposed meanness and generosity, declaring meanness as an unmanly and unwomanly vice. He differentiated two forms of meanness, pecuniary meanness, which is meanness in things measurable with money, and meanness of behaviour, which is meanness in things not thus measurable. George Crabb described meanness as hatever a man does in common with those below him and he considered meanness to be only relatively bad, as what may constitute meanness for one person may be generosity or prudence for another. Seeking to save or to gain for oneself at the expense of others, henry Sidgwick in The Methods of Ethics held meanness to be both the opposite of liberality and generosity. A mean person chooses a trifling gain to himself rather than the avoidance of disappointment to others, samuel Johnson wrote in The False Alarm that n infallible characteristic of meanness is cruelty
Meanness
–
An old poster depicting cruelty, including selling slaves in Algiers, execution, burning, and other cruelties.
14.
Virtue
–
A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting collective and individual greatness, the opposite of virtue is vice. The four classic cardinal virtues are, temperance, prudence, courage, Christianity derives the three theological virtues of faith, hope and love from 1 Corinthians. Together these make up the seven virtues, Buddhisms four brahmavihara can be regarded as virtues in the European sense. The Japanese Bushidō code is characterized by up to ten virtues, including rectitude, courage, for Immanuel Kant a person is virtuous when they act in accordance with moral principles. During Egyptian civilization, Maat or Maat, also spelled māt or mayet, was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat was also personified as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, the deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal. It is unclear whether multiple virtues were of later construct, in his work Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, however, the virtuous action is not simply the mean between two opposite extremes. This is not simply splitting the difference between two extremes, for example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include, courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence between self-deprecation and vanity, in Aristotles sense, virtue is excellence at being human. Seneca, the Roman Stoic, said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue, thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person. The same rationale was expressed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that only act in ways that they perceive will bring them maximum good. It is the lack of wisdom that results in the making of a bad choice instead of a prudent one, in this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. Plato realized that because virtue was synonymous with wisdom it could be taught and he then added correct belief as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and tethered. The term virtue itself is derived from the Latin virtus, and had connotations of manliness, honour, worthiness of deferential respect, most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were, Auctoritas – spiritual authority – the sense of social standing, built up through experience, Pietas
Virtue
–
Personification of virtue (
Greek ἀρετή) in
Celsus Library in
Ephesos,
Turkey
Virtue
–
Virtues fighting vices, stained glass window (14th century) in the
Niederhaslach Church
15.
Celebrity
–
Celebrity status is often associated with wealth, while fame often provides opportunities to make money. Successful careers in sports and entertainment are commonly associated with celebrity status, People may also become celebrities due to media attention on their lifestyle, wealth, or controversial actions, or for their connection to a famous person. Throughout recorded history there are accounts of people who attracted the trappings of celebrity which would be recognized today, athletes in Ancient Greece were welcomed home as heroes, had songs and poems written in their honor, and received free food and gifts from those seeking celebrity endorsement. Ancient Rome similarly lauded actors and notorious gladiators, and Julius Caesar appeared on a coin in his own lifetime, in the 12th century, Thomas Becket became famous following his murder. He was promoted by the Christian Church as a martyr and images of him, the cult of personality can be traced back to the Romantics in the 18th Century, whose livelihood as artists and poets depended on the currency of their reputation. The establishment of cultural hot-spots became an important factor in the process of generating fame, for example, London, newspapers started including gossip columns and certain clubs and events became places to be seen in order to receive publicity. The movie industry spread around the globe in the first half of the 20th Century, yet, celebrity wasnt always tied to actors in films, especially when cinema was starting out as a medium. The second half of the century saw television and popular music bring new forms of celebrity, such as the rock star, unlike movies, television created celebrities who were not primarily actors, for example, presenters, talk show hosts and news readers. In the sixties and early seventies the book publishing industry began to persuade major celebrities to put