1.
Colony of Virginia
–
The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
Colony of Virginia
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith
Colony of Virginia
–
Flag
Colony of Virginia
–
Lines show legal treaty frontiers between Virginia Colony and Indian Nations in various years, as well as today's state boundaries. Red: Treaty of 1646. Green: Treaty of Albany (1684). Blue: Treaty of Albany (1722). Orange:
Proclamation of 1763. Black: Treaty of Camp Charlotte (1774). Area west of this line in present-day Southwest VA was ceded by the Cherokee in 1775.
Colony of Virginia
–
Indian massacre of 1622, depicted in a 1628 woodcut by
Matthäus Merian out of
Theodore de Bry 's workshop.
2.
Patrick Henry
–
Patrick Henry was an American attorney, planter and politician who became known as an orator during the movement for independence in Virginia. A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779, Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act 1765 and is remembered for his Give me liberty, or give me death. After the Revolution, Henry was a leader of the anti-federalists in Virginia and he opposed the United States Constitution, fearing that it endangered the rights of the States as well as the freedoms of individuals, he helped gain adoption of the Bill of Rights. However, by 1798 he supported President John Adams and the Federalists and he denounced passage of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions as he feared the social unrest and widespread executions that had followed the increasing radicalism of the French Revolution. After he married, Henry began acquiring extensive land holdings, by 1779, along with his cousin and her husband, Henry owned a 10, 000-acre plantation known as Leatherwood. He is also recorded having purchased up to 78 slaves, in 1794, he and his wife retired to Red Hill Plantation, comprising 520 acres in Charlotte County, which was also a functioning tobacco plantation. Henry was born at Studley, the farm, in Hanover County in the Colony of Virginia. His father was John Henry, an immigrant from Aberdeenshire, Scotland, settling in Hanover County, in about 1732 John Henry married Sarah Winston Syme, a wealthy widow from a prominent Hanover County family of English ancestry. Patrick Henry was once thought to have been of humble origins, Henry attended local schools for a few years, and then was tutored by his father. He tried to start in business but was not successful, in 1754 Henry married Sarah Shelton, reportedly in the parlor of her family house, Rural Plains. As a wedding gift, her father gave the couple six slaves, with his marriage, he became a slaveholder and landowner. Henry worked with his slaves on the land because it was a property, it was exhausted from tobacco cultivation. After the main house burned, the moved for a short time with their two children into the 20 by 60 foot Honeymoon Cottage, a one-story building with attic. They later moved to the Hanover Tavern, owned by Sarahs father and they sold Pine Slash Plantation in 1764, after Henry started working as a lawyer. The Henrys had six children together, one of whom married a brother of poet Thomas Campbell, in 1771 the family moved to Scotchtown Plantation, also in Hanover County. Sarah became mentally ill and died there in 1775, on October 25,1777, 41-year-old Henry married his second wife, 22-year-old Dorothea Dandridge. The next year moved to Williamsburg after his election as governor. In 1779 they moved to the 10, 000-acre Leatherwood Plantation, Henry began a career as a planter, but the soil was poor and their main house was destroyed by fire in 1757
Patrick Henry
–
Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry
–
View of
Rural Plains near Totopotomoy Creek in Virginia. Henry was reportedly married to Sarah Shelton in the parlor.
Patrick Henry
–
Patrick Henry's "Treason" speech before the
House of Burgesses in an 1851 painting by
Peter F. Rothermel
Patrick Henry
–
A Hue & Cry, Virginia
broadside, 1775
3.
Peter F. Rothermel
–
Peter Frederick Rothermel was an American painter. Rothermel was born in Nescopeck, Pennsylvania on July 8,1812, although various sources give his year as 1813,1814. The artists gravestone in Philadelphia gives the date as 1812 and he had a common-school education, and studied land surveying. At age 20, he moved to Philadelphia and became a sign painter, then at age 22, he took up the study of art. He was instructed in drawing by John Rubens Smith, and subsequently became a pupil of Bass Otis in Philadelphia and his 1844 work De Soto discovering the Mississippi was purchased by the Art Union and marked his first success as an artist. He served as president of the Artists Fund Society in 1844. During 1856-1859 he was in Europe, residing for about two years in Rome, and visiting also the cities in England, France, Germany, Belgium. On his return to the United States, he settled in Philadelphia again and he specialized in portraits and dramatic historical paintings. His most famous paintings include Patrick Henry before the Virginia House of Burgesses and this latter work was commissioned by Gettysburg lawyer David McConaughy. Another of his more popular works is Columbus Before the Queen. In 1877, he moved from Philadelphia to “Grassmere, ” his country home near Linfield, Pennsylvania and his estate still exists today on Limerick Center Road, it is now a residential site. Rothermels son, Peter F. Rothermel, Jr. was District Attorney of Philadelphia, lehigh University webpage for Rothermel Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds
Peter F. Rothermel
–
Peter F Rothermal, ca. 1885.
Peter F. Rothermel
–
Peter F. Rothermel's
Patrick Henry before the Virginia
House of Burgesses
4.
Virginia House of Delegates
–
The Virginia House of Delegates is one of two parts in the Virginia General Assembly, the other being the Senate of Virginia. It has 100 members elected for terms of two years, unlike most states, these take place during odd-numbered years. The House is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the Speaker is almost always a member of the majority party and, as Speaker, becomes the most powerful member of the House. The House shares legislative power with the Senate of Virginia, the house of the Virginia General Assembly. The House of Delegates is the successor to the Virginia House of Burgesses. The House is divided into Democratic and Republican caucuses, in addition to the Speaker, there is a majority leader, majority caucus chair, minority leader, minority caucus chair, and the chairs of the several committees of the House. Through the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World, originally having 22 members, the House of Burgesses met from 1619 through 1632 in the choir of the church at Jamestown. From 1632 to 1699 the legislative body met at four different state houses in Jamestown, the first state house convened at the home of Colonial Governor Sir John Harvey from 1632 to 1656. The burgesses convened at the state house from 1656 until it was destroyed in 1660. Historians have yet to identify its location. The House has met in Virginias Capitol Building, designed by Thomas Jefferson, the legislative body met from 1788 to 1904 in what is known as today the Old Hall of the House of Delegates or commonly referred to as the Old House Chamber. The Old House Chamber is part of the original Capitol building structure and it measures 76 feet in width and is filled today with furnishings that resemble what the room would have looked like during its time of use. There are many bronze and marble busts of historic Virginians on display in the Old House Chamber, including, George Mason, George Wythe, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and Meriwether Lewis. From 1904 to 1906, University of Virginia graduate and architect John K. Peeples designed, the General Assembly members and staff operate from offices in the General Assembly Building, located in Capitol Square. Prior to 1788 the House of Delegates met in the Colonial Capital of Williamsburg, in 1999, Republicans took control of the long-time Democratic House of Delegates for the first time since Reconstruction. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640 per year, each delegate represents roughly 83,000 people. Candidates for office must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the districts they seek to represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the House has 14 standing committees
Virginia House of Delegates
–
Virginia House of Delegates
5.
Jamestown, Virginia
–
The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. William Kelso writes that Jamestown is where the British Empire began, Jamestown was established by the Virginia Company of London as James Fort on May 4,1607, and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke, Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years, from 1616 until 1699. The settlement was located within the country of Tsenacommacah, which was ruled by the Powhatan Confederacy, the natives initially welcomed and provided crucial provisions and support for the colonists, who were not agriculturally inclined. Relations with the newcomers soured fairly early on, leading to the annihilation of the Paspahegh in warfare within 3 years. Mortality at Jamestown itself was very high due to disease and starvation, the Second Supply also brought the first two European women to the settlement. They most likely worked in the fields as indentured servants. The modern conception of slavery in the future United States was formalized in 1640 and was entrenched in Virginia by 1660. In 1676, the town was burned during Bacons Rebellion. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations comprising the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites, Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site on Jamestown Island, is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site and Preservation Virginia. Jamestown Settlement, a living history site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation. Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, the English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590. Late in 1606, English entrepreneurs set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World, the fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a long voyage of four months, including a stop in Puerto Rico. The expedition made landfall on April 26,1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry, Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25,1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a peninsula some 40 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian tribes, the island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking
Jamestown, Virginia
–
The ruined tower of the 1639
Jamestown Church; the
nave was reconstructed in 1907 on the original foundations
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Location in Virginia
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Salt
marshes along Jamestown Island. The ample wetlands on the island proved to be a breeding ground for mosquitoes.
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Detail of the map made by Pedro de Zúñiga, depicting the fort in about 1608
6.
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Williamsburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,068, in 2014, the population was estimated to be 14,691. Located on the Virginia Peninsula, Williamsburg is in the part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. It is bordered by James City County and York County, Williamsburg was founded in 1632 as Middle Plantation, a fortified settlement on high ground between the James and York rivers. The city served as the capital of the Colony of Virginia from 1699 to 1780 and was the center of events in Virginia leading to the American Revolution. S. Presidents as well as other important figures in the nations early history. The citys tourism-based economy is driven by Colonial Williamsburg, the restored Historic Area of the city, along with nearby Jamestown and Yorktown, Williamsburg forms part of the Historic Triangle, which attracts more than four million tourists each year. Modern Williamsburg is also a town, inhabited in large part by William & Mary students. Prior to the arrival of the English colonists at Jamestown in the Colony of Virginia in 1607, by the 1630s, English settlements had grown to dominate the lower portion of the Virginia Peninsula, and the Powhatan tribes had abandoned their nearby villages. Jamestown was the capital of Virginia Colony, but was burned down during the events of Bacons Rebellion in 1676. The members of the House of Burgesses discovered that the location was both safer and more pleasant environmentally than Jamestown, which was humid and plagued with mosquitoes. A school of education had long been an aspiration of the colonists. An early attempt at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622, the location at the outskirts of the developed part of the colony had left it more vulnerable to the attack. In the 1690s, the colonists tried again to establish a school and they commissioned Reverend James Blair, who spent several years in England lobbying, and finally obtained a royal charter for the desired new school. It was to be named the College of William & Mary in honor of the monarchs of the time, when Reverend Blair returned to Virginia, the new school was founded in a safe place, Middle Plantation in 1693. Classes began in temporary quarters in 1694, and the College Building, four years later, in 1698, the rebuilt Statehouse in Jamestown burned down again, this time accidentally. The government again relocated temporarily to Middle Plantation, and in addition to the better climate now also enjoyed use of the Colleges facilities. The College students made a presentation to the House of Burgesses, a village was laid out and Middle Plantation was renamed Williamsburg in honor of King William III of England, befitting the towns newly elevated status
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
The Williamsburg's Governors Palace in 2000.
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Capitol Building, from a silver gelatin photograph, c. 1934–1950
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Williamsburg Transportation Center is an intermodal facility located in a restored
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway station located within walking distance of
Colonial Williamsburg 's Historic Area, the
College of William and Mary, and the downtown area.
Williamsburg, Virginia
–
Colonial Williamsburg
7.
