1.
Colony of Virginia
–
The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
Colony of Virginia
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith
Colony of Virginia
–
Flag
Colony of Virginia
–
Lines show legal treaty frontiers between Virginia Colony and Indian Nations in various years, as well as today's state boundaries. Red: Treaty of 1646. Green: Treaty of Albany (1684). Blue: Treaty of Albany (1722). Orange:
Proclamation of 1763. Black: Treaty of Camp Charlotte (1774). Area west of this line in present-day Southwest VA was ceded by the Cherokee in 1775.
Colony of Virginia
–
Indian massacre of 1622, depicted in a 1628 woodcut by
Matthäus Merian out of
Theodore de Bry 's workshop.
2.
Patrick Henry
–
Patrick Henry was an American attorney, planter and politician who became known as an orator during the movement for independence in Virginia. A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779, Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act 1765 and is remembered for his Give me liberty, or give me death. After the Revolution, Henry was a leader of the anti-federalists in Virginia and he opposed the United States Constitution, fearing that it endangered the rights of the States as well as the freedoms of individuals, he helped gain adoption of the Bill of Rights. However, by 1798 he supported President John Adams and the Federalists and he denounced passage of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions as he feared the social unrest and widespread executions that had followed the increasing radicalism of the French Revolution. After he married, Henry began acquiring extensive land holdings, by 1779, along with his cousin and her husband, Henry owned a 10, 000-acre plantation known as Leatherwood. He is also recorded having purchased up to 78 slaves, in 1794, he and his wife retired to Red Hill Plantation, comprising 520 acres in Charlotte County, which was also a functioning tobacco plantation. Henry was born at Studley, the farm, in Hanover County in the Colony of Virginia. His father was John Henry, an immigrant from Aberdeenshire, Scotland, settling in Hanover County, in about 1732 John Henry married Sarah Winston Syme, a wealthy widow from a prominent Hanover County family of English ancestry. Patrick Henry was once thought to have been of humble origins, Henry attended local schools for a few years, and then was tutored by his father. He tried to start in business but was not successful, in 1754 Henry married Sarah Shelton, reportedly in the parlor of her family house, Rural Plains. As a wedding gift, her father gave the couple six slaves, with his marriage, he became a slaveholder and landowner. Henry worked with his slaves on the land because it was a property, it was exhausted from tobacco cultivation. After the main house burned, the moved for a short time with their two children into the 20 by 60 foot Honeymoon Cottage, a one-story building with attic. They later moved to the Hanover Tavern, owned by Sarahs father and they sold Pine Slash Plantation in 1764, after Henry started working as a lawyer. The Henrys had six children together, one of whom married a brother of poet Thomas Campbell, in 1771 the family moved to Scotchtown Plantation, also in Hanover County. Sarah became mentally ill and died there in 1775, on October 25,1777, 41-year-old Henry married his second wife, 22-year-old Dorothea Dandridge. The next year moved to Williamsburg after his election as governor. In 1779 they moved to the 10, 000-acre Leatherwood Plantation, Henry began a career as a planter, but the soil was poor and their main house was destroyed by fire in 1757
Patrick Henry
–
Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry
–
View of
Rural Plains near Totopotomoy Creek in Virginia. Henry was reportedly married to Sarah Shelton in the parlor.
Patrick Henry
–
Patrick Henry's "Treason" speech before the
House of Burgesses in an 1851 painting by
Peter F. Rothermel
Patrick Henry
–
A Hue & Cry, Virginia
broadside, 1775
3.
Peter F. Rothermel
–
Peter Frederick Rothermel was an American painter. Rothermel was born in Nescopeck, Pennsylvania on July 8,1812, although various sources give his year as 1813,1814. The artists gravestone in Philadelphia gives the date as 1812 and he had a common-school education, and studied land surveying. At age 20, he moved to Philadelphia and became a sign painter, then at age 22, he took up the study of art. He was instructed in drawing by John Rubens Smith, and subsequently became a pupil of Bass Otis in Philadelphia and his 1844 work De Soto discovering the Mississippi was purchased by the Art Union and marked his first success as an artist. He served as president of the Artists Fund Society in 1844. During 1856-1859 he was in Europe, residing for about two years in Rome, and visiting also the cities in England, France, Germany, Belgium. On his return to the United States, he settled in Philadelphia again and he specialized in portraits and dramatic historical paintings. His most famous paintings include Patrick Henry before the Virginia House of Burgesses and this latter work was commissioned by Gettysburg lawyer David McConaughy. Another of his more popular works is Columbus Before the Queen. In 1877, he moved from Philadelphia to “Grassmere, ” his country home near Linfield, Pennsylvania and his estate still exists today on Limerick Center Road, it is now a residential site. Rothermels son, Peter F. Rothermel, Jr. was District Attorney of Philadelphia, lehigh University webpage for Rothermel Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds
Peter F. Rothermel
–
Peter F Rothermal, ca. 1885.
Peter F. Rothermel
–
Peter F. Rothermel's
Patrick Henry before the Virginia
House of Burgesses
4.