their names on autobiographies and other titles in a genre called celebrity publishing. In most cases the book was not written by the celebrity but by a ghost-writer, cultures and regions with a significant population may have their own independent celebrity systems, with distinct hierarchies. For example, the Canadian province of Quebec, which is French-speaking, has its own system of French-speaking television, movie, a person who garners a degree of fame in one culture may be considered less famous or obscure in another. S. Whereas the francophone Canadian singer Celine Dion is well known in both the French-speaking world and in the United States, regions within a country, or cultural communities can also have their own celebrity systems, especially in linguistically or culturally distinct regions such as Quebec or Wales. Regional radio personalities, newscasters, politicians or community leaders may be local or regional celebrities and these informal rankings indicate a placing within a hierarchy. However, due to differing levels of celebrity in different regions, a Brazilian actor might be a B-list action film actor in the U. S. but an A-list star in Portugal. Some elements are associated with fame, such as appearing on the cover of Time, being spoofed in Mad, having a wax statue in Madame Tussauds, certain people are known even to people unfamiliar with the area in which they excelled. If one has to name a famous boxer, they are likely to name Muhammad Ali or Mike Tyson. The same phenomenon is true for fictional characters, superman, Spider-Man, The Hulk, Wonder Woman and Batman represent super heroes to a far wider audience than that of the comics and graphic novels in which they appear. Disney have themeparks around the world rely on the fame of its creations headed by Mickey Mouse
Celebrity
–
Association footballer
David Beckham is famous, not just for his sporting achievements but his fashion, product endorsements and his marriage to pop star
Victoria Beckham.
Celebrity
–
American
socialite Paris Hilton is sometimes described as ' famous for being famous '
Celebrity
–
Peter Robinson felt that
Madonna invented contemporary pop fame and her fame has generated multiple
material academics.
Celebrity
–
Many people around the world know the name and face of the current US president,
Barack Obama.
16.
Chastity
–
Chastity is sexual behavior of a man or woman that is acceptable to the moral standards and guidelines of their culture, civilization or religion. The term has become associated with sexual abstinence, especially before marriage. The words chaste and chastity stem from the Latin adjective castus meaning pure, the words entered the English language around the middle of the 13th century, at that time they meant slightly different things. Chaste meant virtuous or pure from unlawful sexual intercourse, while chastity meant virginity and it was not until the late 16th century that the two words came to have the same basic meaning as a related adjective and noun. For Muslims and many Christians, acts of nature are restricted to marriage. For unmarried persons, chastity is identified with sexual abstinence, sexual acts outside or apart from marriage, such as adultery, fornication and prostitution, are considered sinful. In many Christian traditions, chastity is synonymous with sexual purity, chastity means not having any sexual relations before marriage. It also means fidelity to husband or wife during marriage, in Catholic morality, chastity is placed opposite the deadly sin of lust, and is classified as one of seven virtues. The moderation of sexual desires is required to be virtuous, reason, will and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good. In marriage, the spouses commit to a relationship which excludes sexual intimacy with other persons. After marriage, a form of chastity, often called vidual chastity, is expected of a woman while she is in mourning for her late husband. For example, Anglican Bishop Jeremy Taylor defined 5 rules in Holy Living, including abstaining from marrying so long as she is with child by her former husband, the particular ethical system may not prescribe each of these. Many Anglican communities allow for artificial contraception, seeing the restriction of family size by artificial contraception as possibly not contrary to Gods will, a stricter view is held by the Shakers, who prohibit marriage as a violation of chastity. The Catholic Church has set up various rules regarding clerical celibacy, celibacy is required of monastics—monks, nuns and friars—even in a rare system of double cloisters, in which husbands could enter the monastery while their wives entered a sister monastery. Required celibacy among the clergy is a recent practice, it became Church policy at the Second Lateran Council in 1139. It was not uniformly enforced among the clergy until 200 years later, eastern Catholic priests are permitted to be married, provided they are so before ordination and outside the monastic life. Vows of chastity can also be taken by laypersons, either as part of a religious life or on an individual basis, as a voluntary act of devotion, or as part of an ascetic lifestyle. The voluntary aspect has led it to being included among the main counsels of perfection, chastity is a central and pivotal concept in Roman Catholic praxis
Chastity
–
Allegory of chastity by
Hans Memling
17.