Virginia Company
–
The Virginia Company refers collectively to two joint stock companies chartered by James I on 10 April 1606 with the purposes of establishing settlements on the coast of North America. The two companies, called the Virginia Company of London and the Virginia Company of Plymouth operated with identical charters, an area of overlapping territory was created within which the two companies were not permitted to establish colonies within one hundred miles of each other. The Plymouth Company never fulfilled its charter, and its territory that later became New England was at that also claimed by England. As corporations, the companies were empowered by the Crown to govern themselves, the principle was thus established that a royal colony should be self-governing, and this formed the genesis of democracy in America. However, it was abandoned after about 1 year, and the Plymouth Company became inactive, on 14 May 1607, the London Company established the Jamestown Settlement about 40 miles inland along the James River, a major tributary of the Chesapeake Bay in present-day Virginia. The future of the settlement at Jamestown was precarious for its first 5 years, dr. Linwood Custalows book The Real Story of Pocahontas details the story of some of Smiths most famous interactions with the Powhatan tribes from an indigenous perspective. In 1620 George Calvert asked King James I for a charter for English Catholics to add the territory of the Plymouth Company, also in 1609, a much larger Third Supply mission was organised. Rushed into service without the customary sea trials, the new ship, the Sea Venture, became flagship of the fleet of 9 ships, with most of the leaders, food. The Third Supply convoy encountered a massive storm believed to have been a hurricane which lasted three days and separated them, the uninhabited archipelago was officially named The Somers Isles after Admiral Somers, though it was known as Bermuda. From salvaged parts of the Sea Venture, the survivors built two vessels, Deliverance and Patience. Ten months later they continued on to Jamestown, leaving several men behind on the archipelago to establish possession of it, arriving at Jamestown on 23 May 1610, they found that over 85% of the 500 colonists had perished during what became known as the Starving Time. The Bermuda survivors had anticipated finding a colony at Jamestown and had brought little food or supplies with them. The colonists at Jamestown were saved only by the arrival of a supply mission headed by Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, better known as Lord Delaware. In 1612, The London Companys Royal Charter was officially extended to include The Somers Isles as part of the Virginia Colony. However, in 1615, the passed to a separate company, the The London Company of The Somers Isles. To the disappointment of its investors, the Virginia Company of London failed to discover gold or silver in Virginia, however, the company did establish trade of various types. The biggest trade breakthrough came when colonist John Rolfe introduced several sweeter strains of tobacco from the Caribbean, rolfes new tobacco strains led to a strong export for the London Company and other early English colonies, and helped balance a trade deficit with Spain. The Jamestown Massacre which devastated that colony in 1622 brought on unfavorable attention, there was a period of debate in Britain between Company officers who wished to guard the original charter, and those who wished the Company ended
Virginia Company
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith. The armorials of the Virginia Company are shown at far left
8.
List of colonial governors of Virginia
–
This is a list of colonial governors of Virginia. Note, Some of those who held the role as governor of Virginia never visited the New World. Others, such as Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, held the role for many years. Probably for those reasons, in historical documents and references. Also, transportation from England routinely took several months, and occasionally, thus, dates may appear to overlap. The first English attempt to colonize Virginia was the Lost Colony of Roanoke, two unsuccessful settlements were established under two different governors, and the final fate of the colonists remains unknown. Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord and Governor of Virginia Ralph Lane John White From 1606 until 1624, most were styled President of the Council, although some were styled governor by the proprietors. Governors were appointed by the monarch to oversee the interests of the Crown. During the interregnum period, when England came under commonwealth rule and the rule of Oliver and Richard Cromwell. William Berkeley, who was governor at the time of the execution of King Charles I, Berkeley was returned to office by votes of the Virginia assembly and by appointment of the restored King Charles II in 1660
List of colonial governors of Virginia
–
Captain John Smith, from his 1614 map of New England
9.
Bourgeois
–
A legally defined class of the Middle Ages to the end of the Ancien Régime in France, that of inhabitants having the rights of citizenship and political rights in a city. This bourgeoisie destroyed aristocratic privilege and established civic equality after the French monarchy collapsed, the aristocracy crumbled because it refused to reform institutions and financial systems. An affluent and often opulent stratum of the class who stand opposite the proletariat class. In English, bourgeoisie identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in such as the drame bourgeois and bourgeois tragedy. The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and this urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen conflicted with their feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In English, the bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers, petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, the petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, the petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class and this class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves, the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations, some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper-middle classes, the grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades, the names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the regions history. These families are respected and revered and they belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry
Bourgeois
–
The prototypical bourgeois: Monsieur Jourdain, the protagonist in
Molière 's play
Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670).
Bourgeois
–
The 16th-century German banker
Jakob Fugger and his principal accountant, M. Schwarz, registering an entry to a ledger. The background shows a file cabinet indicating the European cities where the Fugger Banker conducts business. (1517)
Bourgeois
–
Thomas Mann (1875–1955) portrayed the moral, intellectual, and physical decadence of the German upper bourgeoisie in the novel
Buddenbrooks (1926)
10.
Charter of 1606
–
The land is described as coastal Virginia and islands near to the coast, but the surveying numbers correspond to modern day South Carolina to Canada. The land itself would remain the property of the King, with the London Company and the Plymouth Company as the Kings tenants, the colonys government at first consisted of a council residing in London. King James also intended to spread Christianity to those living in what was to become the English colonies. The King established a council and council member both in America and England to provide governance and management of the colonies and identified all council members, the council had the authority to enjoy the natural resources of the colonies with part of the profits given to the king. The king intended to give the colonists all benefits of a government including the right to have their own currency, although the colonists had a great deal of freedom, they were subject to the kings’ approval. The following passage states the risk associated with trading without approval, the charter concluded with a final agreement of the king to authorize the stated colonists to practice their duties as outlined in the paragraphs above. Second Virginia Charter History of Jamestown, the First Charter of Virginia, April 10,1606. Yale University Project 1996-2007 The Avalon Project at Yale Law School
Charter of 1606
–
Map showing the grants provided for in the Charter of 1606
11.
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
The House of Assembly is the lower house of the Parliament of the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda. The house has 36 Members of Parliament, each elected in a single seat constituency, the House of Assembly was originally the only house of Bermudas parliament, and held its first session in 1620. It first met in Saint Peters Church, in the colonial capital, Saint Georges, until its own building. It met in the State House until the capital was moved to Hamilton in 1815, where it met at the old hall until relocating to its current home. The House of Assembly was created at a time when Bermuda, or The Somers Isles, was administered by the Somers Isles Company, the House of Burgesses had been created in Virginia in 1619. During periods when the colony was without a Governor, the President of the Council might find himself Acting Governor, also. The British Government came to view Bermuda more as a base than as a colony and this was only one of the changes made in the 1960s, largely as a result of the civil rights movement. A constitution was introduced which made Bermudas parliamentary system more like the Westminster system, political parties were legalised, and the system of a majority Government, from which a Premier was appointed and the Cabinet Ministers were drawn, and a minority Opposition was adopted. The Senate was created to perform a function akin to that of the House of Lords, in London, although its members were appointed, rather than being hereditary, noble peers. Although non-white males had not been banned from either voting or standing for election. When the numbers of land owners had increased, a minimum property value had been added. A male could vote in each of the nine parishes in which he held property of sufficient value, the first non-white to stand for election was schoolmaster Augustus Swan, who owned two houses and dry goods stores in Hamilton and Flatts. The first non-white person to gain a seat in the House of Assembly was William Henry Thomas Joell, elected MCP for Pembroke in May,1883. He was replaced by John Henry Thomas Jackson, who was also non-white, Bermudas women were denied the vote, and the ability to stand for election, entirely until 1944. In the 1980s, the age was lowered from 21 to 18 years of age. List of Speakers of the House of Assembly of Bermuda Politics of Bermuda
House of Assembly of Bermuda
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
House of Assembly of Bermuda
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
St. Peter's Church, where the House of Assembly held its first session on the 1 August 1620.
House of Assembly of Bermuda
–
The
State House, the home of Bermuda's
parliament in
St. George's from 1620 until the capital's relocation to
Hamilton in 1815. Picture taken in 2006
12.
Bermuda
–
Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
Bermuda
–
View from the top of Gibb's Hill Lighthouse
Bermuda
–
Flag
Bermuda
–
Bermuda pictured from the
International Space Station
Bermuda
–
The image of the
Lord Holy Christ of the Miracles, in
Hamilton, devoted by all the
Azoreans in Bermuda islands.
13.
Somers Isles Company
–
The Somers Isles Company was formed in 1615 to operate the English colony of the Somers Isles, also known as Bermuda, as a commercial venture. It held a charter for Bermuda until 1684, when it was dissolved. Bermuda had been settled, inadvertently, in 1609 by the Virginia Company when its flagship, Somers had deliberately driven the ship onto the reefs to prevent its foundering, thereby saving all aboard. The settlers and seamen spent ten months in Bermuda while they built two new ships to continue the voyage to Jamestown, during the building, Sea Ventures longboat was fitted with a mast and sent to find Jamestown. Neither it, nor its crew, was seen again. When Deliverance and Patience set sail for Jamestown, they left several people behind, some to maintain Somers claim to the islands for England, rolfe would find a new bride in the Powhatan princess Pocahontas. Jamestown, and the sixty survivors of its five hundred settlers, were found in such a poor state that it was decided to abandon the Jamestown settlement. The timely arrival of another fleet under Thomas West from England granted the colony a reprieve. However, the shortage was made more critical by the new arrivals. Somers returned to Bermuda on Patience, captained by his nephew, Matthew, to provisions for the Jamestown colony. Matthew Somers was keen to receive his inheritance, and took Patience to Somers hometown, Lyme Regis, a Governor, Richard Moore, arrived in 1612 with settlers, aboard Plough, to join those left behind by Sea Venture and Patience. The new settlers were primarily tenant farmers, who seven years of indentured servitude to the Company in exchange for the cost of transport. Although the primary industry was envisioned to be agriculture, the early Governors enthusiastically, if mostly unsuccessfully and these included pearl diving and ambergris. The first two slaves to arrive in Bermuda, one black, one Native American, were brought in for their skills as pearl divers. Free of the warfare and other hardships which plagued the continental settlement, Bermuda thrived from the beginning. Its population quickly surpassed that of Jamestown, and consideration was given to abandoning the North American continent, the Virginia Company ran Bermuda until 1614, when the Crown briefly took over the Colonys administration. The adventurers of the Virginia Company formed a company, the Somers Isles Company. The Virginia Company was dissolved in 1622, with the administration of its continental colony passing to the Crown, the Somers Isles Company, with its separate charter, continued to administer Bermuda for another six decades
Somers Isles Company
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Captain John Smith
Somers Isles Company
–
Contents
14.