Virginia House of Delegates
–
The Virginia House of Delegates is one of two parts in the Virginia General Assembly, the other being the Senate of Virginia. It has 100 members elected for terms of two years, unlike most states, these take place during odd-numbered years. The House is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the Speaker is almost always a member of the majority party and, as Speaker, becomes the most powerful member of the House. The House shares legislative power with the Senate of Virginia, the house of the Virginia General Assembly. The House of Delegates is the successor to the Virginia House of Burgesses. The House is divided into Democratic and Republican caucuses, in addition to the Speaker, there is a majority leader, majority caucus chair, minority leader, minority caucus chair, and the chairs of the several committees of the House. Through the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World, originally having 22 members, the House of Burgesses met from 1619 through 1632 in the choir of the church at Jamestown. From 1632 to 1699 the legislative body met at four different state houses in Jamestown, the first state house convened at the home of Colonial Governor Sir John Harvey from 1632 to 1656. The burgesses convened at the state house from 1656 until it was destroyed in 1660. Historians have yet to identify its location. The House has met in Virginias Capitol Building, designed by Thomas Jefferson, the legislative body met from 1788 to 1904 in what is known as today the Old Hall of the House of Delegates or commonly referred to as the Old House Chamber. The Old House Chamber is part of the original Capitol building structure and it measures 76 feet in width and is filled today with furnishings that resemble what the room would have looked like during its time of use. There are many bronze and marble busts of historic Virginians on display in the Old House Chamber, including, George Mason, George Wythe, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and Meriwether Lewis. From 1904 to 1906, University of Virginia graduate and architect John K. Peeples designed, the General Assembly members and staff operate from offices in the General Assembly Building, located in Capitol Square. Prior to 1788 the House of Delegates met in the Colonial Capital of Williamsburg, in 1999, Republicans took control of the long-time Democratic House of Delegates for the first time since Reconstruction. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640 per year, each delegate represents roughly 83,000 people. Candidates for office must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the districts they seek to represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the House has 14 standing committees
Virginia House of Delegates
–
Virginia House of Delegates
5.
Jamestown, Virginia
–
The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. William Kelso writes that Jamestown is where the British Empire began, Jamestown was established by the Virginia Company of London as James Fort on May 4,1607, and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke, Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years, from 1616 until 1699. The settlement was located within the country of Tsenacommacah, which was ruled by the Powhatan Confederacy, the natives initially welcomed and provided crucial provisions and support for the colonists, who were not agriculturally inclined. Relations with the newcomers soured fairly early on, leading to the annihilation of the Paspahegh in warfare within 3 years. Mortality at Jamestown itself was very high due to disease and starvation, the Second Supply also brought the first two European women to the settlement. They most likely worked in the fields as indentured servants. The modern conception of slavery in the future United States was formalized in 1640 and was entrenched in Virginia by 1660. In 1676, the town was burned during Bacons Rebellion. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations comprising the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites, Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site on Jamestown Island, is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site and Preservation Virginia. Jamestown Settlement, a living history site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation. Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, the English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590. Late in 1606, English entrepreneurs set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World, the fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a long voyage of four months, including a stop in Puerto Rico. The expedition made landfall on April 26,1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry, Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25,1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a peninsula some 40 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian tribes, the island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking
Jamestown, Virginia
–
The ruined tower of the 1639
Jamestown Church; the
nave was reconstructed in 1907 on the original foundations
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Location in Virginia
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Salt
marshes along Jamestown Island. The ample wetlands on the island proved to be a breeding ground for mosquitoes.
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Detail of the map made by Pedro de Zúñiga, depicting the fort in about 1608
6.
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Williamsburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,068, in 2014, the population was estimated to be 14,691. Located on the Virginia Peninsula, Williamsburg is in the part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. It is bordered by James City County and York County, Williamsburg was founded in 1632 as Middle Plantation, a fortified settlement on high ground between the James and York rivers. The city served as the capital of the Colony of Virginia from 1699 to 1780 and was the center of events in Virginia leading to the American Revolution. S. Presidents as well as other important figures in the nations early history. The citys tourism-based economy is driven by Colonial Williamsburg, the restored Historic Area of the city, along with nearby Jamestown and Yorktown, Williamsburg forms part of the Historic Triangle, which attracts more than four million tourists each year. Modern Williamsburg is also a town, inhabited in large part by William & Mary students. Prior to the arrival of the English colonists at Jamestown in the Colony of Virginia in 1607, by the 1630s, English settlements had grown to dominate the lower portion of the Virginia Peninsula, and the Powhatan tribes had abandoned their nearby villages. Jamestown was the capital of Virginia Colony, but was burned down during the events of Bacons Rebellion in 1676. The members of the House of Burgesses discovered that the location was both safer and more pleasant environmentally than Jamestown, which was humid and plagued with mosquitoes. A school of education had long been an aspiration of the colonists. An early attempt at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622, the location at the outskirts of the developed part of the colony had left it more vulnerable to the attack. In the 1690s, the colonists tried again to establish a school and they commissioned Reverend James Blair, who spent several years in England lobbying, and finally obtained a royal charter for the desired new school. It was to be named the College of William & Mary in honor of the monarchs of the time, when Reverend Blair returned to Virginia, the new school was founded in a safe place, Middle Plantation in 1693. Classes began in temporary quarters in 1694, and the College Building, four years later, in 1698, the rebuilt Statehouse in Jamestown burned down again, this time accidentally. The government again relocated temporarily to Middle Plantation, and in addition to the better climate now also enjoyed use of the Colleges facilities. The College students made a presentation to the House of Burgesses, a village was laid out and Middle Plantation was renamed Williamsburg in honor of King William III of England, befitting the towns newly elevated status
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
The Williamsburg's Governors Palace in 2000.
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Capitol Building, from a silver gelatin photograph, c. 1934–1950
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Williamsburg Transportation Center is an intermodal facility located in a restored
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway station located within walking distance of
Colonial Williamsburg 's Historic Area, the
College of William and Mary, and the downtown area.