Fidelity
–
Fidelity is the quality of faithfulness or loyalty. Its original meaning regarded duty in a broader sense than the concept of fealty. Both derive from the Latin word fidēlis, meaning faithful or loyal, in the City of London financial markets it has traditionally been used in the sense encompassed in the motto My word is my bond. Fidelity also denotes how accurately a copy reproduces its source, in the 1950s, the terms high fidelity or hi-fi were popularized for equipment and recordings which exhibited more accurate sound reproduction. The converse term lo-fi, does not necessarily mean low fidelity, similarly in electronics, fidelity refers to the correspondence of the output signal to the input signal, rather than sound quality, as in the popular internet connection technology Wi-Fi. In the fields of scientific modelling and simulation, fidelity refers to the degree to which a model or simulation reproduces the state and behaviour of a real world object, fidelity is therefore a measure of the realism of a model or simulation. Simulation fidelity has also described in the past as degree of similarity. In the field of evaluation, the term fidelity denotes how closely a set of procedures were implemented as they were supposed to have been
Fidelity
–
Palazzo Ducale in Venice: capital # 28 in the porch, featuring Virtues and vices - In fidelitate nulli gero (Fidelity)
18.
Royal Military College of Canada
–
The Royal Military College of Canada, commonly abbreviated as RMCC or RMC, is the military college of the Canadian Armed Forces, and is a degree-granting university training military officers. RMC was established in 1876 and is the only institution in Canada with degree-granting powers. The Royal Military College of Canada Degrees Act,1959 empowers the college to confer degrees in arts, science, programs are offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels both on campus as well as through the Colleges distance learning programme via the Division of Continuing Studies. Located on Point Frederick, a 41-hectare peninsula in Kingston, Ontario, the college is a blend of older, historic buildings, as well as more academic, athletic. Officer cadets of the Royal Military College of Canada are trained in what are known as the four pillars of academics, officership, athletics, and bilingualism. RMC provides programs and courses of education and professional development to meet the needs of the Canadian Armed Forces. Those able to gain admission to this institution will belong to a community of peers that encourages alumni prosperity. For most students under the ROTP, education is free and a salary is paid which meets incidentals. The courses are offered both on site and by learning in both official languages, English and French. After graduation, Officers are to two months of service for each subsidized month of education. RMC offers 19 undergraduate programs in Arts, Science and Engineering, RMC offers 34 graduate studies opportunities, including 14 doctorates. All undergraduate students are required to complete the curriculum, which is designed to provide a balanced liberal arts, science. The Core Curriculum consists of Economics, Psychology, Mathematics, English, Calculus, Military history of Canada, Chemistry, Canadian History, Engineering and Management was offered, 1972–1995. Engineering Physics was offered 1975–1995 and Fuels and Materials Engineering were offered 1982–1991, engineers provide support to deployed operations and domestic installations. RMC was the first college in Canada to train engineers, Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science, Mathematics and Space Science are offered by the Faculty of Science. The science programs are relevant to occupations in both the Canadian Armed Forces and the civilian sector, students pursuing a Bachelor of Arts gain practical communication and critical thinking skills as well as specialized, hands-on experience in their chosen field. English, French, Economics, Political Science, History, Business Administration, Military theory, Military strategy studies, Military Psychology and Leadership are offered by the Faculty of Arts. Tuition fees at the undergraduate level vary from $2,780 – $3,710 for Canadian undergraduate students, the tuition fees for international students vary from $8,750 – $9,000 for undergraduate students and $6,200 – $6,700 for graduate students
Royal Military College of Canada
Royal Military College of Canada
–
Royal Military College of Canada
Royal Military College of Canada
–
One of the Royal Military College of Canada entrances
Royal Military College of Canada
–
The Mackenzie Building
19.
Dignity
–
Moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions use the concept of dignity to express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment. In the modern context dignity can function as an extension of the Enlightenment-era concepts of inherent, Dignity also has descriptive meanings pertaining to human worth. In general, the term has various functions and meanings depending on how the term is used, the English word dignity, attested from the early 13th century, comes from Latin dignitas by way of French dignité. There is also a history of special philosophical use of this term. However, it is rarely defined outright in political, legal, Human dignity can be violated in multiple ways. The main categories of violations are, Humiliation Violations of human dignity in terms of humiliation refer to acts that humiliate or diminish the self-worth of a person or a group, acts of humiliation are context dependent but we normally have an intuitive understanding where such a violation occurs. As Schachter noted, “it has been assumed that a violation of human dignity can be recognized even if the abstract term cannot be defined. ‘I know it when I see it even if I cannot tell you what it is’” and this approach is common in judicial decisions where judges refer to violations of human dignity as injuries to peoples self-worth or their self-esteem. Instrumentalization or objectification This aspect refers to treating a person as an instrument or as means to some other goal. Degradation Violations of human dignity as degradation refer to acts that degrade the value of human beings and these are acts that, even if done by consent, convey a message that diminishes the importance or value of all human beings. Dehumanization These are acts that strip a person or a group of their human characteristics and it may involve describing or treating them as animals or as a lower type of human beings. This has occurred in such as the Holocaust and in Rwanda where the minority were compared to insects. Some of the practices that violate human dignity include torture, rape, social exclusion, labor exploitation, bonded labor, both absolute and relative poverty are violations of human dignity, although they also have other significant dimensions, such as social injustice. Involuntary poverty is unusual among violations of dignity because it is usually the result of acts of omission rather than acts of commission. Another example of violation of human dignity, especially for women in developing countries, is lack of sanitation, a further example of violation of human dignity, affecting women mainly in developing countries, is female genital mutilation. The movie The Magic Christian depicts a man and his son who test the limits of dignity by forcing people to perform self-degrading acts for money. A philosopher of the Renaissance, Pico della Mirandola, granted dignity to ideas, in his Oration on the Dignity of Man, he told hostile clerics about the dignity of the liberal arts and about the dignity and the glory of angels. His comments implied the dignity of philosophers and this oration is commonly seen as one of the central texts of the Renaissance, intimately tied with the growth of humanist philosophies
Dignity
–
Woodcut from
Cesare Ripa's Iconologia depicting the Allegory of Dignity
20.
Western world
–
The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
Western world
–
The
Parthenon (
Athens).
Western world
–
Division of the
Roman Empire after 395 into western and eastern part. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire.
Western world
–
The
Roman Forum (
Rome).
Western world
–
The
Supreme Court of the United States (
Washington, D.C.).
21.
Conscience
–
Conscience is an aptitude, faculty, intuition or judgment that assists in distinguishing right from wrong. Moral judgment may derive from values or norms, Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans, to a beneficent universe and/or to divinity. Common secular or scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined, commonly used metaphors for conscience include the voice within, the inner light. Or even Socrates reliance on what the Greeks called his daimōnic sign, according to Adi Shankara in his Vekachudamani morally right action, helps purify the heart and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us direct perception of the Reality. This knowledge requires discrimination between the eternal and non-eternal and eventually a realization in contemplation that the true self merges in a universe of pure consciousness, Conscience also features prominently in Buddhism. In the Pali scriptures, for example, Buddha links the positive aspect of conscience to a pure heart and it is regarded as a spiritual power, and one of the “Guardians of the World”. The Buddha also associated conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right mindfulness, the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts. The Islamic concept of Taqwa is closely related to conscience, in the Qur’ān verses 2,197 &22,37 Taqwa refers to right conduct or piety, guarding of oneself or guarding against evil. Qur’ān verse 47,17 says that God is the source of the believers taqwā which is not simply the product of individual will. In Qur’ān verses 91, 7–8, God the Almighty talks about how He has perfected the soul, Qur’ān verse 49,13 states, O humankind. Marshall Hodgson wrote the work, The Venture of Islam, Conscience. In the Protestant Christian tradition, Martin Luther insisted in the Diet of Worms that his conscience was captive to the Word of God, to Luther, conscience falls within the ethical, rather than the religious, sphere. John Calvin saw conscience as a battleground, the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom, many Christians regard following ones conscience as important as, or even more important than, obeying human authority. In the Gospel of John Jesus challenges those accusing a woman of adultery stating, He that is without sin among you, and again he stooped down, and wrote on the ground. And they which heard it, being convicted by their own conscience, Catholic theology sees conscience as the last practical judgment of reason which at the appropriate moment enjoins to do good and to avoid evil. Thus, conscience is not like the will, nor a habit like prudence, but the space in which we can listen to and hear the truth, the good. Thus, Catholics are taught to carefully educate themselves as to revealed norms and norms derived therefrom, Catholics are also to examine their conscience daily and with special care before confession. Catholic teaching holds that, Man has the right to act according to his conscience and he must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience
Conscience
–
Vincent van Gogh, 1890.
Kröller-Müller Museum. The Good Samaritan (after Delacroix).
Conscience
–
Seated
Buddha,
Gandhara, 2nd century CE. The Buddha linked conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right mindfulness and right contemplation.
Conscience
–
Marcus Aurelius bronze fragment, Louvre, Paris: "To move from one unselfish action to another with God in mind. Only there, delight and stillness."
Conscience
–
Last page of
Ghazali 's autobiography in MS Istanbul, Shehid Ali Pasha 1712, dated
A.H. 509 = 1115–1116. Ghazali's crisis of epistemological skepticism was resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast... the key to most knowledge."
22.
Stereotype
–
In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
Stereotype
–
An 18th-century Dutch engraving of the peoples of the world, depicting the inhabitants of
Asia, the
Americas and
Africa as savages. Shown below are an
Englishman, a
Dutchman, a
German and a
Frenchman.
Stereotype
–
Police officers buying doughnuts and coffee, an example of perceived stereotypical behavior in North America.
Stereotype
–
An anti-semitic 1873 caricature depicting the stereotypical physical features of a Jewish male.
Stereotype
–
A magazine feature from Beauty Parade from March 1952 stereotyping women drivers. It features
Bettie Page as the model.
23.
Pashtuns
–
The Pashtuns /ˈpʌʃˌtʊnz/ or /ˈpæʃˌtuːnz/, historically known by the exonyms Afghans, and Pathan, are an ethnic group native to Afghanistan and North-Western Pakistan. They are generally classified as Eastern Iranian ethno-linguistically, who use Pashto language and follow Pashtunwali, the origin of Pashtuns is unclear but historians have come across references to various ancient peoples called Pakthas between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC, who may be their early ancestors. Their history is mostly spread amongst various countries of South and Central Asia, as the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, Pashtuns have been the dominant ethno-linguistic group for over 300 years. The Barakzai dynasty played a role during the Great Game from the 19th century to the 20th century as they were caught between the imperialist designs of the British and Russian empires. There have been many notable Pashtun people throughout history, Ahmad Shah Durrani is regarded as the founder of the modern state of Afghanistan. Under Amanullah Khan, Afghanistan was able to pursue an independent foreign policy, some others include Malala Yousafzai, Shah Rukh Khan, Hamid Karzai, and Imran Khan. They are an important community in Pakistan, which has the largest Pashtun population, Pashtuns attained presidency there and high rankings in sports. They are the worlds largest segmentary lineage ethnic group, according to Ethnologue, the total population of the group is estimated to be around 50 million but an accurate count remains elusive due to the lack of an official census in Afghanistan since 1979. Estimates of the number of Pashtun tribes and clans range from about 350 to over 400, additional Pashtun communities are located in western and northern Afghanistan, the Gilgit–Baltistan and Kashmir regions and northwestern Punjab province of Pakistan. There are also sizeable Muslim communities in India, which are of largely Pashtun ancestry, throughout the Indian subcontinent, they are often referred to as Pathans. Smaller Pashtun communities are found in the countries of the Middle East, such as in the Khorasan Province of Iran, the Arabian Peninsula, Europe, important metropolitan centres of Pashtun culture include Peshawar, Quetta, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Kunduz, and Lashkar Gah. The cities of Kabul and Ghazni in Afghanistan are home to around 25% Pashtun population while Herat, with as high as 7 million by some estimates, the city of Karachi in Sindh, Pakistan has the largest concentration of urban Pashtuns in the world. In addition, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Lahore also have sizeable Pashtun populations, about 15% of Pakistans nearly 200 million population is Pashtun. In Afghanistan, they are the largest ethnic group and make up between 42-60% of the 32.5 million population. The exact figure remains uncertain in Afghanistan, which is affected by the 1.5 million or more Afghan refugees that remain in Pakistan. Another one million or more Afghans live in Iran, a cumulative population assessment suggests a total of around 49 million individuals all across the world. A prominent institution of the Pashtun people is the system of tribes. Despite this, many people identify themselves with various clans
Pashtuns
–
Sher Shah Suri
Pashtuns
–
Dost Mohammad of Bhopal
Pashtuns
–
Ahmad Shah Durrani
24.
Southern Italy
–
It generally coincides with the administrative regions of Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, Sicily, and Sardinia. Some also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio within the Mezzogiorno, Southern Italy carries a unique legacy of culture. It features many major tourist attractions, such as the Palace of Caserta, there are also many ancient Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as Sybaris, which were founded several centuries before the start of the Roman Republic. These same subdivisions are at the bottom of the Italian First level NUTS of the European Union, the term Mezzogiorno first came into use in the 18th century and is an Italian rendition of meridies. The term was popularised by Giuseppe Garibaldi and it eventually came into vogue after the Italian unification. In a similar manner, Southern France is colloquially known as le Midi, Southern Italy forms the lower part of the Italian boot, containing the ankle, the toe, the arch, and the heel, along with the island of Sicily. Separating the heel and the boot is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto and it is an arm of the Ionian Sea. The island of Sardinia, right below the French island of Corsica, on the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan Gulf and on the south of the Sorrentine Peninsula runs the Amalfi Coast, off the tip of the peninsula is the isle of Capri. The climate is mainly Mediterranean, except at the highest elevations and the eastern stretches in Apulia, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria. The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, a name from the Greek that it has maintained for millennia. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia, and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area. The region is very active and highly seismic, the 1980 Irpinia earthquake killed 2,914 people, injured more than 10,000. Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and they included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. The Romans called the area of Sicily and the foot of Italy, Magna Graecia, the ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions. With this colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, an original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like Neapolis, Syracuse, Acragas, other cities in Magna Graecia included Tarentum, Epizephyrian Locri, Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Syessa, Bari, and others. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BCE, from then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between Greece, Lombardy, and the Islamic Caliphate
Southern Italy
–
Satellite image of Southern Italy
Southern Italy
–
Greek temple of Hera,
Selinunte,
Sicily.
Southern Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by
Frederick II between 1240 and 1250 in
Andria,
Apulia.
Southern Italy
–
Castel Nuovo,
Naples: initiated by the
Anjou, it was heavily altered as it served as
Spanish headquarters until the 18th century.
25.
Poles
–
The Poles are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Polish language. The population of Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,394,000 out of a population of 38,538,000. Polands population inhabits several historic regions, including Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Mazovia, Silesia, Pomerania, Kuyavia, Warmia, Masuria, a wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe, the Americas and in Australasia. Today the largest urban concentration of Poles is the Katowice urban agglomeration of 2.7 million inhabitants, Poland was also for centuries a refuge for many Jews from all over Europe, a large number emigrated in the twentieth century to Israel. Several prominent Israeli statesmen were born in Poland, including Israels founder David Ben-Gurion, former President of Israel Shimon Peres, the Slavic people have been in the territory of modern Poland for over 1500 years. In the 9th and 10th centuries the tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upper Vistula, the last tribal undertaking resulted in the 10th century in a lasting political structure and state, Poland, one of the West Slavic nations. After 1945 the so-called autochthonous or aboriginal school of Polish prehistory received official backing in Poland, Polish people are the sixth largest national group in the European Union. Estimates vary depending on source, though available data suggest a number of around 60 million people worldwide. There are almost 38 million Poles in Poland alone, there are also Polish minorities in the surrounding countries including Germany, and indigenous minorities in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus. There are some smaller indigenous minorities in nearby countries such as Moldova, the term Polonia is usually used in Poland to refer to people of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders, officially estimated at around 10 to 20 million. There is a notable Polish diaspora in the United States, Brazil, France has a historic relationship with Poland and has a relatively large Polish-descendant population. Poles have lived in France since the 18th century, in the early 20th century, over a million Polish people settled in France, mostly during world wars, among them Polish émigrés fleeing either Nazi occupation or later Soviet rule. In the United States, a significant number of Polish immigrants settled in Chicago, Ohio, Detroit, New York City, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, the highest concentration of Polish Americans in a single New England municipality is in New Britain, Connecticut. The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived in Canada since World War II, the number of Polish immigrants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again after the end of Communism in Poland in 1989. In Brazil the majority of Polish immigrants settled in Paraná State, smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo and São Paulo. The city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world and Polish music, dishes and it is estimated that over half a million Polish people have come to work in the United Kingdom from Poland. Since 2011, Poles have been able to work throughout the EU and not just in the United Kingdom, Ireland. The Polish community in Norway has increased substantially and has grown to a number of 120,000
Poles
–
Stańczyk at a Ball at Queen Bona's Court, by
Matejko, 1862
Poles
–
Nicolaus Copernicus
Poles
–
Marie Skłodowska Curie
Poles
–
Rudolf Stefan Weigl
26.
Persian people
–
The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group that make up over half the population of Iran. They share a cultural system and are native speakers of the Persian language. The ancient Persians were originally a branch of the ancient Iranian population who entered modern-day Iran by the early 10th century BC. The English term Persian derives from Latin Persia, itself deriving from Greek Persís, in the Bible, it is referred to as Parás —sometimes Paras uMadai —within the books of Esther, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemya. Although Persis was originally one of the provinces of ancient Iran, varieties of this term were adopted through Greek sources, thus, in the Western world, the term Persian came to refer to all inhabitants of the country. 10th-century Iraqi historian Al-Masudi refers to Pahlavi, Dari and Azari as dialects of the Persian language, in 1333, medieval Moroccan traveler and scholar Ibn Battuta, referred to the people of Kabul as a specific sub-tribe of Persians. Lady Mary Sheil, in her observation of Iran during the Qajar era, describes Persians, Kurds and Leks to identify themselves as descendants of the ancient Persians. On March 21,1935, the king of Iran, Reza Shah Pahlavi, issued a decree asking the international community to use the term Iran. However, the term Persian is still used to designate the predominant population of the Iranian peoples living in the Iranian cultural continent. The earliest known written record attributed to the Persians is from the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, the inscription mentions Parsua as a tribal chiefdom in modern-day western Iran. The ancient Persians were originally a branch of the Iranian population that, in the early 10th century BC. They were initially dominated by the Assyrians for much of the first three centuries after arriving in the region, however, they played a role in the downfall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes, another branch of population, founded the unified empire of Media as the regions dominant cultural and political power in c.625 BC. Meanwhile, the Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids formed a state to the central Median power. In c.552 BC, the Achaemenids began a revolution which led to the conquest of the empire by Cyrus II in c.550 BC. They spread their influence to the rest of what is called the Iranian Plateau, at its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from parts of Eastern Europe in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenids developed the infrastructure to support their growing influence, including the creation of Pasargadae and its legacy and impact on the kingdom of Macedon was also notably huge, even for centuries after the withdrawal of the Persians from Europe following the Greco-Persian Wars. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, until the Parthian era, the Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value, however, it did not yet have a political import
Persian people
–
Costumes of an ancient Persian noblemen and soldiers.
Persian people
–
Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages: Modern Persian (green) and other related Persian (some descendant of Middle Persian like Luri in Red) also shown in the map
Persian people
–
Greek
hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient
kylix, 5th century BC
Persian people
–
Tajiks in
Samarkand,
Uzbekistan
27.
Turkey
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
Turkey
–
Some
henges at
Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 12,000 BC, predating those of
Stonehenge,
England by almost ten millennia.
Turkey
–
Flag
Turkey
–
The Lion Gate in
Hattusa, capital of the
Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
Turkey
–
The
Library of Celsus in
Ephesus was built by the
Romans in 135 AD. The
Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king
Croesus of
Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
28.
Arab
–
Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
Arab
Arab
–
Schoolgirls in
Gaza lining up for class, 2009
Arab
–
Syrian immigrants in New York City, as depicted in 1895
Arab
–
Lebanese–Mexican billionaire
Carlos Slim has been ranked by Forbes as the
second richest person in the world.
29.
Iberian peninsula
–
The Iberian Peninsula /aɪˈbɪəriən pəˈnɪnsjᵿlə/, also known as Iberia /aɪˈbɪəriə/, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. With an area of approximately 582,000 km2, it is the second largest European peninsula, at that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabos Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the land mass southwest of there. The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with. According to Strabo, prior historians used Iberia to mean the country side of the Ἶβηρος as far north as the river Rhône in France. Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, elsewhere he says that Saguntum is on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia. Strabo refers to the Carretanians as people of the Iberian stock living in the Pyrenees, according to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political, the Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to land of the Hiberians. This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus, hiber was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos in his Georgics, the Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces, Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania, Strabo says that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, the Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so known it was hardly necessary to state, for example. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of Spain Hiberia because of the Hiberus River, the river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus, with reference to this border, Polybius states that the native name is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination
Iberian peninsula
–
Satellite image of the Iberian Peninsula.
Iberian peninsula
–
Iberian Peninsula and southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014
Iberian peninsula
–
Map of Spain and Portugal, Atlas historique, dated approximately 1705–1739, of H.A. Chatelain.
Iberian peninsula
–
An 18th-century map of the peninsula depicting various topographical features of the land, as published in Robert Wilkinson's General Atlas, circa 1794.
30.
Old South
–
Culturally, Old South is used to describe the rural, agriculturally-based, pre-Civil War economy and society in the Southern United States. The story of the Old South is the story of the plantations, its origins, its expansion. Pre-Civil War Americans regarded Southerners as a people, who possessed their own values. The Old South also refers to the tradition of Southerners voting the Democratic ticket, during the Reconstruction period after the Civil War, many Democrats lost their ability to vote. This led to a Republican South until 1877, when southern Democrats returned to power, recently this Democratic dominance has eroded, yet the South maintains its conservative stance. The majority of the Southern population now identifies with the Republican party, the Southern Colonies were Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Antebellum era American gentry New South Deep South Upper South Southern Colonies Border States Solid South Documenting the American South, a digital publishing initiative that provides numerous documents and information about the South of the United States before and after the American Civil War. Jekyll Island Club - Victorian Playground of Northern Industrialists in the Old South Southern Arts Federation Smith, Mark M
Old South
–
Regional definitions vary from source to source. The states shown in dark red are usually included, though their modern boundaries differ from the boundaries of the
Thirteen Colonies.
_02a.jpg)