Jamestown Church
–
It is now part of Jamestown National Historic Site, and is owned by Preservation Virginia. There have been several sites and stages in the churchs history, the current structure, active as part of the Anglican church, is still in use today. The ruins are currently being researched by members of the Jamestown Rediscovery project, the acknowledged religion in Elizabethan England was the Church of England, whose services rigorously followed the Book of Common Prayer. The Jamestown settlers brought this form of religion with them, there was no separation of church and state in 17th century England. Church services in James Fort were held fourteen times a week, with sermons preached at services on Sunday, two prayer services, one in the morning and one in the evening, were held Monday through Saturday. An afternoon catechism was also held by the minister on Sunday, as a result of detailed surveys of the site by Jamestown Rediscovery, six churches are believed to have been built on two different sites at James Fort. Churches 1-2 were located inside the confines of the fort, whereas Churches 3-6 were built nearby on the current site. The oldest surviving visible section of any structure is the tower, captain John Smith reported that the first church services were held outdoors under an awning fastened to three or four trees. Shortly thereafter the settlers built the first church inside the fort in 1607, Smith said it was a homely thing like a barn set on crachetts, covered with rafts, sedge and earth. This church soon burned down in the fires of January 7,1608, in 2010, archaeologists discovered the site of the second church constructed at Jamestown. It was similar to the first, and built on the same site, when Lord De La Warr arrived as governor in 1610, he found that the church had fallen into a sad state of disrepair, so he had it restored and its furnishings improved. This is the site where on April 5,1614, Pocahontas married John Rolfe, in 1617-1619 when Samuel Argall was governor, he had the inhabitants build a new church 50 foot long and twenty foot broad. Situated nearby the old church, it was wooden and built on a foundation of cobblestones capped by a wall one brick thick. It was in church where the first Representative Legislative Assembly met. In January 1639 Governor John Harvey reported that he, the Council, the ablest planters and this church was slightly larger than the third church and was built around it over the next few years. It was still unfinished in November 1647 when efforts were made to complete it and it was burned during Bacons Rebellion on September 19,1676. Around this time a church tower was added to an existing church building over two distinctly different stages. Once completed, it was about 46 feet high with a roof, belfry
Jamestown Church
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Remains of the 1639 tower of the old church (photographed c. 1900)
Jamestown Church
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The interior of the church as rebuilt
Jamestown Church
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Original 1639 church tower
Jamestown Church
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Exterior of the church
15.
Jamestown Island
–
Jamestown Island is a 1, 561-acre island in the James River in Virginia, part of James City County. It is located off Glasshouse Point, to which it is connected via a causeway to the Colonial Parkway, much of the island is wetland, including both swamp and marsh. Prior to the English settlement, the area was home to the Paspahegh people. In May 1607, the island site of James Fort. The chief of the Powatan at that time, also named Powhatan was father of Pocahontas, after Powhatans death in 1618, hostilities with colonists escalated under his brother, Opechancanough. His large-scale attacks in 1622 and 1644 met strong reprisals by the English, after Bacons rebellion, Jamestown lasted until 1699, when it was abandoned in favor of a new site at Williamsburg. By the early 20th century, the isthmus connecting the landform to Glasshouse Point had eroded, today, most of the island is a part of Colonial National Historical Park, including Historic Jamestowne. The rediscovery of the James Fort in 1996 by Jamestown Rediscovery has led to significant archaeological discoveries of the early colonial settler period
Jamestown Island
–
Map of Jamestown Island and the location of the 1607 fort. (Not pictured are modern roads, buildings, and the causeway linking it to Glasshouse Point)
16.
William Capps
–
William Capps was born in Norfolk County, England in or around 1575. William married Catherine Jernagin in Norwich, Norfolk County, England, 11-Dec-1596 and he and his wife had five children together, Henry, Frances, Willoughby, Anne, and William. He traveled to the Colony of Virginia aboard the Sea Venture and was apparently among those shipwrecked in Bermuda for several months before reaching the New World, William Capps arrived in Virginia in 1609-1610 and settled at Kecoughtan on the west side of the Hampton River. This site is in present-day Hampton, Virginia and is on the side of the Hampton River from the grounds of Hampton Institute. There is a street called Capps Quarters in this area that is almost certainly part of William Capps original tract of land, a Virginia historical marker is posted in this area. This point, patented by William Capps about 1634, was known for a century as Capps Point, the area was later renamed Little England. Kecoughtan had originally been the site of an Indian village which on May 1,1607 had some 18 houses of twigs, in May-1616 only 350 of all persons who had come to Virginia remained there - the rest having died or given up and returned to England. Three years later in 1619 the first general division of land in Virginia occurred and those settlers having arrived before 1616 and having three years residence, termed ancient planters, were entitled to 100 acres. Greate incouragement, and the greatest hope to make the Colony florrish that ever yet happened to them, twenty-two Burgesses met representing the 11 major settlements in Virginia. The Kecoughtan settlement was represented by Capt William Tucker and William Capps, a memorial church built on the foundations of the church in which the House of Burgesses met exists at the Historic Jamestowne National Park Service site on Jamestown Island, Virginia. A monument bearing the names of the Burgesses is located near within the confines of the newly rediscovered original Jamestown fort. It was apparently at their urging that the first House of Burgesses was asked to change the name of Kiccowtan. The new name selected was Elizabeth City after the daughter of King James, in Dec-1619 the population of Virginia was about 900 out of a total immigration of 1440. In 1627, William Capps was appointed a member of the Council by the Crown upon the recommendation of the Governor, the Councilors were the Governors advisers in executive matters and constituted the supreme court of the Virginia. They also held legislative functions as members of the house of the Virginia Assembly. Two years later William Capps asked leave of the Governor to depart the colony on the Kings affairs, in 1630 he returned with the Kings letter of instructions to the Council. The date of his death was →1637 which was 8 years after the passing of his Wife Catherine. ←
William Capps
–
St Michael-at-Plea, Norwich, England, 2006
William Capps
–
Capps Point Historical Marker, Hampton, Virginia
17.
Lower Brandon Plantation
–
Lower Brandon Plantation is located on the south shore of the James River in present-day Prince George County, Virginia. The plantation is a farm and was tended perhaps from 1607 on. It has a brick mansion in style of Palladios Roman Country House completed in the 1760s. It was established in 1616 by Captain John Martin, one of the leaders of the Virginia Colony at Jamestown in 1607. The plantation was owned by the Harrison family for two centuries, from 1700–1926. Restored by Robert Williams Daniel in the early 20th century, it is both a National Historical Landmark open to tours and one of Americas oldest continuous farming operations. Brandon Plantation was part of a 1616 land grant of approximately 7,000 acres on the bank of the James River to Captain John Martin. Captain Martin was one of the colonists and a member of the first Council in the spring of 1607. They had been married in 1586, in 1619, Martins Brandon was one of the plantations represented when what became the House of Burgesses, the first representative legislative body in the English colonies, met at Jamestown. The representatives of Martins Brandon were Thomas Davis and Robert Stacy, during the Indian Massacre of 1622 which occurred on Good Friday, March 22,1622, there were 7 deaths recorded at Martins Brandon, including one woman and two boys. 347 deaths were recorded during the attacks along both shores of the James River, from the mouth of the river at Newport News Point on Hampton Roads. Captain John Martin died at Martins Brandon Plantation in 1632 and his grandson, Captain Robert Bargrave, inherited the plantation on Martins death. In 1637, merchants John Sadler and Richard Quiney and mariner William Barker and they and their heirs farmed it successfully until 1720 when it was sold to Nathaniel Harrison. After Nathaniels premature death in 1727 it passed to his son Nathaniel Harrison II, Brandon then came into the possession of American Revolutionary War Colonel Benjamin Harrison. At his death, the property was divided between his two sons, and Upper Brandon Plantation was created, Brandon Plantation remained in the Harrison family until 1926, when it was acquired by Robert Williams Daniel, a Richmond banker. Congressman Robert W. Daniel, Jr. inherited the property from his parents, Brandon was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, and was further declared a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1985. The restored manor house was, furnished by the Daniels with 1760s era English, Brandon is still a working farm and the agricultural enterprise is one of the oldest continuous farming operations in the United States. The 4487. 5-acre property was sold at auction by the estate of Robert W. Daniel, in late 2013 the purchase contract with the buyer fell through and the estate was put back on the market with an asking price of $20 million
Lower Brandon Plantation
–
Brandon
18.
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation
–
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation dates to 1618/19 with the patent by Sir George Yeardley, the Governor and Captain General of Virginia, of 1,000 acres on the south side of the James River. Yeardley probably named the plantation after his wifes father, Anthony Flowerdew, just as he named another plantation Stanley Hundred after his wifes wealthy mother. A hundred was historically a division of a shire or county, with a population of about 30, the plantation was economically successful with thousands of pounds of tobacco produced along with corn, fish and livestock. Sir George paid 120 pounds to build the first windmill in British America, today, Flowerdew Hundred plantation is a private residence. The first windmill erected in English North America was built at Flowerdew Hundred by 1621, in 1624, Abraham Piersey, Cape Merchant of the Virginia Company, purchased Flowerdew Hundred renaming it Pierseys Hundred. Piersey’s Stone House was the first home with a permanent foundation in the colony, the 1624 Muster lists approximately sixty occupants at the settlement, including some of the first Africans in Virginia. Throughout the seventeenth century, Flowerdew Hundred continued to prosper with the establishment of a secondary settlement, in 1683, with the passage of the king’s Advancement of Trade Act, Flowerdew Towne was formed down river, but it was not very successful within the James River planter economy. Sometime after 1720, a ferry ran from Flowerdew Hundred across the stretch of the James known as Three Mile Reach to the bank of the James. An ordinary or tavern was built there for the convenience of the passengers. Part of the old Hundred was acquired by the Joshua Poythress, the property was shelled during the 1781 campaign of Gen. Benedict Arnold. He ordered Lt. Col. Simcoe and some Queen’s Rangers to spike the guns near Hood’s fort on the edge of the property and then continued to the capital of Richmond. The Plantation was re-formed again through the work of John Vaughn Willcox and he married the last Poythress heiress and bought up the surrounding lands that were part of the original land grant that had been sold off. In 1804 they built a new house on the ridge overlooking the fertile bottom lands along the James. Grant’s Crossing from Weyanoke to Flowerdew held this record until World War II, the Army of the Potomac with three corps and a supply train crossed the river in about three days heading for City Point to begin the Siege of Petersburg. The site of the bridge was “found” again in 1986 by Eugene Prince. Using Prince’s Principle, a simple 35 mm camera, a tree on the riverbank. A dead limb on a tree in the Gardner photograph was still present 122 years later. The old Willcox house was torn down in 1955 though a magnolia planted in 1840 still survives in the yard of the mansion that was built on its former site in the late 1990s
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation
–
Flowerdew Hundred Plantation
19.
Indian massacre of 1622
–
The Indian Massacre of 1622 took place in the English Colony of Virginia, in what now belongs to the United States, on Friday,22 March 1622. The Powhatan grabbed any tools or weapons available and killed all English settlers they found, Chief Opechancanough led a coordinated series of surprise attacks by the Powhatan Confederacy that killed 347 people, a quarter of the English population of Jamestown. Jamestown, founded in 1607, was the site of the first successful English settlement in North America and its tobacco economy led to constant expansion and seizure of Powhatan lands, which ultimately provoked a violent reaction. Although Jamestown was spared due to a timely warning, the Powhatan also attacked and destroyed many smaller settlements along the James River. In addition to killing settlers, the Powhatan burned houses and crops, the English abandoned many of the smaller settlements after the attacks. At first, the natives were glad to trade provisions to the colonists for metal tools and this earned the colonists a bad reputation among the Native Americans and precipitated conflict. They isolated the Native Americans, burned houses, and stole their food supplies. The English violence alienated the natives further and they laid siege to the Jamestown fort for several months, unable to secure more food supplies, many colonists died during the starving time in 1609–10. The London Companys primary concern was the survival of the colony, in Englands best interest, the colonists would have to maintain civil relations with the Powhatan. The Powhatan and the English realized that they could benefit from each other through trade once peace was restored. In exchange for food, the chief asked the colonists to provide him with metal hatchets, the English wanted more, they wanted control over the land. When Gates arrived at Jamestown in 1610, he decided to evacuate the settlement because he thought the plan was not feasible. As the colonists were about to leave the Bay and head out into the open sea, taking command as governor, de la Warre ordered the fort reoccupied. He plotted conquest of the surrounding tribes, in July 1610 he sent Gates against the Kecoughtan. “Gates lured the Indians into the open by means of music-and-dance act by his drummer and this was the First Anglo-Powhatan War. The English, led by Samuel Argall captured Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, “English demanded that all Powhatan captives be released, return all English weapons taken by his warriors, and agree upon a lasting peace”. It was while Pocahontas was held by the English that she met John Rolfe, while in captivity, Pocahontas was taught the English language, manners and religion. She was baptized as a Christian and took the name Rebecca
Indian massacre of 1622
–
Indian massacre of 1622, depicted as a woodcut by
Matthaeus Merian, 1628.
20.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
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Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
–
Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
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Wilma Mankiller
21.
London, England
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London, England
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London, England
London, England
London, England
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
22.
County
–
A county is a geographical region of a country used for administrative or other purposes, in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French conté or cunté denoting a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of a count or a viscount. The modern French is comté, and its equivalents in other languages are contea, contado, comtat, condado, Grafschaft, graafschap, Gau, when the Normans conquered England, they brought the term with them. The Saxons had already established the districts became the historic counties of England. The Vikings introduced the term earl to the British Isles, thus, the Anglo-Saxons earl and earldom were taken as equivalent to the continental use of count and county under the conquering Normans, and over time the two blended and became equivalent terms. Further, the term became a synonym for the native English word scir or, in Modern English. Since a shire was a division of the kingdom, the term county evolved to designate an administrative division of states or of a national government in most other modern uses. A county may be subdivided into districts, hundreds, townships or other administrative jurisdictions within the county. A county usually, but not always, contains cities, towns, townships, villages, or other municipal corporations, Provinces in Argentina are divided into departments, except in the Buenos Aires Province, where they are called partidos. The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes, in the eastern states of Australia, counties are used in the administration of land titles. They do not generally correspond to a level of government, but are used in the identification of parcels of land, canadas five oldest provinces – New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec and Prince Edward Island – are divided into counties. In addition to counties, Ontario is also subdivided into districts, district municipalities, metropolitan municipalities. British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, the word county is used to translate the Chinese term xiàn. In Mainland China, governed by the Peoples Republic of China, counties are the level of local government. There are 1,464 counties in the PRC out of a total of 2,862 county-level divisions, the number of counties has remained more or less constant since the Han dynasty. The county remains one of the oldest levels of government in China, the county government was particularly important in imperial China because this was the lowest layer at which the imperial government functioned. The head of a county during imperial times was the magistrate, in older context, prefecture and district are alternative terms to refer to xiàn before the establishment of the Republic of China. The English nomenclature county was adopted following the establishment of the ROC, contrary to the typical rural location of a county in Western countries, a city in China may enclose several counties
County
–
Counties of Iran
23.
Oliver Cromwell
–
Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was born into the gentry, albeit to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIIIs minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life as only four of his letters survive alongside a summary of a speech he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a conversion in the 1630s. He was a religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short and he entered the English Civil War on the side of the Roundheads or Parliamentarians. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles Is death warrant in 1649 and he was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–1650. Cromwells forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, during this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics, and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651, as a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the Royalists returned to power in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell, sponsored by military historian Richard Holmes was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Katherine married Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales, Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he use Cromwell, in honour of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. They had ten children, but Oliver, the child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Jasper was the uncle of Henry VII and great uncle of Henry VIII, Cromwells paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells father Robert was of modest means but still a part of the gentry class, as a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes, Cromwell himself in 1654 said, I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity. He was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St Johns Church and he went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos
Oliver Cromwell
–
A 1656
Samuel Cooper portrait of Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
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Portrait of Cromwell's wife Elizabeth Bourchier, painted by Robert Walker
Oliver Cromwell
–
Oliver Cromwell's house in
Ely
Oliver Cromwell
–
Engraving of Oliver Cromwell
24.
Charles II of England
–
Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
Charles II of England
–
Charles II in the robes of the
Order of the Garter, by
John Michael Wright or studio, c. 1660–1665
Charles II of England
–
Charles II as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to
Justus van Egmont
Charles II of England
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Portrait by
William Dobson, c. 1642 or 1643
Charles II of England
–
"The Scots Holding Their Young King's Nose To the Grindstone", from a satirical English pamphlet
25.
Nathaniel Bacon (colonist)
–
Nathaniel Bacon was a colonist of the Virginia Colony, famous as the instigator of Bacons Rebellion of 1676, which collapsed when Bacon himself died from dysentery. Bacon was born on January 2,1647, in Friston Hall in Suffolk, England, to merchant parents Thomas Bacon. Nathaniel was one of their children and received an education at Cambridge University. He went on a tour of Europe under the tutelage of John Ray. Nathaniel married Elizabeth Duke, the daughter of Sir Edward Duke, after accusations that Nathaniel cheated another young man of his inheritance, Thomas Bacon gave his son the considerable sum of £1,800 and the young man sailed into exile across the Atlantic. Upon arriving in Virginia, Nathaniel Bacon bought two frontier plantations on the James River, since his cousin was a prominent militia colonel and friend of governor William Berkeley, Bacon settled in Jamestown, the capital. Soon Bacon was himself appointed to the governors council, berkeleys wife, Frances Culpeper, may also have been Bacons cousin by marriage. Maryland Governor Calvert protested the incursion, and the Susquehannock retaliated, Maryland militia then joined Virginia forces, and attacked a fortified Susquehannock village. After five chiefs had accepted the Maryland leaders invitation to parley, they were slaughtered, the Susquehannocks retaliated in force against plantations, killing 60 settlers in Maryland and another 36 in their first assault on Virginia soil. Then other tribes joined in, killing settlers, burning houses and fields and slaughtering livestock as far as the James, frontier settlers dismissed the plan as expensive and inadequate, and also questioned it as a possible excuse to raise tax rates. In the meantime, Bacon, whose overseer on a James River plantation had been killed by Indian raiders, emerged as a rebel leader. When Berkeley refused to grant Bacon a military commission to attack all Indians, Bacon mustered his own force of 400-500 men and moved up the James River to attack the Doeg and Pamunkey tribes. Although both had lived peaceably with the colonists, and had not attacked the frontier settlements. In March, Berkeley had attempted to secure warriors from the Pamunkey tribe to fight hostile tribes pursuant to earlier treaties, the Pamunkey queen Cockacoeske passionately reminded the Governors Council of the deaths 20 years ago of her husband and 100 warriors who provided in a similar situation. The chairman had ignored her complaint, instead continued to demand more warriors, Berkeley did arrest Bacon and remove him from the Council, but Bacons men quickly secured his release, and forced Berkeley to hold legislative elections. Meanwhile, Bacons men continued their offensive against the Pamunkeys, who fled into Dragon Swamp, when the friendly Occoneechee managed to capture a Susquehannock fort, Bacons forces demanded all the spoils, although they had not assisted in the fighting. They then attacked the Oconeechee by treachery, killing men, women and children, despite Bacons outlaw status, voters of Henrico County elected him to the recomposed House of Burgesses. That body enacted a number of sweeping reforms, limiting the governors powers and they also made the sale of any arms to any Indian subject to the death penalty
Nathaniel Bacon (colonist)
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Artist impression of Nathaniel Bacon (c. 1760-1800)
26.
French and Indian Wars
–
The title French and Indian War, in the singular, is used in the United States specifically for the warfare of 1754–1763, the North American colonial counterpart to the Seven Years War in Europe. The French and Indian Wars were preceded by the Beaver Wars, in Quebec, Canada, a former French colony, the wars are generally referred to as the War of the Conquest. Canadian convention uses the name of the larger European conflict or refers to the wars as the Intercolonial Wars, as the wars proceeded, the military advantage moved toward the British side. This was chiefly the result of the population and productive capacity of the British colonies. In addition, the British had the ability to resupply their colonies. The overwhelming victory of the British played a role in loss of their thirteen American colonies. Without the threat of French invasion, the American colonies saw little need for British military protection and these pressures contributed to the American Revolutionary War. The first three of the French and Indian Wars followed the basic pattern, they all started in Europe. Once the conflict broke out in North America, it was fought by colonial militias. The final conflict broke this pattern by beginning in North America, in addition, the British used more regular troops alongside colonial militia. They returned almost none of the French territory seized during the war, France was forced to cede its extensive territory in present-day Canada and Louisiane. The British victory in the French and Indian Wars reduced Frances New World empire to St. Pierre and Miquelon and this was normally along lakes and rivers and stretching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Many Native American Nations lived by these routes, and became involved in the wars between the powers of Europe. The belligerent built fortified positions at major hubs and requested the help of the local Native population to defend these. A common view is that European combat methods and military tactics were not adapted to the American forests and it is therefore conjectured, that the English colonists designed new combat techniques, inspired by the Indian combat methods. In reality, however, the French and Indian wars were won by Britain through the application of traditional European tactics. Although ultimately futile, the French fought according to the tactical doctrine contemporaries called la Petite guerre, the numerical inferiority of the French forces in North America made it impossible to fight a war according to standard European tactics. Hence the French to a large extent made use of indigenous allies, the Battle of the Monongahela was the largest achievement of the petty warfare tactics
French and Indian Wars
–
Not to be confused with the
French and Indian War, the name given to the fourth conflict of the following wars.
27.
The Crown
–
The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown
The Crown
–
Australia
28.
French and Indian War
–
The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
French and Indian War
–
Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722
French and Indian War
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French and Indian War
French and Indian War
–
Robert Dinwiddie, British lieutenant governor of Virginia
French and Indian War
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Washington's map of the
Ohio River and surrounding region containing notes on French intentions, 1753 or 1754
29.
Ohio Valley
–
The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
Ohio Valley
–
The widest point on the Ohio River is just west of
Downtown Louisville, where it is one mile (1.6 km) wide
Ohio Valley
–
The
Allegheny River, left, and
Monongahela River join to form the Ohio River at
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the largest metropolitan area on the river.
Ohio Valley
–
The 1849
Wheeling Suspension Bridge was the first bridge across the river.
Ohio Valley
–
Louisville, Kentucky, sits at the widest and deepest point of the Ohio River.
30.
Sugar Act
–
The Sugar Act, also known as the American Revenue Act or the American Duties Act, was a revenue-raising act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on April 5,1764. The preamble to the act stated, it is expedient that new provisions and regulations should be established for improving the revenue of this Kingdom and it is just and necessary that a revenue should be raised. For defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same, the earlier Molasses Act of 1733, which had imposed a tax of six pence per gallon of molasses, had never been effectively collected due to colonial evasion. The Molasses Act of 1733 was passed by Parliament largely at the insistence of large plantation owners in the British West Indies, Molasses from French, Dutch, and Spanish West Indian possessions was inexpensive. Sugar was priced higher than its competitors and they also had no need for the large quantities of lumber, fish. Sometimes colonists would pay Molasses Act taxes because they were rather low depending on where they resided, in the first part of the 18th Century, the British West Indies were Great Britains most important trading partner, so Parliament was attentive to their requests. If actually collected, the tax would have closed that source to New England. Instead, smuggling, bribery or intimidation of customs officials effectively nullified the law, during the Seven Years War, known in Colonial America as the French and Indian War, the British government substantially increased the national debt to pay for the war. In February 1763, as the war ended, the ministry headed by John Stuart, shortly thereafter, George Grenville replaced Bute. Grenville supported his predecessors policy, even more so after the outbreak of Pontiacs Rebellion in May 1763, Grenville faced the problem of not only paying for these troops but servicing the national debt. The debt grew from £75,000,000 before the war to £122,600,000 in January 1763, and almost £130,000,000 by the beginning of 1764. George Grenville did not expect the colonies to contribute to the interest or the retirement of the debt, the Molasses Act was set to expire in 1763. The Commissioners of Customs anticipated greater demand for both molasses and rum as a result of the end of the war and the acquisition of Canada and they believed that the increased demand would make a sharply reduced rate both affordable and collectible. When passed by Parliament, the new Sugar Act of 1764 halved the tax on molasses. In addition to promising stricter enforcement, the language of the bill made it clear that the purpose of the legislation was not to regulate the trade. The new act listed specific goods, the most important being lumber, ship captains were required to maintain detailed manifests of their cargo and the papers were subject to verification before anything could be unloaded from the ships. Historian Fred Anderson wrote that the purpose of the Act was “to resolve the problems of finance and control that plagued the postwar empire. ”The Sugar Act was passed by Parliament on April 5,1764, and it arrived in the colonies at a time of economic depression. It was a tax, although the colonists were well informed of its presence
Sugar Act
–
Chemistry
31.
Stamp Act 1765
–
Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the tax had to be paid in valid British currency. The purpose of the tax was to pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years War and its North American theater of the French. The Americans said that there was no military need for the soldiers there were no foreign enemies on the continent. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers, the Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A consensus considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant and their slogan was No taxation without representation. Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests, the Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure, it petitioned Parliament and the King. Local protest groups led by merchants and landowners established connections through Committees of Correspondence. Protests and demonstrations initiated by a new organization called the Sons of Liberty often turned violent. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers, whose exports to the colonies were threatened by colonial boycotts, the Act was repealed on March 18,1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever by also passing the Declaratory Act. There followed a series of new taxes and regulations, likewise opposed by the colonists, the British victory in the Seven Years War, known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt increased more than fourfold, the primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well-connected in Parliament. Stationing 10,000 troops to separate American Indians and frontiersmen was one role, the outbreak of Pontiacs Rebellion in May 1763 apparently reinforced the logic of this decision, as it was an American Indian uprising against the British expansion. The main reason to send 10,000 troops deep into the wilderness was to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams said, Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury. George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short-lived Bute Ministry, raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministrys 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry therefore decided that Parliament would raise revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent
Stamp Act 1765
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Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in a newspaper
Stamp Act 1765
Stamp Act 1765
–
American newspapers reacted to the Stamp Act with anger and predictions of the demise of
journalism.
Stamp Act 1765
–
Benjamin Franklin represented Pennsylvania in discussions about the act
32.
Sons of Liberty
–
The Sons of Liberty was an organization that was created in the Thirteen American Colonies. The secret society was formed to protect the rights of the colonists and they played a major role in most colonies in battling the Stamp Act in 1765. The group officially disbanded after the Stamp Act was repealed, however, the name was applied to other local separatist groups during the years preceding the American Revolution. In the popular imagination, the Sons of Liberty was an underground organization with recognized members and leaders. More likely, the name was a term for any men resisting new Crown taxes. The well-known label allowed organizers to issue summons to a Liberty Tree, Liberty Pole. Furthermore, a unifying name helped to promote efforts against Parliament. Their motto became No taxation without representation, in 1765, the British government needed money to afford the 10,000 officers and soldiers living in the colonies, and intended that the colonists living there should contribute. This became commonly known as No Taxation without Representation, Parliament insisted on its right to rule the colonies despite the fact that the colonists had no representative in Parliament. The most incendiary tax was the Stamp Act of 1765, which caused a firestorm of opposition through legislative resolutions, public demonstrations, threats, the organization spread hour by hour, after independent starts in several different colonies. In August 1765, the group was founded in Boston, Massachusetts, by November 6, a committee was set up in New York to correspond with other colonies. In December, an alliance was formed between groups in New York and Connecticut, january bore witness to a correspondence link between Boston and New York City, and by March, Providence had initiated connections with New York, New Hampshire, and Newport, Rhode Island. March also marked the emergence of Sons of Liberty organizations in New Jersey, Maryland, in Boston, another example of violence could be found in their treatment of local stamp distributor Andrew Oliver. They burned his effigy in the streets, when he did not resign, they escalated to burning down his office building. Even after he resigned, they almost destroyed the house of his close associate Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson. It is believed that the Sons of Liberty did this to excite the lower classes and their actions made many of the stamp distributors resign in fear. Early in the American Revolution, the former Sons of Liberty generally joined more formal groups, the Sons of Liberty popularized the use of tar and feathering to punish and humiliate offending government officials starting in 1767. This method was also, used against British Loyalists, during the American Revolution and this punishment had long been used by sailors to punish their mates
Sons of Liberty
–
A 1765
broadside regarding the organization and its principles
Sons of Liberty
–
The Bostonian Paying the Excise-Man, 1774 British propaganda print referring to the tarring and feathering of Boston Commissioner of Customs
John Malcolm four weeks after the Boston Tea Party. The men also poured hot tea down Malcolm's throat; note the noose hanging on the
Liberty Tree, and the
Stamp Act posted upside-down
Sons of Liberty
–
1st Row:
Samuel Adams •
Benedict Arnold •
John Hancock •
Patrick Henry •
James Otis, Jr. 2nd Row:
Paul Revere •
James Swan •
Alexander McDougall •
Benjamin Rush •
Charles Thomson 3rd Row:
Joseph Warren •
Marinus Willett •
Oliver Wolcott •
Christopher Gadsden •
Haym Salomon
33.
Virginia Resolves
–
The Virginia Resolves were a series of resolutions passed by the Virginia House of Burgesses in response to the Stamp Act of 1765. The Stamp Act had been passed by the British Parliament to help pay off some of its debt from its various wars, including the French and Indian War fought in part to protect the American colonies. The resolves claimed that in accordance with long established British law, since no colonial representatives were elected to the Parliament the only assembly legally allowed to raise taxes would be the Virginia General Assembly. On May 29,1765, Patrick Henry made one of his famous speeches before the Virginia House of Burgesses to encourage the passage of the resolutions, Henry said Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III. … may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it, when Patrick Henry paused after the vibrant portion of the speech, Speaker John Robinson stood and shouted, Treason. Patrick Henry at this point issued a semi-apology, peyton Randolph later told his young cousin Thomas Jefferson who was standing in the doorways of the House quite frequently. By God, I would have given 500 guineas for a single vote, Henry had waited for most of the more conservative members of the assembly to be away before submitting the resolves. The Burgesses generally voted along geographic lines with eastern Virginians opposing the resolves, Patrick Henry left Williamsburg, Virginia that night fearing the powerful members of the House would harass him with a warrant. The next day, with Patrick Henry gone and most conservative assembly members back in session, however Henrys supporters managed to preserve the first four resolutions with only the more radical 5th Resolution being struck. In late June the Newport Mercury was the first newspaper to publish the Virginia Resolves to the public with several other newspapers following soon after. Notably none of the newspapers drew on the official House records and as a result the published resolutions included not only the 4 ratified resolutions but also the, already removed, 5th resolution. In fact the newspapers even went so far to include a 6th and 7th resolution the origin of which is still disputed, some sources quote those two articles as being part of Henrys original manuscript while others argue that their origin is completely unknown. Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts stated that Nothing extravagant appeared in the papers till an account was received of the Virginia Resolves, later Edmund Burke linked the resolves with the beginning of the opposition to the Stamp Act that would contribute to the American Revolution. The original text of the Virginia Resolves as adopted by the House of Burgesses on May 29,1765 was as follows,1. This 5th resolution was adopted along with the other 4 on May 29. These two resolutions were never passed by the House of Burgesses and it is not known who authored them although some claim that they were part of the original draft by Patrick Henry
Virginia Resolves
–
Patrick Henry's speech on the Virginia Resolves (an 1851 painting by Peter F. Rothermel)
34.
Thomas Jefferson
–
Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
Thomas Jefferson
–
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson
–
Wren Building (rear), College of William & Mary where Jefferson studied
Thomas Jefferson
–
House of Burgesses in Williamsburg, Virginia, where Jefferson served 1769–1775
Thomas Jefferson
–
Jefferson's home, Monticello
35.
Massachusetts Circular Letter
–
After the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, the British Parliament imposed the Townshend Acts as another way of generating revenue. The acts placed a duty on glass, paint, paper, lead. In response, the Massachusetts General Court issued a circular letter, the Massachusetts Circular Letter was sent to the representative bodies of the other colonies. Massachusetts received positive responses from New Jersey, Connecticut, and the Virginia House of Burgesses, in the Circular Letter, Samuel Adams argued that the Townshend Acts were unconstitutional because the colony of Massachusetts was not represented in Parliament. Adams maintained that Parliaments status as the legislative body of the British Empire did not permit it to violate the British Constitution. Instead, Adams argued in favor of the arrangement, where the colonies were taxed only by their own provincial assemblies in which they were already represented. After the Circular Letter had been passed and issued to other colonies, Lord Hillsborough, Secretary of State for the Colonies, the body voted against revoking the letter, 92-17. In response to the General Courts defiance, Governor Francis Bernard dissolved the assembly and this led to an outbreak of mob violence from colonists who no longer had any legal way to deal with their grievances. They attacked customs officials, making it impossible for them to perform their duties, in response to the deteriorating situation, Lord Hillsborough sent four regiments of British soldiers to Boston. Arriving in October 1768, the soldiers only increased the tensions, as recorded in the anonymously penned Journal of Occurrences and these tensions culminated on March 5,1770 with the Boston Massacre
Massachusetts Circular Letter
–
Paul Revere 's engraving of British troops landing in Boston in response to events set off by the Circular Letter.
36.
Boston Port Act
–
The Act was a response to the Boston Tea Party. King George IIIs speech of 7 March 1774 charged the colonists with attempting to injure British commerce and subvert the Constitution, in other words, it closed Boston Port to all ships, no matter what business the ship had. It also provided that Massachusetts Colonys seat of government should be moved to Salem, the Act was to take effect on June 1. But the Whig opposition soon collected itself, and the bill was fought in its various stages by Edmund Burke, Isaac Barré, Thomas Pownall and others. In spite of them, the Act became a law 31 March, without a division in the Commons, royal Navy warships subsequently began patrols at the mouth of Boston Harbor to enforce the acts. The British Army also joined in enforcing the blockade, and Boston was filled with troops, Thomas Gage, all the citizens of Boston were angered including the Loyalists and Patriots who all sought for aid from the other colonies. As the Port of Boston was a source of supplies for the citizens of Massachusetts. So great was the response, that the Boston leaders boasted that the town would become the chief port of America if the act were not repealed. June 1 was widely observed as a day of fasting and prayer, bells being tolled, flags placed at half-mast and this was the first step in the unification of the thirteen colonies. These colonies finally had a cause for them to work together, the First Continental Congress was convened in Philadelphia on September 5,1774, to coordinate a colonial response to the Port Act and the other Coercive Acts. E. London, Re-printed for Edward and Charles Dilly
Boston Port Act
37.
John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore
–
John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, PC, generally known as Lord Dunmore, was a Scottish peer and colonial governor in the American colonies and The Bahamas. As Virginias governor, Dunmore directed a series of campaigns against the trans-Appalachian Indians and he is noted for issuing a 1775 document offering freedom to any slave who fought for the Crown against the Patriots in Virginia. Dunmore fled to New York after the Burning of Norfolk in 1776 and he was Governor of the Bahama Islands, from 1787 to 1796. Dunmore was the last royal governor of Virginia, Murray was born in Tymouth, Scotland, the eldest son of William Murray, 3rd Earl of Dunmore, by his marriage to Catherine Nairne, he was a nephew of John Murray, 2nd Earl of Dunmore. In 1745 both Murray, then only 15, and his father joined the ill-fated Rising of Bonnie Prince Charlie, the second Earl, his uncle, remained loyal to the Hanoverians. After the Jacobite army was defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, William Murray was imprisoned in Tower of London, by 1750, William Murray had received a conditional pardon. John Murray was now aged twenty and joined the British Army, in 1756, after the deaths of his uncle and father, he became the fourth Earl of Dunmore. In 1759 Dunmore married Lady Charlotte, a daughter of Alexander Stewart and their daughter Lady Augusta Murray later became an unwanted daughter-in-law of King George III, when she married his son Prince Augustus Frederick without the consent of the King. The Dunmores had another close to her age, Lady Catherine Murray. Dunmore was named the British governor of the Province of New York from 1770 to 1771, soon after his appointment, in 1770, Virginias governor, Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt died, and Dunmore was eventually named to replace him. Dunmore became royal governor of the Colony of Virginia on 25 September 1771, despite growing issues with Great Britain, his predecessor, Lord Botetourt, had been a popular governor in Virginia, even though he served only two years before his death. As Virginias colonial governor, Dunmore directed a series of campaigns against the Indians known as Lord Dunmores War, some even accused Dunmore of colluding with the Shawnees and arranging the war to deplete the Virginia militia and help safeguard the Loyalist cause, should there be a colonial rebellion. John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, in his history of the Indian Wars, lacking in diplomatic skills, Dunmore tried to govern without consulting the House of Burgesses of the Colonial Assembly for more than a year, which exacerbated an already tense situation. Many of burgesses gathered a short distance away at the Raleigh Tavern and continued discussing their problems with the new taxes, perceived corruption, when Dunmore reconvened the Assembly in 1774, the burgesses passed a resolution declaring 1 June 1774 a day of fasting and prayer in Virginia. In response, Dunmore dissolved the House, the burgesses again reconvened as the Second Virginia Convention and elected delegates to the Continental Congress. Dunmore issued a proclamation against electing delegates to the Congress, in March,1775, Patrick Henrys Give me Liberty, or give me Death. Speech delivered at St. Johns Episcopal Church in Richmond helped convince delegates to approve a resolution calling for armed resistance, in the face of rising unrest in the colony, Dunmore sought to deprive Virginias militia of military supplies. Dunmore gave the key to the Williamsburg magazine to Lieutenant Henry Colins, commander of HMS Magdalen, local militia rallied, and word of the incident spread across the colony
John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore
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The Right Honourable The Earl of Dunmore
PC
38.
First Virginia Convention
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The First Virginia Convention was an extralegal meeting of the House of Burgesses held in Williamsburg, Virginia from August 1–6,1774. Tensions which would boil over into the American Revolution had been rising for some time between Massachusetts and Great Britain, in response, on March 25,1774, the Parliament passed the Boston Port Act, blockading the port of Boston to all maritime trade. The House of Burgesses, the legislature of Virginia, approved June 1,1774 as a day of Fasting, Humiliation. The governor of Virginia John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore reacted by dissolving the Burgesses, in defiance of Dunmore, the Burgesses moved to Raleigh Tavern where they constituted themselves as the First Virginia Convention on August 1. The Convention declared its support for Massachusetts and called for a congress of the Thirteen Colonies, before dissolving on August 6, the Convention selected representatives to the Second Virginia Convention. Francis Lightfoot Lee George Mathews Peter Muhlenberg Peyton Randolph George Washington Virginia Conventions
First Virginia Convention
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Early
39.
Peyton Randolph
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Peyton Randolph was a planter and public official from the Colony of Virginia. He served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses, president of Virginia Conventions, Randolph was born in Tazewell Hall Williamsburg, Virginia to a prominent family. His parents were Sir John Randolph, the son of William Randolph, and Susanna Beverley and his father died when he was 16. Randolph attended the College of William & Mary, and later studied law at Middle Temple at the Inns of Court in London and he lived his adulthood in Williamsburg, Va. Randolph returned to Williamsburg and was appointed Attorney General of the Colony of Virginia the next year and he served several terms in the Virginia House of Burgesses, beginning in 1748. It was Randolphs dual roles as attorney general and as burgess that would lead to a conflict of interest in 1751. The new governor, Robert Dinwiddie, had imposed a fee for the certification of land patents, the House selected Peyton Randolph to represent their cause to Crown authorities in London. In his role as general, though, he was responsible for defending actions taken by the governor. Randolph left for London, over the objections of Governor Dinwiddie, Randolph resumed his post on his return at the behest of Wythe as well as officials in London, who also recommended the Governor drop the new fee. In 1765 Randolph found himself at odds with a burgess, Patrick Henry. The House appointed Randolph to draft objections to the act, and this was accomplished at a meeting of the House in which most of the members were absent, and over which Randolph was presiding in the absence of the Speaker. Randolph resigned as attorney in 1766, as fellow Burgesses elected him as their Speaker upon the death of his relative. Sitting as the General Court, they also appointed Randolph one of the executors of the former speakers estate, as friction between Britain and the colonies progressed, Randolph grew to favor independence. In 1769 the House of Burgesses was dissolved by the Governor, Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt, in 1773, Randolph chaired the Virginia committee of correspondence. The next Governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, also dissolved the House of Burgesses in 1774 when it showed solidarity with Boston, Massachusetts, on March 21,1775 he was president of the Second Virginia Convention in Richmond that debated independence. The House of Burgesses was called back by Lord Dunmore one last time in June 1775 to address British Prime Minister Lord Norths Conciliatory Resolution, Randolph, who was a delegate to the Continental Congress, returned to Williamsburg to take his place as Speaker. Randolph indicated that the resolution had not been sent to the Congress, the House of Burgesses rejected the proposal, which was also later rejected by the Continental Congress. Randolph was thus the last Speaker of the House of Burgesses, Edmund Pendleton would succeed Randolph as president of the later conventions
Peyton Randolph
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Peyton Randolph
Peyton Randolph
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Virginia colonial currency (1773) signed by Randolph and
John Blair, Jr..
40.
First Continental Congress
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It was called in response to The passage of the Coercive Acts by the British Parliament. The Intolerable Acts had punished Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, the Congress was attended by 56 delegates. The Pennsylvania delegation was appointed by the colonial assembly, Georgia declined to send delegates because they were hoping for British assistance with Native American problems on their frontier and did not want to upset the British. The Congress met briefly to consider options, including a boycott of British trade, rights and grievances. The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened the following year to organize the defense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War, the delegates also urged each colony to set up and train its own militia. The Congress met from September 5 to October 26,1774, peyton Randolph presided over the proceedings, Henry Middleton took over as President of the Congress for the last few days, from October 22 to October 26. Charles Thomson, leader of Philadelphia Committee of Correspondence, was selected to be Secretary of the Continental Congress, the delegates who attended the Congress were not of one mind concerning why they were there. Their ultimate goal was to develop a solution to the difficulties. Radicals, such as Patrick Henry, Roger Sherman, Samuel Adams, to counter these ideas, Galloway put forward a Plan of Union, which suggested an American legislative body be formed, with some authority, and whose consent would be required for imperial measures. In the end, the voices of reconciliation and compromise carried the day and it requested that local Committees of Safety enforce the boycott and regulate local prices for goods. These resolutions adopted by the Congress did not acknowledge the power of Parliament even to regulate trade. Furthermore, they did not repudiate control by the royal prerogative, the Congress had two primary accomplishments. The first was a compact among the colonies to boycott British goods beginning on December 1,1774, the West Indies were threatened with a boycott unless the islands agreed to nonimportation of British goods. Imports from Britain dropped by 97 percent in 1775, compared with the previous year, Committees of observation and inspection were to be formed in each colony for enforcement of the Association. All of the colonial Houses of Assembly approved the proceedings of the congress with the exception of New York, if the Intolerable Acts were not repealed, the colonies would also cease exports to Britain after September 10,1775. The boycott was successfully implemented, but its potential for altering British colonial policy was cut off by the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, the colonists were forced to quarter British soldiers, and feed them. The second accomplishment of the Congress was to provide for a Second Continental Congress to meet on May 10,1775, however, letters appear to have been sent only to Quebec
First Continental Congress
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First Continental Congress 1774
First Continental Congress
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Carpenters' Hall
First Continental Congress
41.
Give me liberty or give me death
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Give me liberty, or give me death. Is a quotation attributed to Patrick Henry from a speech he made to the Second Virginia Convention on March 23,1775, at St. Johns Church in Richmond, Virginia. He is credited with having swung the balance in convincing the convention to pass a resolution delivering Virginian troops for the Revolutionary War, among the delegates to the convention were future U. S. Presidents Thomas Jefferson and George Washington. The speech was not published until the Port Folio printed a version of it in 1816, the version of the speech that is known today first appeared in print in Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry, a biography of Henry by William Wirt, in 1817. There is debate among historians as to whether, and to what extent, Henry or Wirt should be credited with authorship of the speech, whatever the exact words of Henry were, there can be no doubt of their impact. According to Edmund Randolph, the convention sat in silence for several minutes afterwards. ”Edward Carrington, who was listening outside a window of the church, asked to be buried on that spot. In 1810, he got his wish. ”More immediately, the resolution, declaring the United Colonies to be independent of the Kingdom of Great Britain, passed, and Henry was named chairman of the committee assigned to build a militia. Britains royal governor, Lord Dunmore, reacted by seizing the gunpowder in the magazine at Williamsburg—Virginia’s equivalent of the battles of Lexington. Whatever the exact words of Henry were, “scholars, understandably, are troubled by the way Wirt brought into print Henry’s classic Liberty or Death speech, seemed to have burned themselves into men’s memories. Certainly its spirit is that of the orator who in 1775 so powerfully influenced Virginians. The play, Cato, a Tragedy, was popular in the Colonies and well known by the Founding Fathers, George Washington had this play performed for the Continental Army at Valley Forge. It contains the line, It is not now time to talk of aught/But chains or conquest, the phrase Liberty or Death also appears on the Culpeper Minutemen flag of 1775. The phrase appears in other nationalist contexts, the national anthem of Uruguay, Orientales, la Patria o la Tumba, contains the line ¡Libertad o con gloria morir. The motto of Greece is Liberty or Death, a popular story in Brazil relates that in 1822, the emperor Dom Pedro I uttered the famous Cry from Ipiranga, Independence or Death, when Brazil was still a colony of Portugal. In March 1941 the motto of the demonstrations in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia against signing the treaty with Nazi Germany was Better grave than slave. More recently, in China, Ren Jianyu, a 25-year-old former college student village official was given a two-year re-education through labor sentence for an online anti-CPC speech, a T-shirt of Rens saying Give me liberty or give me death. Has been taken as evidence of his anti-social guilt, join, or Die Live Free or Die Liberté, égalité, fraternité Which American Patriot said, “Give me liberty, or give me death. ”Give Me Liberty public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Give me liberty or give me death
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Early
42.
Frederick North, Lord North
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Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, KG, PC, more often known by his courtesy title, Lord North, which he used from 1752 until 1790, was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. He led Great Britain through most of the American War of Independence and he also held a number of other cabinet posts, including Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer. Norths reputation among historians has swung back and forth and it reached its nadir in the late nineteenth century when he was depicted as a creature of the king and an incompetent who lost the American colonies. In the early twentieth century a revisionism emphasized his strengths in administering the Treasury, handling the House of Commons, Herbert Butterfield, however, argued that his indolence was a barrier to efficient crisis management, he neglected his role in supervising the entire war effort. Lord North was born in London on 13 April 1732, at the house at Albemarle Street, just off Piccadilly. His father, the first Earl, was at the time Lord of the Bedchamber to Prince Frederick, North was descended from the 1st Earl of Sandwich and was related to Samuel Pepys and the 3rd Earl of Bute. He at times had a turbulent relationship with his father Francis North, 1st Earl of Guilford. In his early years the family was not wealthy, though their situation improved in 1735 when his father inherited property from his cousin, fredericks mother, Lady Lucy Montagu, died in 1734. His father remarried, but his stepmother, Elizabeth North, also died in 1745, one of his stepbrothers was Lord Dartmouth, who remained a close friend for life. He was educated at Eton College between 1742 and 1748, and at Trinity College, Oxford where in 1750 he was awarded an MA, after leaving Oxford he travelled in Europe on the Grand Tour with Dartmouth, visiting Leipzig where he studied at the University of Leipzig. He visited Vienna, Milan, and Paris, returning to England in 1753 and he soon developed a reputation as a good administrator and parliamentarian, and was generally liked by his colleagues. In November 1763 he was chosen to speak for the Government concerning radical MP John Wilkes, Wilkes had made a savage attack on both the Prime Minister and the King in his newspaper The North Briton, which many thought libelous. Norths motion that Wilkes be expelled from the House of Commons passed by 273 votes to 111, Wilkes expulsion took place in his absence, as he had already fled to France following a duel. When a government headed by the Whig magnate Lord Rockingham came to power in 1765, North left his post and he turned down an offer by Rockingham to rejoin the government, not wanting to be associated with the Whig grandees that dominated the Ministry. He returned to office when Pitt returned to head a government in 1766. North was appointed Joint Paymaster of the Forces in Pitts ministry, as Pitt was constantly ill, the government was effectively run by the Duke of Grafton, with North as one of its most senior members. In December 1767, he succeeded Charles Townshend as Chancellor of the Exchequer, with the resignation of the secretary of state Henry Seymour Conway in early 1768, North became Leader of the Commons as well. He continued to serve when Pitt was succeeded by Grafton in October, when the Duke of Grafton resigned as Prime Minister, North formed a government on 28 January 1770
Frederick North, Lord North
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Portrait by
Nathaniel Dance.
Frederick North, Lord North
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In The State Tinkers (1780),
James Gillray caricatured North (on his knees) and his allies as incompetent tinkers of the National Kettle. George III cries out in rapture in the rear.
Frederick North, Lord North
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French caricature on the government of Frederick North after the defeat of Grenada (1779).
Frederick North, Lord North
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This modern Silver medallion commemorates the motion of no confidence against Lord North on 27 February 1782 to end the American War of Independence. Subsequently Prime Minister Lord North resigned in March 1782.
43.
Committee of Safety (American Revolution)
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In Massachusetts, as affairs drew toward a crisis, it became usual for towns to appoint three committees, of correspondence, of inspection, and of safety. Committees of correspondence were public functionaries of a type first appearing in England and this was done in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New York 1763-4. On 21 November 1772 a town meeting at Faneuil Hall, Boston, until late in 1774 it remained the real executive of the town and largely of the province. The Boston committee, by legal town-meeting, was made the executive of Boston, the organization of the committees was at once enormously extended, almost every town, city, or county had one. Pursuant to First Continental Congress resolution 11, committees of inspection were to be formed in every county, city, hundreds of committees of inspection were formed following the First Continental Congresss declaration of the Continental Association, a boycott of British goods, in October 1774. In New York City, it was called the Committee of Observation or Committee of Sixty, initially, the focus of the committees was on enforcing the Non-importation Agreements, which aimed to hinder the import of British manufactured goods. Kathleen Burk writes, It is significant that the Committees believed that they derived their authority from the Continental Congress, Committees of Safety were a later outcome of the committees of correspondence. The network of committees were also vital for reinforcing a sense of purpose. For ordinary people, they were community forums where personal loyalties were revealed, tested, was certainly not an activity for the faint of heart. The members of these groups exposed ideological dissenters, usually people well-known in the communities in which they lived, although the committees attempted as best they could to avoid physical violence, they administered revolutionary justice as they alone defined it. They worked out their own procedures, interrogated people suspected of undermining the American cause. By mid-1775 the committees increasingly busied themselves with identifying, denouncing, the strengthening of the committees of correspondence in the 1770s also marked the creation of what Gordon S. Wood terms a new kind of popular politics in America. Wood writes that the rhetoric of liberty now brought to the surface long-latent political tenancies, ordinary people were no longer willing to trust only wealthy and learned gentlemen to represent them. Various artisan, religious, and ethnic groups now felt that their interests were so distinct that only people of their kind could speak for them. In 1774 radicals in Philadelphia demanded that seven artisans and six Germans be added to the committee of the city. The development of coalition and interest-group politics greatly alarmed both royal officials and more conservative Patriots, very few records of committees of safety survive. Committee activities are attested primarily through newspapers and published material, by 1775, the committees had become counter-governments that gradually replaced royal authority and took control of local governments. They regulated the economy, politics, morality, and militia of their individual communities, in North Carolina in December 1776, they came under the control of a more powerful central authority, the Council of Safety
Committee of Safety (American Revolution)
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1st and 3rd Governor of Massachusetts, 1780—1785, 1787—1793
44.
Edmund Pendleton
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Edmund Pendleton was a Virginia planter, politician, lawyer and judge. He served in the Virginia legislature before and during the American Revolutionary War, unlike his sometime political rival Henry, Pendleton was a moderate who initially hoped for reconciliation, rather than revolt. With Thomas Jefferson and George Wythe, Pendleton revised Virginias legal code after the break with Britain, Pendleton was born in Caroline County to Mary Bishop Taylor, whose young husband, Henry Pendleton, had died four months earlier. Pendletons maternal grandfather, James Taylor, was a landowner in nearby Rappahannock County. Edmund Pendleton received a license to practice law in April 1741 and his success before nearby county courts, including as the prosecuting attorney for Essex County allowed Pendleton to become a member of the General Court bar in October 1745. Pendleton also trained many lawyers, including his nephews John Penn. From 1752–1776 Pendleton represented Caroline County in the House of Burgesses, Pendleton was on the Virginia Committee of Correspondence in 1773 and was a delegate to Continental Congress from Virginia in 1774. The Convention debated the Virginia Declaration of Rights, drafted by George Mason, Pendleton proposed the modification in the statement of universal rights in Virginias declaration to exclude slaves, thus winning support of slave owners. Fellow delegates elected Pendleton the first Speaker of Virginias new House of Delegates although a fall from a horse in March 1777 dislocated his hip and he used crutches the rest of his life. Pendleton, along with Thomas Jefferson and George Wythe, revised Virginias law code and he became Judge of the High Court of Chancery in 1777. When Virginia created a Supreme Court of Appeals in 1778, Pendleton was appointed its first president, in 1788 delegates unanimously selected Pendleton president of the Virginia Ratifying Convention. He married Betty Roy on January 21,1741, but she died in childbirth on November 17,1742, on January 20,1745, Pendleton married Sarah Pollard, daughter of Joseph Pollard and Priscilla Hoomes. Edmund and Sarah had no children, but in his correspondence with contemporaries. Since Pendleton had no descendants, his nieces, nephews, grandnieces. Pendleton did not grant freedom to any slaves in his will, unlike George Washington who similarly died without direct descendants and his brother John Pendletons son, also named Edmund Pendleton, added Jr. to distinguish himself from the judge whose principal heir he became. His oldest brother, James Pendleton,19 years his senior, died in 1762 and left an estate in Culpeper that Edmund administered for the widow. Many relatives were named after the judge, including grandnephews Edmund Pendleton, Edmund Pendleton, Edmund Pendleton and his nephew Nathaniel Pendleton, Jr. distinguished himself in the American Revolution as an aide to General Nathaniel Greene and later became a lawyer and United States District Judge for Georgia. In turn his son Edmund Henry Pendleton also became a judge, another descendant, Edmund Monroe Pendleton distinguished himself in developing fertilizer products and became a professor of Agriculture and Horticulture at the University of Georgia
Edmund Pendleton
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Edmund Pendleton
Edmund Pendleton
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Washington,
Henry & Pendleton going to the First Congress,
lithograph,
Henry Bryan Hall
Edmund Pendleton
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Sent to Virginia Delegation to the Continental Congress and
Richard Henry Lee to move for Independence
Lee Resolution June 7, 1776.
Edmund Pendleton
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Pendleton marker inside Bruton Parish Chapel
45.
Richard Henry Lee
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Richard Henry Lee was an American statesman from Virginia best known for the motion in the Second Continental Congress calling for the colonies independence from Great Britain. He was a signatory to the Articles of Confederation, and his resolution for independency of June 1776 led to the United States Declaration of Independence and he was a member of the Lee family, a historically influential family in Virginia politics. He was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia to Col. Thomas Lee and he was raised and came from a line of military officers, diplomats, and legislators. His father, Thomas Lee, was the governor of Virginia before his death in 1750, Lee spent most of his early life in Stratford, Virginia with his family at Stratford Hall. In 1748, at 16, Lee left Virginia for Yorkshire, England, to complete his education at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School. Both of his parents died in 1750 and, in 1753, after touring Europe, in 1757, Lee was appointed justice of the peace in Westmoreland County. In 1758 he was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, an early advocate of independence, Lee became one of the first to create Committees of Correspondence among the many independence-minded Americans in the various colonies. This resolution was signed by four brothers of George Washington as well as Gilbert Campbell, in August 1774, Lee was chosen as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Lee had returned to Virginia by the time Congress voted on and adopted the Declaration of Independence, Lee was elected the sixth President of Congress under the Articles of Confederation on November 30,1784, in the French Arms Tavern, Trenton, New Jersey. On January 11,1785, Congress convened in the old New York City Hall, although, he was not paid a salary for his office as president, his household expenses were paid by Congress in the amount of $12,203.13. Lees Congress was most active in 1785, passing numerous legislation and his most pressing issue, however, was to settle the states territorial disputes over the Northwest Territory. Throughout his term, Lee remained steadfast that the release of states’ territorial claims on the Northwest Territory would enable the government to fund itself with land sales. He believed that the urgency of this measure was paramount because borrowing more foreign money was no longer prudent, the sale of these vast federal lands, he concluded, was the nations only hope to pay off the war debt and adequately fund federal government. On May 3,1785, William Grayson of Virginia made a motion seconded by James Monroe to change “seven miles square” to “six miles square”, and the current US Survey system was born. The states relinquished their right to this test tract of land, and this either required troops to eject the Native Americans or capital to purchase their land fairly, insuring the peaceful sale and settlement. With the states no longer in control of the lands and no federal magistrates or troops to enforce the laws, Lees plan to fill the federal treasury with the proceeds of land sales failed, but the survey system developed under the Land Ordinance of 1785 is still used today. Anne died December 12,1768 at Chantille, Westmoreland Co, the couple had six children, four of whom survived infancy, Elizabeth Virginia Lee, who died in infancy. Thomas Lee, resided at Park Gate from 1790 to 1805, Col. Ludwell Lee, Esq. who married Flora Lee, daughter of Hon. Philip Ludwell Lee, Sr. Esq. and Elizabeth Steptoe, who married secondly, Philip Richard Fendall I
Richard Henry Lee
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A painting of Lee at the
National Portrait Gallery in
Washington, D.C.
46.
Constitution of Virginia
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The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia is the document that defines and limits the powers of the state government and the basic rights of the citizens of the U. S. The original Virginia Constitution of 1776 was enacted in conjunction with the Declaration of Independence by the first thirteen states of the United States of America. Virginia was a state to adopt its own Constitution on June 29,1776. In addition to frequent amendments, there have been six major subsequent revisions of the constitution and these new constitutions have been part of, and in reaction to, periods of major regional or social upheaval in Virginia. For instance, the 1902 constitution included provisions to disfranchise African Americans and they did not regain suffrage until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s. The preparation of the first Virginia Constitution began in early 1776, among those who drafted the 1776 Constitution were George Mason and James Madison. James Madisons work on the Virginia Constitution helped him develop the ideas, the 1776 Constitution declared the dissolution of the rule of Great Britain over Virginia and accused Englands King George III of establishing a detestable and insupportable tyranny. The accompanying Virginia Declaration of Rights, written primarily by Mason, focuses on guarantees of human rights and freedoms. It, in turn, served as a model for a number of historic documents. Critically, the 1776 Constitution limited the right to vote primarily to property owners and this effectively concentrated power in the hands of the landowners and aristocracy of Southeastern Virginia. Dissatisfaction with this structure would come to dominate Virginias constitutional debate for almost a century. By the 1820s, Virginia was one of two states that limited voting to landowners. Pressure increased until a convention was convened in 1829–1830. This convention became largely a contest between eastern Virginia planters of the elite and the less affluent yeomen farmers of Western Virginia. Issues of representation and suffrage dominated the debate, Delegates to the convention included such prominent Virginians as James Madison, James Monroe, John Tyler, and John Marshall. The convention ultimately compromised by loosening suffrage requirements and it also reduced the number of delegates and senators to the Virginia General Assembly. The resulting constitution was ratified by a majority, though most of the voters in the western part of the state ended up voting against it. Thus, the underlying intrastate tensions remained, and would have to be addressed later, as the state legislature also elected the governor and lieutenant governor, and the United States senators, Western Virginians felt they had little influence on state leadership
Constitution of Virginia
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The Virginia Constitutional Convention, 1830, by
George Catlin
Constitution of Virginia
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George Mason, one of the principal architects of the 1776 Virginia Constitution
Constitution of Virginia
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1830 Virginia Constitution, page one
Constitution of Virginia
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John C. Underwood. He so dominated the 1867–1868 constitutional convention that the resulting document became known as the "Underwood Constitution".
47.
Virginia General Assembly
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The Virginia General Assembly is the legislative body of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World, established on July 30,1619. The General Assembly is a body consisting of a lower house, the Virginia House of Delegates, with 100 members, and an upper house. Combined together, the General Assembly consists of 140 elected representatives from a number of constituent districts across the commonwealth. The House of Delegates is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the House and Senate each elect a clerk and sergeant-at-arms. The Senate of Virginias clerk is known as the Clerk of the Senate, the Republican Party currently holds the majority in both the House of Delegates and the Senate. The General Assembly meets in Virginias capital of Richmond, when sitting in Richmond, the General Assembly holds sessions in the Virginia State Capitol, designed by Thomas Jefferson in 1788 and expanded in 1904. During the American Civil War, the building was used as the capitol of the Confederate States of America, the building was renovated between 2005 and 2006. Senators and Delegates have their offices in the General Assembly Building across the street north of the Capitol. The Governor of Virginia lives across the street directly east of the Capitol in the Virginia Executive Mansion, the Virginia General Assembly is described as the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. Its existence dates from the establishment of the Virginia Governors Council, at various times it may have been referred to as the Grand Assembly of Virginia. The General Assembly met in Jamestown from 1619 until 1699, when it moved to Williamsburg, Virginia and it became the General Assembly in 1776 with the ratification of the Virginia Constitution. The government was moved to Richmond in 1780 during the administration of Governor Thomas Jefferson, the annual salary for senators is $18,000. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640, under the Constitution, a senator or delegate who moves his residence from the district for which he is elected shall thereby vacate his office. Article II, section 6 on apportionment states, Members of the, Senate and of the House of Delegates of the General Assembly shall be elected from electoral districts established by the General Assembly. The Redistricting Coalition of Virginia proposes either an independent commission or a commission that is not polarized. Member organizations include the League of Women Voters of Virginia, AARP of Virginia, OneVirginia2021, the Virginia Chamber of Commerce, Governor Bob McDonnells Independent Bipartisan Advisory Commission on Redistricting for the Commonwealth of Virginia made its report on April 1,2011. It made two recommendations for state legislative house that showed maps of districts more compact and contiguous than those adopted by the General Assembly. In 2011, the Virginia College and University Redistricting Competition was organized by Professors Michael McDonald of George Mason University, about 150 students on sixteen teams from thirteen schools submitted plans for legislative and U. S
Virginia General Assembly
Virginia General Assembly
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Virginia General Assembly
48.
Senate of Virginia
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The Senate of Virginia is the upper house of the Virginia General Assembly. The Senate is composed of 40 Senators representing a number of single-member constituent districts. The Senate is presided over by the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, the Lieutenant Governor presides daily over the Virginia Senate. In the Lieutenant Governors absence, the President pro Tempore presides, the Senate is equal with the House of Delegates, the lower chamber of the legislature, except that taxation bills must originate in the House, similar to the federal U. S. Congress. Members of the Virginia Senate are elected every four years by the voters of the 40 senatorial districts on the Tuesday succeeding the first Monday in November, the last election took place in November 2015. There are no limits for Senators. In the 2007 Virginia state elections, the Democratic Party reclaimed the majority in the Senate for the first time since 1995, the Republicans took control of the Senate for the first time in history after a January 1998 special election. The 2011 elections resulted in a 20–20 split between the parties, but as the tie breaker was Republican Lt, Governor Bill Bolling, the Republicans effectively regained control. The Democratic majority would prove short-lived, however, as Senator Phil Puckett resigned, effective June 8, the Republicans solidified their majority following a Special Election win on August 19,2014, which increased their total number of seats to 21. The Senate of Virginia was created by the 1776 Constitution of Virginia, along with the House of Delegates, the Senate comprised a new bicameral legislature designed to replace the colonial Virginia House of Burgesses, which formally dissolved on the sixth of May,1776. Pursuant to the original Virginia Constitution, the Senate was only permitted to file amendments, accordingly, the Senate had far less power than the House, until the revised Virginia constitution of 1851 allowed the Senate to propose new laws. The annual salary for senators is $18,000 per year, to qualify for office, senators must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the district they represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the Senate of Virginia has 10 Standing Committees and a Committee on Rules. The Senate of Virginia has its own coat of arms designed and granted by the College of Arms in England, the coat of arms also makes up the official seal of the Virginia Senate. It bears no resemblance to the Seal of the Commonwealth of Virginia and this is not to be confused with the Seal of the London Company, for other than both devices displaying a quartered shield, there is little resemblance between them. The Senates arms have a shield in the center which is divided into four sections by a red cross, in each quarter are smaller shields representing the arms of four countries that contributed settlers to Virginias most early waves of European immigration. An ivory gavel emblazoned on the arm of the red cross represents the Senate as a law making body. The cardinal and dogwood depicted are Virginias official state bird and tree, the ribbon contains the Latin motto of the Senate, Floreat Senatus Virginiae, which means May the Senate of Virginia flourish
Senate of Virginia
Senate of Virginia
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Senate of Virginia
Senate of Virginia
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The Coat of Arms of the London Company.
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Wren Building
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The Wren Building is the signature building of the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, USA. Along with the Brafferton and Presidents House, these form the Colleges Ancient Campus. With a construction dating to 1697, it is the oldest academic building in continuous use in the United States. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960, construction of the first building on this site began August 8,1695 and was completed by 1700. After several fires and rebuildings, the Wren Building was the first major building restored or reconstructed by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. after he, goodwin began Colonial Williamsburgs restoration in the late 1920s. The buildings current state dates to the 20th-century restoration by Boston architects Perry Shaw & Hepburn, Perry Shaw and Hepburns restoration reflects the buildings historic appearance from its reconstruction in 1716 after a 1705 fire to 1859, when it burned again. On the top of the building is a weather vane with the number 1693, in the early 1770s, plans were drawn up to complete the building as a quadrangle. Alumnus Thomas Jefferson drew up a floorplan submitted to Governor Dunmore, the looming War of Independence halted further construction, however, and the fourth wing was never completed. The Wren Building is the oldest academic building in use in the United States. The campus only began its expansion in the first part of the twentieth century. Students studied, attended services, and lived in the Wren Building. When the Capitol burned in 1747, the legislature moved back into the building until the Capitol was reconstructed in 1754, the building also housed a grammar school and an Indian school, which was moved to the Brafferton building, in 1723. The building was used as a hospital by the French during the American Revolutionary War. The Wren Building today has historical and ceremonial importance in addition to its academic use, each year during the opening convocation ceremony, incoming William and Mary freshmen enter the building from the courtyard, pass through the central hall, and exit on the opposite side. As seniors, students pass through the building in the direction on their way to the graduation ceremony. The Yule Log Ceremony, the Colleges holiday celebration, is every year at the Wren Building. Each fall incoming freshmen take the schools Honor Code Pledge in the buildings Great Hall, the Bishop James Madison Society, the Colleges second-oldest secret society, is rumored to meet in the Wren Building. For nearly one hundred and fifty years, the campus consisted of the three buildings- the Wren Building, the Brafferton, and the Presidents House- proportionally arranged in the College yard
Wren Building
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Wren Building, College of William and Mary
Wren Building
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The rear of the Wren Building
Wren Building
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Earliest known drawing of the building by Swiss traveler François-Louis Michel, 1702
Wren Building
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The building with
Italianate towers
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Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Dunmore, John Murray". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "