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Colonial Williamsburg
7.
Virginia Company
–
The Virginia Company refers collectively to two joint stock companies chartered by James I on 10 April 1606 with the purposes of establishing settlements on the coast of North America. The two companies, called the Virginia Company of London and the Virginia Company of Plymouth operated with identical charters, an area of overlapping territory was created within which the two companies were not permitted to establish colonies within one hundred miles of each other. The Plymouth Company never fulfilled its charter, and its territory that later became New England was at that also claimed by England. As corporations, the companies were empowered by the Crown to govern themselves, the principle was thus established that a royal colony should be self-governing, and this formed the genesis of democracy in America. However, it was abandoned after about 1 year, and the Plymouth Company became inactive, on 14 May 1607, the London Company established the Jamestown Settlement about 40 miles inland along the James River, a major tributary of the Chesapeake Bay in present-day Virginia. The future of the settlement at Jamestown was precarious for its first 5 years, dr. Linwood Custalows book The Real Story of Pocahontas details the story of some of Smiths most famous interactions with the Powhatan tribes from an indigenous perspective. In 1620 George Calvert asked King James I for a charter for English Catholics to add the territory of the Plymouth Company, also in 1609, a much larger Third Supply mission was organised. Rushed into service without the customary sea trials, the new ship, the Sea Venture, became flagship of the fleet of 9 ships, with most of the leaders, food. The Third Supply convoy encountered a massive storm believed to have been a hurricane which lasted three days and separated them, the uninhabited archipelago was officially named The Somers Isles after Admiral Somers, though it was known as Bermuda. From salvaged parts of the Sea Venture, the survivors built two vessels, Deliverance and Patience. Ten months later they continued on to Jamestown, leaving several men behind on the archipelago to establish possession of it, arriving at Jamestown on 23 May 1610, they found that over 85% of the 500 colonists had perished during what became known as the Starving Time. The Bermuda survivors had anticipated finding a colony at Jamestown and had brought little food or supplies with them. The colonists at Jamestown were saved only by the arrival of a supply mission headed by Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, better known as Lord Delaware. In 1612, The London Companys Royal Charter was officially extended to include The Somers Isles as part of the Virginia Colony. However, in 1615, the passed to a separate company, the The London Company of The Somers Isles. To the disappointment of its investors, the Virginia Company of London failed to discover gold or silver in Virginia, however, the company did establish trade of various types. The biggest trade breakthrough came when colonist John Rolfe introduced several sweeter strains of tobacco from the Caribbean, rolfes new tobacco strains led to a strong export for the London Company and other early English colonies, and helped balance a trade deficit with Spain. The Jamestown Massacre which devastated that colony in 1622 brought on unfavorable attention, there was a period of debate in Britain between Company officers who wished to guard the original charter, and those who wished the Company ended
Virginia Company
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith. The armorials of the Virginia Company are shown at far left
8.
List of colonial governors of Virginia
–
This is a list of colonial governors of Virginia. Note, Some of those who held the role as governor of Virginia never visited the New World. Others, such as Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, held the role for many years. Probably for those reasons, in historical documents and references. Also, transportation from England routinely took several months, and occasionally, thus, dates may appear to overlap. The first English attempt to colonize Virginia was the Lost Colony of Roanoke, two unsuccessful settlements were established under two different governors, and the final fate of the colonists remains unknown. Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord and Governor of Virginia Ralph Lane John White From 1606 until 1624, most were styled President of the Council, although some were styled governor by the proprietors. Governors were appointed by the monarch to oversee the interests of the Crown. During the interregnum period, when England came under commonwealth rule and the rule of Oliver and Richard Cromwell. William Berkeley, who was governor at the time of the execution of King Charles I, Berkeley was returned to office by votes of the Virginia assembly and by appointment of the restored King Charles II in 1660
List of colonial governors of Virginia
–
Captain John Smith, from his 1614 map of New England
9.
Bourgeois
–
A legally defined class of the Middle Ages to the end of the Ancien Régime in France, that of inhabitants having the rights of citizenship and political rights in a city. This bourgeoisie destroyed aristocratic privilege and established civic equality after the French monarchy collapsed, the aristocracy crumbled because it refused to reform institutions and financial systems. An affluent and often opulent stratum of the class who stand opposite the proletariat class. In English, bourgeoisie identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in such as the drame bourgeois and bourgeois tragedy. The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and this urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen conflicted with their feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In English, the bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers, petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, the petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, the petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class and this class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves, the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations, some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper-middle classes, the grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades, the names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the regions history. These families are respected and revered and they belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry
Bourgeois
–
The prototypical bourgeois: Monsieur Jourdain, the protagonist in
Molière 's play
Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670).
Bourgeois
–
The 16th-century German banker
Jakob Fugger and his principal accountant, M. Schwarz, registering an entry to a ledger. The background shows a file cabinet indicating the European cities where the Fugger Banker conducts business. (1517)
Bourgeois
–
Thomas Mann (1875–1955) portrayed the moral, intellectual, and physical decadence of the German upper bourgeoisie in the novel
Buddenbrooks (1926)
10.
Charter of 1606
–
The land is described as coastal Virginia and islands near to the coast, but the surveying numbers correspond to modern day South Carolina to Canada. The land itself would remain the property of the King, with the London Company and the Plymouth Company as the Kings tenants, the colonys government at first consisted of a council residing in London. King James also intended to spread Christianity to those living in what was to become the English colonies. The King established a council and council member both in America and England to provide governance and management of the colonies and identified all council members, the council had the authority to enjoy the natural resources of the colonies with part of the profits given to the king. The king intended to give the colonists all benefits of a government including the right to have their own currency, although the colonists had a great deal of freedom, they were subject to the kings’ approval. The following passage states the risk associated with trading without approval, the charter concluded with a final agreement of the king to authorize the stated colonists to practice their duties as outlined in the paragraphs above. Second Virginia Charter History of Jamestown, the First Charter of Virginia, April 10,1606. Yale University Project 1996-2007 The Avalon Project at Yale Law School
Charter of 1606
–
Map showing the grants provided for in the Charter of 1606
11.
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
The House of Assembly is the lower house of the Parliament of the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda. The house has 36 Members of Parliament, each elected in a single seat constituency, the House of Assembly was originally the only house of Bermudas parliament, and held its first session in 1620. It first met in Saint Peters Church, in the colonial capital, Saint Georges, until its own building. It met in the State House until the capital was moved to Hamilton in 1815, where it met at the old hall until relocating to its current home. The House of Assembly was created at a time when Bermuda, or The Somers Isles, was administered by the Somers Isles Company, the House of Burgesses had been created in Virginia in 1619. During periods when the colony was without a Governor, the President of the Council might find himself Acting Governor, also. The British Government came to view Bermuda more as a base than as a colony and this was only one of the changes made in the 1960s, largely as a result of the civil rights movement. A constitution was introduced which made Bermudas parliamentary system more like the Westminster system, political parties were legalised, and the system of a majority Government, from which a Premier was appointed and the Cabinet Ministers were drawn, and a minority Opposition was adopted. The Senate was created to perform a function akin to that of the House of Lords, in London, although its members were appointed, rather than being hereditary, noble peers. Although non-white males had not been banned from either voting or standing for election. When the numbers of land owners had increased, a minimum property value had been added. A male could vote in each of the nine parishes in which he held property of sufficient value, the first non-white to stand for election was schoolmaster Augustus Swan, who owned two houses and dry goods stores in Hamilton and Flatts. The first non-white person to gain a seat in the House of Assembly was William Henry Thomas Joell, elected MCP for Pembroke in May,1883. He was replaced by John Henry Thomas Jackson, who was also non-white, Bermudas women were denied the vote, and the ability to stand for election, entirely until 1944. In the 1980s, the age was lowered from 21 to 18 years of age. List of Speakers of the House of Assembly of Bermuda Politics of Bermuda
House of Assembly of Bermuda
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
House of Assembly of Bermuda
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
St. Peter's Church, where the House of Assembly held its first session on the 1 August 1620.
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
The
State House, the home of Bermuda's
parliament in
St. George's from 1620 until the capital's relocation to
Hamilton in 1815. Picture taken in 2006
12.
Bermuda
–
Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
Bermuda
–
View from the top of Gibb's Hill Lighthouse
Bermuda
–
Flag
Bermuda
–
Bermuda pictured from the
International Space Station
Bermuda
–
The image of the
Lord Holy Christ of the Miracles, in
Hamilton, devoted by all the
Azoreans in Bermuda islands.
13.
Somers Isles Company
–
The Somers Isles Company was formed in 1615 to operate the English colony of the Somers Isles, also known as Bermuda, as a commercial venture. It held a charter for Bermuda until 1684, when it was dissolved. Bermuda had been settled, inadvertently, in 1609 by the Virginia Company when its flagship, Somers had deliberately driven the ship onto the reefs to prevent its foundering, thereby saving all aboard. The settlers and seamen spent ten months in Bermuda while they built two new ships to continue the voyage to Jamestown, during the building, Sea Ventures longboat was fitted with a mast and sent to find Jamestown. Neither it, nor its crew, was seen again. When Deliverance and Patience set sail for Jamestown, they left several people behind, some to maintain Somers claim to the islands for England, rolfe would find a new bride in the Powhatan princess Pocahontas. Jamestown, and the sixty survivors of its five hundred settlers, were found in such a poor state that it was decided to abandon the Jamestown settlement. The timely arrival of another fleet under Thomas West from England granted the colony a reprieve. However, the shortage was made more critical by the new arrivals. Somers returned to Bermuda on Patience, captained by his nephew, Matthew, to provisions for the Jamestown colony. Matthew Somers was keen to receive his inheritance, and took Patience to Somers hometown, Lyme Regis, a Governor, Richard Moore, arrived in 1612 with settlers, aboard Plough, to join those left behind by Sea Venture and Patience. The new settlers were primarily tenant farmers, who seven years of indentured servitude to the Company in exchange for the cost of transport. Although the primary industry was envisioned to be agriculture, the early Governors enthusiastically, if mostly unsuccessfully and these included pearl diving and ambergris. The first two slaves to arrive in Bermuda, one black, one Native American, were brought in for their skills as pearl divers. Free of the warfare and other hardships which plagued the continental settlement, Bermuda thrived from the beginning. Its population quickly surpassed that of Jamestown, and consideration was given to abandoning the North American continent, the Virginia Company ran Bermuda until 1614, when the Crown briefly took over the Colonys administration. The adventurers of the Virginia Company formed a company, the Somers Isles Company. The Virginia Company was dissolved in 1622, with the administration of its continental colony passing to the Crown, the Somers Isles Company, with its separate charter, continued to administer Bermuda for another six decades
Somers Isles Company
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Captain John Smith
Somers Isles Company
–
Contents
14.
Jamestown Church
–
It is now part of Jamestown National Historic Site, and is owned by Preservation Virginia. There have been several sites and stages in the churchs history, the current structure, active as part of the Anglican church, is still in use today. The ruins are currently being researched by members of the Jamestown Rediscovery project, the acknowledged religion in Elizabethan England was the Church of England, whose services rigorously followed the Book of Common Prayer. The Jamestown settlers brought this form of religion with them, there was no separation of church and state in 17th century England. Church services in James Fort were held fourteen times a week, with sermons preached at services on Sunday, two prayer services, one in the morning and one in the evening, were held Monday through Saturday. An afternoon catechism was also held by the minister on Sunday, as a result of detailed surveys of the site by Jamestown Rediscovery, six churches are believed to have been built on two different sites at James Fort. Churches 1-2 were located inside the confines of the fort, whereas Churches 3-6 were built nearby on the current site. The oldest surviving visible section of any structure is the tower, captain John Smith reported that the first church services were held outdoors under an awning fastened to three or four trees. Shortly thereafter the settlers built the first church inside the fort in 1607, Smith said it was a homely thing like a barn set on crachetts, covered with rafts, sedge and earth. This church soon burned down in the fires of January 7,1608, in 2010, archaeologists discovered the site of the second church constructed at Jamestown. It was similar to the first, and built on the same site, when Lord De La Warr arrived as governor in 1610, he found that the church had fallen into a sad state of disrepair, so he had it restored and its furnishings improved. This is the site where on April 5,1614, Pocahontas married John Rolfe, in 1617-1619 when Samuel Argall was governor, he had the inhabitants build a new church 50 foot long and twenty foot broad. Situated nearby the old church, it was wooden and built on a foundation of cobblestones capped by a wall one brick thick. It was in church where the first Representative Legislative Assembly met. In January 1639 Governor John Harvey reported that he, the Council, the ablest planters and this church was slightly larger than the third church and was built around it over the next few years. It was still unfinished in November 1647 when efforts were made to complete it and it was burned during Bacons Rebellion on September 19,1676. Around this time a church tower was added to an existing church building over two distinctly different stages. Once completed, it was about 46 feet high with a roof, belfry
Jamestown Church
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Remains of the 1639 tower of the old church (photographed c. 1900)
Jamestown Church
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The interior of the church as rebuilt
Jamestown Church
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Original 1639 church tower
Jamestown Church
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Exterior of the church
15.
Jamestown Island
–
Jamestown Island is a 1, 561-acre island in the James River in Virginia, part of James City County. It is located off Glasshouse Point, to which it is connected via a causeway to the Colonial Parkway, much of the island is wetland, including both swamp and marsh. Prior to the English settlement, the area was home to the Paspahegh people. In May 1607, the island site of James Fort. The chief of the Powatan at that time, also named Powhatan was father of Pocahontas, after Powhatans death in 1618, hostilities with colonists escalated under his brother, Opechancanough. His large-scale attacks in 1622 and 1644 met strong reprisals by the English, after Bacons rebellion, Jamestown lasted until 1699, when it was abandoned in favor of a new site at Williamsburg. By the early 20th century, the isthmus connecting the landform to Glasshouse Point had eroded, today, most of the island is a part of Colonial National Historical Park, including Historic Jamestowne. The rediscovery of the James Fort in 1996 by Jamestown Rediscovery has led to significant archaeological discoveries of the early colonial settler period
Jamestown Island
–
Map of Jamestown Island and the location of the 1607 fort. (Not pictured are modern roads, buildings, and the causeway linking it to Glasshouse Point)
16.
William Capps
–
William Capps was born in Norfolk County, England in or around 1575. William married Catherine Jernagin in Norwich, Norfolk County, England, 11-Dec-1596 and he and his wife had five children together, Henry, Frances, Willoughby, Anne, and William. He traveled to the Colony of Virginia aboard the Sea Venture and was apparently among those shipwrecked in Bermuda for several months before reaching the New World, William Capps arrived in Virginia in 1609-1610 and settled at Kecoughtan on the west side of the Hampton River. This site is in present-day Hampton, Virginia and is on the side of the Hampton River from the grounds of Hampton Institute. There is a street called Capps Quarters in this area that is almost certainly part of William Capps original tract of land, a Virginia historical marker is posted in this area. This point, patented by William Capps about 1634, was known for a century as Capps Point, the area was later renamed Little England. Kecoughtan had originally been the site of an Indian village which on May 1,1607 had some 18 houses of twigs, in May-1616 only 350 of all persons who had come to Virginia remained there - the rest having died or given up and returned to England. Three years later in 1619 the first general division of land in Virginia occurred and those settlers having arrived before 1616 and having three years residence, termed ancient planters, were entitled to 100 acres. Greate incouragement, and the greatest hope to make the Colony florrish that ever yet happened to them, twenty-two Burgesses met representing the 11 major settlements in Virginia. The Kecoughtan settlement was represented by Capt William Tucker and William Capps, a memorial church built on the foundations of the church in which the House of Burgesses met exists at the Historic Jamestowne National Park Service site on Jamestown Island, Virginia. A monument bearing the names of the Burgesses is located near within the confines of the newly rediscovered original Jamestown fort. It was apparently at their urging that the first House of Burgesses was asked to change the name of Kiccowtan. The new name selected was Elizabeth City after the daughter of King James, in Dec-1619 the population of Virginia was about 900 out of a total immigration of 1440. In 1627, William Capps was appointed a member of the Council by the Crown upon the recommendation of the Governor, the Councilors were the Governors advisers in executive matters and constituted the supreme court of the Virginia. They also held legislative functions as members of the house of the Virginia Assembly. Two years later William Capps asked leave of the Governor to depart the colony on the Kings affairs, in 1630 he returned with the Kings letter of instructions to the Council. The date of his death was →1637 which was 8 years after the passing of his Wife Catherine. ←
William Capps
–
St Michael-at-Plea, Norwich, England, 2006
William Capps
–
Capps Point Historical Marker, Hampton, Virginia
17.
Lower Brandon Plantation
–
Lower Brandon Plantation is located on the south shore of the James River in present-day Prince George County, Virginia. The plantation is a farm and was tended perhaps from 1607 on. It has a brick mansion in style of Palladios Roman Country House completed in the 1760s. It was established in 1616 by Captain John Martin, one of the leaders of the Virginia Colony at Jamestown in 1607. The plantation was owned by the Harrison family for two centuries, from 1700–1926. Restored by Robert Williams Daniel in the early 20th century, it is both a National Historical Landmark open to tours and one of Americas oldest continuous farming operations. Brandon Plantation was part of a 1616 land grant of approximately 7,000 acres on the bank of the James River to Captain John Martin. Captain Martin was one of the colonists and a member of the first Council in the spring of 1607. They had been married in 1586, in 1619, Martins Brandon was one of the plantations represented when what became the House of Burgesses, the first representative legislative body in the English colonies, met at Jamestown. The representatives of Martins Brandon were Thomas Davis and Robert Stacy, during the Indian Massacre of 1622 which occurred on Good Friday, March 22,1622, there were 7 deaths recorded at Martins Brandon, including one woman and two boys. 347 deaths were recorded during the attacks along both shores of the James River, from the mouth of the river at Newport News Point on Hampton Roads. Captain John Martin died at Martins Brandon Plantation in 1632 and his grandson, Captain Robert Bargrave, inherited the plantation on Martins death. In 1637, merchants John Sadler and Richard Quiney and mariner William Barker and they and their heirs farmed it successfully until 1720 when it was sold to Nathaniel Harrison. After Nathaniels premature death in 1727 it passed to his son Nathaniel Harrison II, Brandon then came into the possession of American Revolutionary War Colonel Benjamin Harrison. At his death, the property was divided between his two sons, and Upper Brandon Plantation was created, Brandon Plantation remained in the Harrison family until 1926, when it was acquired by Robert Williams Daniel, a Richmond banker. Congressman Robert W. Daniel, Jr. inherited the property from his parents, Brandon was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, and was further declared a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1985. The restored manor house was, furnished by the Daniels with 1760s era English, Brandon is still a working farm and the agricultural enterprise is one of the oldest continuous farming operations in the United States. The 4487. 5-acre property was sold at auction by the estate of Robert W. Daniel, in late 2013 the purchase contract with the buyer fell through and the estate was put back on the market with an asking price of $20 million
Lower Brandon Plantation
–
Brandon
18.
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation
–
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation dates to 1618/19 with the patent by Sir George Yeardley, the Governor and Captain General of Virginia, of 1,000 acres on the south side of the James River. Yeardley probably named the plantation after his wifes father, Anthony Flowerdew, just as he named another plantation Stanley Hundred after his wifes wealthy mother. A hundred was historically a division of a shire or county, with a population of about 30, the plantation was economically successful with thousands of pounds of tobacco produced along with corn, fish and livestock. Sir George paid 120 pounds to build the first windmill in British America, today, Flowerdew Hundred plantation is a private residence. The first windmill erected in English North America was built at Flowerdew Hundred by 1621, in 1624, Abraham Piersey, Cape Merchant of the Virginia Company, purchased Flowerdew Hundred renaming it Pierseys Hundred. Piersey’s Stone House was the first home with a permanent foundation in the colony, the 1624 Muster lists approximately sixty occupants at the settlement, including some of the first Africans in Virginia. Throughout the seventeenth century, Flowerdew Hundred continued to prosper with the establishment of a secondary settlement, in 1683, with the passage of the king’s Advancement of Trade Act, Flowerdew Towne was formed down river, but it was not very successful within the James River planter economy. Sometime after 1720, a ferry ran from Flowerdew Hundred across the stretch of the James known as Three Mile Reach to the bank of the James. An ordinary or tavern was built there for the convenience of the passengers. Part of the old Hundred was acquired by the Joshua Poythress, the property was shelled during the 1781 campaign of Gen. Benedict Arnold. He ordered Lt. Col. Simcoe and some Queen’s Rangers to spike the guns near Hood’s fort on the edge of the property and then continued to the capital of Richmond. The Plantation was re-formed again through the work of John Vaughn Willcox and he married the last Poythress heiress and bought up the surrounding lands that were part of the original land grant that had been sold off. In 1804 they built a new house on the ridge overlooking the fertile bottom lands along the James. Grant’s Crossing from Weyanoke to Flowerdew held this record until World War II, the Army of the Potomac with three corps and a supply train crossed the river in about three days heading for City Point to begin the Siege of Petersburg. The site of the bridge was “found” again in 1986 by Eugene Prince. Using Prince’s Principle, a simple 35 mm camera, a tree on the riverbank. A dead limb on a tree in the Gardner photograph was still present 122 years later. The old Willcox house was torn down in 1955 though a magnolia planted in 1840 still survives in the yard of the mansion that was built on its former site in the late 1990s
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation
–
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation
19.
Indian massacre of 1622
–
The Indian Massacre of 1622 took place in the English Colony of Virginia, in what now belongs to the United States, on Friday,22 March 1622. The Powhatan grabbed any tools or weapons available and killed all English settlers they found, Chief Opechancanough led a coordinated series of surprise attacks by the Powhatan Confederacy that killed 347 people, a quarter of the English population of Jamestown. Jamestown, founded in 1607, was the site of the first successful English settlement in North America and its tobacco economy led to constant expansion and seizure of Powhatan lands, which ultimately provoked a violent reaction. Although Jamestown was spared due to a timely warning, the Powhatan also attacked and destroyed many smaller settlements along the James River. In addition to killing settlers, the Powhatan burned houses and crops, the English abandoned many of the smaller settlements after the attacks. At first, the natives were glad to trade provisions to the colonists for metal tools and this earned the colonists a bad reputation among the Native Americans and precipitated conflict. They isolated the Native Americans, burned houses, and stole their food supplies. The English violence alienated the natives further and they laid siege to the Jamestown fort for several months, unable to secure more food supplies, many colonists died during the starving time in 1609–10. The London Companys primary concern was the survival of the colony, in Englands best interest, the colonists would have to maintain civil relations with the Powhatan. The Powhatan and the English realized that they could benefit from each other through trade once peace was restored. In exchange for food, the chief asked the colonists to provide him with metal hatchets, the English wanted more, they wanted control over the land. When Gates arrived at Jamestown in 1610, he decided to evacuate the settlement because he thought the plan was not feasible. As the colonists were about to leave the Bay and head out into the open sea, taking command as governor, de la Warre ordered the fort reoccupied. He plotted conquest of the surrounding tribes, in July 1610 he sent Gates against the Kecoughtan. “Gates lured the Indians into the open by means of music-and-dance act by his drummer and this was the First Anglo-Powhatan War. The English, led by Samuel Argall captured Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, “English demanded that all Powhatan captives be released, return all English weapons taken by his warriors, and agree upon a lasting peace”. It was while Pocahontas was held by the English that she met John Rolfe, while in captivity, Pocahontas was taught the English language, manners and religion. She was baptized as a Christian and took the name Rebecca
Indian massacre of 1622
–
Indian massacre of 1622, depicted as a woodcut by
Matthaeus Merian, 1628.
20.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
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Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
–
Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
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Wilma Mankiller
21.
London, England
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London, England
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London, England
London, England
London, England
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
22.
County
–
A county is a geographical region of a country used for administrative or other purposes, in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French conté or cunté denoting a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of a count or a viscount. The modern French is comté, and its equivalents in other languages are contea, contado, comtat, condado, Grafschaft, graafschap, Gau, when the Normans conquered England, they brought the term with them. The Saxons had already established the districts became the historic counties of England. The Vikings introduced the term earl to the British Isles, thus, the Anglo-Saxons earl and earldom were taken as equivalent to the continental use of count and county under the conquering Normans, and over time the two blended and became equivalent terms. Further, the term became a synonym for the native English word scir or, in Modern English. Since a shire was a division of the kingdom, the term county evolved to designate an administrative division of states or of a national government in most other modern uses. A county may be subdivided into districts, hundreds, townships or other administrative jurisdictions within the county. A county usually, but not always, contains cities, towns, townships, villages, or other municipal corporations, Provinces in Argentina are divided into departments, except in the Buenos Aires Province, where they are called partidos. The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes, in the eastern states of Australia, counties are used in the administration of land titles. They do not generally correspond to a level of government, but are used in the identification of parcels of land, canadas five oldest provinces – New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec and Prince Edward Island – are divided into counties. In addition to counties, Ontario is also subdivided into districts, district municipalities, metropolitan municipalities. British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, the word county is used to translate the Chinese term xiàn. In Mainland China, governed by the Peoples Republic of China, counties are the level of local government. There are 1,464 counties in the PRC out of a total of 2,862 county-level divisions, the number of counties has remained more or less constant since the Han dynasty. The county remains one of the oldest levels of government in China, the county government was particularly important in imperial China because this was the lowest layer at which the imperial government functioned. The head of a county during imperial times was the magistrate, in older context, prefecture and district are alternative terms to refer to xiàn before the establishment of the Republic of China. The English nomenclature county was adopted following the establishment of the ROC, contrary to the typical rural location of a county in Western countries, a city in China may enclose several counties
County
–
Counties of Iran
23.
Oliver Cromwell
–
Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was born into the gentry, albeit to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIIIs minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life as only four of his letters survive alongside a summary of a speech he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a conversion in the 1630s. He was a religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short and he entered the English Civil War on the side of the Roundheads or Parliamentarians. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles Is death warrant in 1649 and he was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–1650. Cromwells forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, during this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics, and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651, as a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the Royalists returned to power in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell, sponsored by military historian Richard Holmes was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Katherine married Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales, Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he use Cromwell, in honour of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. They had ten children, but Oliver, the child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Jasper was the uncle of Henry VII and great uncle of Henry VIII, Cromwells paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells father Robert was of modest means but still a part of the gentry class, as a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes, Cromwell himself in 1654 said, I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity. He was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St Johns Church and he went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos
Oliver Cromwell
–
A 1656
Samuel Cooper portrait of Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
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Portrait of Cromwell's wife Elizabeth Bourchier, painted by Robert Walker
Oliver Cromwell
–
Oliver Cromwell's house in
Ely
Oliver Cromwell
–
Engraving of Oliver Cromwell
24.
Charles II of England
–
Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
Charles II of England
–
Charles II in the robes of the
Order of the Garter, by
John Michael Wright or studio, c. 1660–1665
Charles II of England
–
Charles II as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to
Justus van Egmont
Charles II of England
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Portrait by
William Dobson, c. 1642 or 1643
Charles II of England
–
"The Scots Holding Their Young King's Nose To the Grindstone", from a satirical English pamphlet
25.
Nathaniel Bacon (colonist)
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Nathaniel Bacon was a colonist of the Virginia Colony, famous as the instigator of Bacons Rebellion of 1676, which collapsed when Bacon himself died from dysentery. Bacon was born on January 2,1647, in Friston Hall in Suffolk, England, to merchant parents Thomas Bacon. Nathaniel was one of their children and received an education at Cambridge University. He went on a tour of Europe under the tutelage of John Ray. Nathaniel married Elizabeth Duke, the daughter of Sir Edward Duke, after accusations that Nathaniel cheated another young man of his inheritance, Thomas Bacon gave his son the considerable sum of £1,800 and the young man sailed into exile across the Atlantic. Upon arriving in Virginia, Nathaniel Bacon bought two frontier plantations on the James River, since his cousin was a prominent militia colonel and friend of governor William Berkeley, Bacon settled in Jamestown, the capital. Soon Bacon was himself appointed to the governors council, berkeleys wife, Frances Culpeper, may also have been Bacons cousin by marriage. Maryland Governor Calvert protested the incursion, and the Susquehannock retaliated, Maryland militia then joined Virginia forces, and attacked a fortified Susquehannock village. After five chiefs had accepted the Maryland leaders invitation to parley, they were slaughtered, the Susquehannocks retaliated in force against plantations, killing 60 settlers in Maryland and another 36 in their first assault on Virginia soil. Then other tribes joined in, killing settlers, burning houses and fields and slaughtering livestock as far as the James, frontier settlers dismissed the plan as expensive and inadequate, and also questioned it as a possible excuse to raise tax rates. In the meantime, Bacon, whose overseer on a James River plantation had been killed by Indian raiders, emerged as a rebel leader. When Berkeley refused to grant Bacon a military commission to attack all Indians, Bacon mustered his own force of 400-500 men and moved up the James River to attack the Doeg and Pamunkey tribes. Although both had lived peaceably with the colonists, and had not attacked the frontier settlements. In March, Berkeley had attempted to secure warriors from the Pamunkey tribe to fight hostile tribes pursuant to earlier treaties, the Pamunkey queen Cockacoeske passionately reminded the Governors Council of the deaths 20 years ago of her husband and 100 warriors who provided in a similar situation. The chairman had ignored her complaint, instead continued to demand more warriors, Berkeley did arrest Bacon and remove him from the Council, but Bacons men quickly secured his release, and forced Berkeley to hold legislative elections. Meanwhile, Bacons men continued their offensive against the Pamunkeys, who fled into Dragon Swamp, when the friendly Occoneechee managed to capture a Susquehannock fort, Bacons forces demanded all the spoils, although they had not assisted in the fighting. They then attacked the Oconeechee by treachery, killing men, women and children, despite Bacons outlaw status, voters of Henrico County elected him to the recomposed House of Burgesses. That body enacted a number of sweeping reforms, limiting the governors powers and they also made the sale of any arms to any Indian subject to the death penalty
Nathaniel Bacon (colonist)
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Artist impression of Nathaniel Bacon (c. 1760-1800)
26.
French and Indian Wars
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The title French and Indian War, in the singular, is used in the United States specifically for the warfare of 1754–1763, the North American colonial counterpart to the Seven Years War in Europe. The French and Indian Wars were preceded by the Beaver Wars, in Quebec, Canada, a former French colony, the wars are generally referred to as the War of the Conquest. Canadian convention uses the name of the larger European conflict or refers to the wars as the Intercolonial Wars, as the wars proceeded, the military advantage moved toward the British side. This was chiefly the result of the population and productive capacity of the British colonies. In addition, the British had the ability to resupply their colonies. The overwhelming victory of the British played a role in loss of their thirteen American colonies. Without the threat of French invasion, the American colonies saw little need for British military protection and these pressures contributed to the American Revolutionary War. The first three of the French and Indian Wars followed the basic pattern, they all started in Europe. Once the conflict broke out in North America, it was fought by colonial militias. The final conflict broke this pattern by beginning in North America, in addition, the British used more regular troops alongside colonial militia. They returned almost none of the French territory seized during the war, France was forced to cede its extensive territory in present-day Canada and Louisiane. The British victory in the French and Indian Wars reduced Frances New World empire to St. Pierre and Miquelon and this was normally along lakes and rivers and stretching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Many Native American Nations lived by these routes, and became involved in the wars between the powers of Europe. The belligerent built fortified positions at major hubs and requested the help of the local Native population to defend these. A common view is that European combat methods and military tactics were not adapted to the American forests and it is therefore conjectured, that the English colonists designed new combat techniques, inspired by the Indian combat methods. In reality, however, the French and Indian wars were won by Britain through the application of traditional European tactics. Although ultimately futile, the French fought according to the tactical doctrine contemporaries called la Petite guerre, the numerical inferiority of the French forces in North America made it impossible to fight a war according to standard European tactics. Hence the French to a large extent made use of indigenous allies, the Battle of the Monongahela was the largest achievement of the petty warfare tactics
French and Indian Wars
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Not to be confused with the
French and Indian War, the name given to the fourth conflict of the following wars.
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Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Dunmore, John Murray". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "
