1.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
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Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
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A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
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The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
2.
Miraflores District, Lima
–
Miraflores is a district of the Lima Province in Peru. It is a residential and upscale shopping district south of downtown Lima. It is also one of the most affluent districts that make up the city of Lima and it has various hotels, restaurants, bars, nightclubs, and department stores. Miraflores is one of the main tourist attractions in Lima, founded as San Miguel de Miraflores, it was established as a district on January 2,1857. As a result of the Battle of Miraflores fought during the War of the Pacific, the current mayor is Jorge Muñoz. The districts postal code is 18, the district has a total land area of 9.62 km². Its administrative center is located 79 meters above sea level, temperatures oscillate from 13 °C to 18 °C in winter, and from 20 °C to 30 °C in summer. Low clouds are frequent, especially during winter, when morning drizzles are not uncommon, the only pre-Inca ruin remaining in Miraflores, Huaca Pucllana can still be seen. The Spanish town of Miraflores was established in the 16th century, however it was merged into the Lima Metropolitan Area as the city expanded during the early 20th century. During the War of the Pacific, the district was the scene of the Battle of Miraflores, two thousand people died as a result and the district was sacked and burned by Chilean invaders. According to a 2002 estimate by the INEI, the district has 92,815 inhabitants, in 1999, there were 27,489 households in the district. The district is also a center, with theaters, cinemas. It also has a pre-Inca mud-brick temple called the Huaca Pucllana, there are public and private schools in Miraflores. Schools are divide into Primary and Secondary School, because school is only 11 years the University education is 5 years. Some private schools in Miraflores are, Markham, Pestalozzi, Villa Maria Miraflores, Alexander Von Humboldt, St. Georges College, Nuestra Señora del Carmen, the school year start in March and end in December. The Humboldt I campus of the Deutsche Schule Lima Alexander von Humboldt and it also lodges the University of Piura and the Raúl Porras Barrenechea Institute of the National University of San Marcos. Tourism dominates the economy of the district, LAN Perú has its headquarters in Miraflores. The former airline Aeroperú also had its headquarters in Miraflores, the district is full of hotels, cafés, pubs, restaurants and shops, which draw large crowds of the local population on Sundays
Miraflores District, Lima
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Huaca Pucllana, a pre-Inca ruin in Miraflores.
Miraflores District, Lima
Miraflores District, Lima
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Iglesia Virgen Milagrosa Miraflores Lima PE
Miraflores District, Lima
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Huaca Pucllana, Miraflores, Lima, Peru
3.
Lima
–
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
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Collage of Lima
Lima
–
Flag
Lima
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Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
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Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
Lima culture
–
The Lima culture was an indigenous civilization which existed in modern-day Lima, Peru during the Early Intermediate Period, extending from roughly 100 to 650. This pre-Incan culture, which overlaps with surrounding Paracas, Moche and these factors all help contribute to the obscurity of the Lima culture, of which much information is still left to be learned. The Lima civilization was known in part for its artwork, consisting of styles such as Maranga and Interlocking patterns. Changes in this style during the Middle Horizon Period also indicate influence from the Wari Empire. Being surrounded by desert, Lima needed to channel water from surrounding rivers in order to cultivate their soil for agricultural purposes and this resulted in the construction and maintenance of an extensive irrigational system, redirecting canals, and method of terracing. The Lima civilization constructed many temples known as wakas, which are preserved throughout the city of Lima to this day. Major population centers of ancient Lima were located at Pukllana, Wallamarka, Cajamarquilla, the history of early Andean culture is essentially the story of a long process in which man learned to dominate nature, turning a desert into a green oasis. Within the Central Coast there is a pattern of architectural evidence that suggests organized communal and cultural activity during the Preceramic. This set the foundations for development of the Lima culture in the Early Intermediate, despite the desert conditions prevailing in the coastal region, two factors enabled to areas earliest inhabitants to live off the land. First, the proximity to the sea which provided these groups with a diet of fish and shellfish, the second was the varied climate, from May to October moisture trapped by the hills fed vegetation in the slopes, which early populations could use to supplement their seafood diet. Later populations were able to develop a limited and primitive agriculture in low lying areas, irrigated by nearby rivers, during the Early Horizon Period, groups began to have the advantage of regular rainfall, and they learned how to domesticate plants and animals. A population surplus also led movement towards the coast and this brings us to the Early Intermediate period, where the Lima culture began to flourish. These cultures learned how to control nature, creating expansive irrigation systems and these systems provide further evidence of the sophistication of the social organization of the Lima culture, which would have been needed to construct, run, and maintain these irrigation systems. In Coastal Peru, the group of rivers of Rimac, Chillon. Small, village scale pyramidal structures in the beginning of the Early Intermediate would slowly transform into the focus of the successive Lima culture. Evidence of the expansion of Lima culture in ceramics and textiles can be found in surrounding valleys, at the start of the Early Intermediate, population was focused in the upper portion of the Lurin valley, characterized by isolated free standing-houses and short irrigation canals. The population gradually expanded, moving down the valley, and utilizing longer irrigation canals to inter-connected dwellings, elite structures on hilltops also began to occur, which would ultimately become the important Huacas of Lima culture. Near the end of the Early Intermediate Period the Lima culture became entirely dominant, perhaps the most important center of the culture was the waka of Pacha Kamaq, which would continue to be important to many cultures for the next 1000 years
Lima culture
–
Wak'a Pukllana and characteristic adobitos. Miraflores District, Lima
Lima culture
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The extent of the Lima culture
Lima culture
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Skull of a royalty member of the Lima people.
Lima culture
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Playa Grande cup style, decorated "interlocking". MNAAHP.
6.
Wari culture
–
The Wari were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about AD500 to 1000. Wari, as the capital city was called, is located 11 km north-east of the modern city of Ayacucho. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands, the best-preserved remnants, beside the Wari Ruins, are the recently discovered Northern Wari ruins near the city of Chiclayo, and Cerro Baul in Moquegua. Also well-known are the Wari ruins of Pikillaqta, a short distance south-east of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca, early on, the Wari expanded their territory to include the ancient oracle center of Pachacamac, though it seems to have remained largely autonomous. Later the Wari became dominant in much of the territory of the earlier Moche, the reason for this expansion has been debated, it is believed to have been driven by religious conversion, military conquest, or the spread of agricultural knowledge. Buildings in Wari and in other government centers had doorways that were blocked up, as if the Wari intended to return. But by the time this happened, the Wari had faded from history, in the meantime, the dwindling residents of the Wari cities ceased all major construction. Archaeological evidence shows significant levels of violence, suggesting that warfare. With the collapse of the Wari, the Late Intermediate Period is said to begin, little is known about the details of the Wari administrative structure, as they did not appear to use a form of written record. But, the emphasis on homogeneous administrative architecture and evidence for significant social stratification suggests a complex socio-political hierarchy, the discovery in early 2013 of an undisturbed royal tomb, El Castillo de Huarmey, offers new insight into the social and political influence of the Wari during this period. During its expansion period, the Wari state established architecturally distinctive administrative centers in many of its provinces and these centres are clearly different from the architecture of Tiwanaku, which is believed to have been a more federalized state by some scholars. Using these administrative centers, the Wari greatly influenced the surrounding countryside and they created new fields with terraced field technology and invested in construction of a major road network. Several centuries later, when the Inca began to expand their empire, Wari Empire Willkawayin Tiwanaku Tiwanaku empire Middle Horizon Pocra culture Chuqi Pukyu Collier, Simon et al. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean, bennett, Excavations at Wari, Ayachucho, Peru. Gordon F. McEwan, The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru, william H. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds. Huari Administrative Structure, Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, katharina J. Schreiber, Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Violence, Ritual, and the Wari Empire, A Social Bioarchaeology of Imperialism in the Ancient Andes, bergh, by Judith H. Dobrzynski, The Wall Street Journal, October 24,2012 Who Was Who in the Middle Horizon Andean Prehistory by Patricia J. Knobloch
Wari culture
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Four-Cornered Hat, 650-1000.
Brooklyn Museum
Wari culture
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Huari earthenware pot with painted design, 650-800 CE (Middle Horizon)
Wari culture
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Wari Tunic, Peru, 750-950 CE. This tunic is made of 120 separate small pieces of cloth, each individually
tie-dyed. Ceramics of the period depict high-status men wearing this style of tunic.
Wari culture
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Monoliths Wari
7.
Quechua language
–
Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechua language
–
Quechua
8.
Adobe
–
Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
Adobe
–
Renewal of the surface
coating of an adobe wall in
Chamisal,
New Mexico
Adobe
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Church at
San Pedro de Atacama,
Chile
Adobe
–
Adobe style in
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Adobe
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Cliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at
Cuarenta Casas in Mexico.
9.
Pyramid
–
A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, as such, a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces. The square pyramid, with base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version. A pyramids design, with the majority of the closer to the ground. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures and it has been demonstrated that the common shape of the pyramids of antiquity, from Egypt to Central America, represents the dry-stone construction that requires minimum human work. Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world, the largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Khufus Pyramid is built mainly of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains over 2,000,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes to 15 tonnes and is built on a base with sides measuring about 230 m. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees and it is still the tallest pyramid. The Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats, in ancient times, these were brightly painted in gold/bronze. Since they were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, little remains of them, ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC, the earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC, built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside, the facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks, the number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no evidence for this. Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a ramp from base to summit
Pyramid
–
The
Egyptian pyramids of the
Giza Necropolis, as seen from the air
Pyramid
–
Pyramid of the Moon,
Teotihuacan
Pyramid
–
Prasat Thom temple at
Koh Ker
Pyramid
–
Pyramids of Güímar,
Tenerife (
Spain)
10.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
11.
Archaeological sites in Peru
–
Archaeological sites in Peru are numerous and diverse, representing different aspects including temples and fortresses of the various cultures of ancient Peru, such as the Moche and Nazca. The sites vary in importance from small local sites to UNESCO World Heritage sites of global importance and their nature and complexity of the sites vary from small single-featured sites such as pyramids to entire cities, such as Chan Chan and Machu Picchu. Preservation and investigation of sites are controlled mainly by the National Institute for Culture. The lack of funding to protect sites and enforce existing laws, results in large scale looting, the following is an alphabetical list of archaeological sites in Peru, it lists the main archaeological sites of touristic importance as published by the Ministry of Foreign Commerce and Tourism. Cultural periods of Peru List of pre-Columbian cultures National Institute for Culture Archaeological sites in Peru Peruvian Archaeology News
Archaeological sites in Peru
–
Acaray
Archaeological sites in Peru
–
El Brujo
Archaeological sites in Peru
–
Cahuachi
Archaeological sites in Peru
–
Caral
12.
Acaray
–
Radio carbon dating has established it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. Surrounding the hilltop fortress are lower-lying areas of occupation and extensive cemeteries, attention was called to the site early on by the German archaeologist Hans Horkheimer, who wrote about Acaray in 1962 in the Peruvian magazine, Caretas, published in Lima. Horkheimer noted the abundance of rolled river cobbles on the surface of the site, during the 1970s interest in Acaray increased, and the first work by archaeologists was initiated at the fortress. She led a team that surveyed the Huaura Valley and excavated at several sites and she estimated that it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. According to Brown Vega, Acaray early megalithic wall constructions may be similar to those of Chankillo from the same period, war and social life in prehispanic Perú, ritual, defense, and communities at the Fortress of Acaray, Huaura Valley. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, conflict in the early horizon and late intermediate period, new dates from the fortress of Acaray, Huaura valley, Perú. 30, 38B Ruiz Estrada, Arturo, Torero, M. Domingo, Acaray, huacho, Perú, Comite de Educacion de la Cooperative de Ahorro y Credito San Bartolome
Acaray
–
Fortified hilltop at Acaray
13.
Asana, Peru
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Asana is an archaeological site by the Asana River, a tributary of the Osmore River, in the south-central Andes of southern Peru. The site is situated at an elevation of 3,430 metres, with land use documented from 3, 000–4,800 metres. Asana was occupied over the course of 8,000 years, though the inhabitants were initially mobile foragers, Asana is located on the north bank of the Asana River in the flat fertile valley along 11,270 feet of the river. The geological and geomorphological features are factors for its unique setting. An archaeological study of the Asana river valley was conducted 1986–89, the area studied was along a river length of about 20 kilometres, between Tumilaca Molina and Cueva Quellaveco and from the origin of the minor tributary of the river Charoque to Tala village. The valley floors and hill slopes, covering an area of 4.8 square kilometres, led to the discovery of the Asana site and also six rock shelters. One of the shelters, Qusquri, was discovered on the left bank of the river valley at an elevation of 3,000 metres, in a series of river terraces at an elevation range of 3. Human habitation has been traced to 10,500 BP at Asana, excavations have revealed six stratigraphic zones from 10,500 BP to 3500 BP, before the site became abandoned in 3500 BP. During the settlement period, guanaco and taruka were the local wild herbivores, over the centuries, the guanaco were domesticated. The Asana at the elevation had formed the base camp of the earliest settlers who were hunter gatherers, hunting guanaco. Up to 5000 BP, settlement became more permanent, the gradual change from forager over to the pastoral society was recorded between 4800 and 4400 BP. By Middle Halocene age, guanacos had been domesticated, if these limits increased then they would establish new camps. Human settlement abruptly ended at Asana, lithic material found at the site attests to the shifting of camps and supports links existing between the settlements of the lower and upper elevations. Both residential and non-residential structures were found and indicated a type of growth. Structure were dated between 5500–3600 BP, a ceremonial structure was found in an open air pre-ceramic site during excavations conducted from 1989–90. It is inferred that activities occurred at the site during a 250–500-year period. A feature identified as a ground, dated to 4800 BP, was thought to be used for feasts. Aldenderfer, Mark S. Montane Foragers, Asana and the South-Central Andean Archaic, Iowa City, University of Iowa Press
Asana, Peru
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Taruca (
Hippocamelus antisensis) in the northern
Andean mountains.
Asana, Peru
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Kotosh style of structure of the pre-historic period
14.
Cahuachi
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Cahuachi, in Peru, was a major ceremonial center of the Nazca culture, based from 1 AD to about 500 AD in the coastal area of the Central Andes. It overlooked some of the Nazca lines, the Italian archaeologist Giuseppe Orefici has been excavating at the site for the past few decades. The site contains over 40 mounds topped with adobe structures, the past several years long time researcher Omar Faizi has conducted in depth study of the Nazca lines with startling conclusions to his study. Scholars once thought the site was the capital of the Nazca state but have determined that the permanent population was quite small and they believe that it was a pilgrimage center, whose population increased greatly in relation to major ceremonial events. New research has suggested that 40 of the mounds were natural hills modified to appear as artificial constructions, looting is the greatest problem facing the site today. Most of the burial sites surrounding Cahuachi were not known until recently and are tempting targets for looters, the Cahuachi site is located near the south coast of Peru, and found in the Nazca Valley. Within the Nazca Valley is the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system and is where the Nasca culture developed, the area is ecologically classified as “pre-mountain desert formation. Yunga refers to the Quechua Yungas meaning warm valley, the site itself can be found on the southern side of the Nazca River, one of ten major tributaries that form the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system. The Nazca Valley Grande drainage area is dry in the summer. Precipitation varies between none and 125 mm, the Río Grande regions soils are available for irrigation agriculture with limitations. Cahuachi is located off of the bottom of the treeless hills and terraces beneath Pampa de Atarco. It is on these hills that formed the core majority of artificial constructions at Cahuachi. Dr. Frabee was the first to acknowledge and excavate the site of Cahuachi in the Nazca region in 1922. The following researchers have studied and interpreted the site, Kroeber, Tello, Doering, Strong. Among the most extensive research done at Cahuachi was the conducted by William Strong. Strong was one of the archaeologists who took a broad approach to the site, contextualizing it within Nasca society. He set out to find evidence that would resolve the gap between Paracas and Nasca styles in the region. He also did settlement pattern studies in order to out the kinds of activities that went on at Cahuachi
Cahuachi
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Adobe pyramids at Cahuachi
15.
Caral
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This article is about the archaeological site. Caral is the most ancient city of the Americas and a site of the Norte Chico civilization. Caral was inhabited roughly between the 26th and 20th centuries BCE, enclosing an area of more than 60 hectares. Caral was described by its excavators as the oldest urban center in the Americas, accommodating more than 3000 inhabitants, it is the best studied and one of the largest Norte Chico sites known. Ruth Shady further explored the 4, 000- to 4, 600-year-old city of temples in the Peruvian desert, with its complex of temples. The urban complex is spread out over 150 acres and contains plazas, Caral was a thriving metropolis at roughly the same time that Egypts great pyramids were being built. It is believed that Caral may answer questions about the origins of the Andean civilizations, among the artefacts found at Caral are a knotted textile piece that the excavators have labeled a quipu. Evidence has emerged that the quipu may also have recorded logographic information in the way writing does. Gary Urton has suggested that the quipus used a system which could record phonological or logographic data. The main temple complex is 150 meters long,110 meters wide and 28 meters high, the date of its construction is unknown. No trace of warfare has been found at Caral, no battlements, no weapons, ruth Shadys findings suggest it was a gentle society, built on commerce and pleasure. In one of the temples, they uncovered 32 flutes made of condor and pelican bones and 37 cornetts of deer, one find revealed the remains of a baby, wrapped and buried with a necklace made of stone beads. Caral spawns 19 other temple complexes scattered across the 35 square miles area of the Supe Valley, the find of the quipu indicates that the later Inca Empire preserved some cultural continuity from the Caral civilization. The date of 2627 BCE is based on carbon dating reed and these bags were used to carry the stones that were used for the construction of the temples. The material is an excellent candidate for dating, thus allowing for a high precision, the site may date even earlier as samples from the oldest parts of the excavation have yet to be dated. The town had a population of approximately 3000 people, however, there are 19 other sites in the area, allowing for a possible total population of 20,000 people for the Supe Valley. All of these sites in the Supe valley share similarities with Caral and they had small platforms or stone circles. In 2000, Marco Machacuay and his colleague, Rocío Aramburú and this image, known as a geoglyph, is located on the desert floor just west of the main site at Caral
Caral
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Remains of Caral
Caral
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The Caral pyramids in the arid Supe Valley, some 20 km from the Pacific coast.
Caral
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Caral
Caral
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One of the pyramids of Caral
16.
Chan Chan
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Chan Chan, the largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America, is now an archaeological site in La Libertad Region 5 kilometres west of Trujillo, Peru. Chan Chan is located in the mouth of the Moche Valley and was the capital of the empire of the Chimor from 900 to 1470. Chimor, a conquest state, developed from the Chimú culture which established itself along the Peruvian coast around 1400 AD, in the Chimú tongue, Quingnam, Chan Chan means Sun Sun, it was named for its sunny climate which is cooled year round by a southerly breeze. Chan Chan is in a particularly arid section of the desert of northern Peru. Due to the lack of rain in this area, the source of water for Chan Chan is in the form of rivers carrying surface runoff from the Andes. This runoff allows for control of land and water through irrigation systems, the city of Chan Chan spanned 20 km² and had a dense urban center of 6 km² which contained extravagant ciudadelas. Ciudadelas were large architectural masterpieces which housed plazas, storerooms, the splendor of these ciudadelas suggests their association with the royal class. Housing for the classes of Chan Chans hierarchical society are known as small. Because the lower classes were often artisans whose role in the empire was to produce crafts, many of these SIARs were used as workshops. In this figure, it can be seen that Verlarde, Laberinto, and Bandelier form the border of Chan Chan while Uhle, Chaiguac, Tschudi. The location chosen for the coordinates is in the center of these cities, the name is probabilly derived from the Quingnam Jiang or Chang which means Sun, from which Chan-Chan would be literally, Sun-Sun. It is hypothesized that its meaning would be, Great sun, resplendent Sun. Another theory says that the name would derive from the term, the Shi voice translates as Moon and An as house, meaning House of the Moon, making known that the Moon was the main deity. Chan Chan is believed to have been constructed around 850 AD by the Chimú and it was the Chimor empire capital city with an estimated population of 40, 000-60,000 people. After the Inca conquered the Chimú around 1470 AD, Chan Chan fell into decline, in 1535 AD, Francisco Pizarro founded the Spanish city of Trujillo which pushed Chan Chan further into the shadows. While no longer a capital city, Chan Chan was still well known for its great riches and was consequently looted by the Spaniards. An indication of the great Chimú wealth is seen in a sixteenth century list of items looted from a tomb in Chan Chan. In 1969, Michael Moseley and Carol J. Mackey began excavations of Chan Chan, the plan was approved by the Peruvian Government
Chan Chan
Chan Chan
Chan Chan
17.
Chanquillo
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Chankillo is an ancient monumental complex in the Peruvian coastal desert, found in the Casma-Sechin basin in the Ancash Department of Peru. The ruins include the hilltop Chankillo fort, the nearby Thirteen Towers solar observatory, the Thirteen Towers have been interpreted as an astronomical observatory built in the 4th century BC. The culture that produced Chankillo is called the Casma/Sechin culture or the Sechin Complex, the site covers about four square kilometres and has been interpreted as a fortified temple. The regularly-spaced thirteen towers of Chankillo were constructed atop the ridge of a low hill running near north to south and are, to the east and west investigators designated two possible observation points. From these vantages, the 300m long spread of the towers along the horizon corresponds very closely to the rising and setting positions of the Sun over the year, the Thirteen Towers of Chankillo could be the earliest known observatory in the Americas. Inhabitants of Chankillo would have been able to determine an accurate date, acaray List of archaeoastronomical sites by country 3D reconstruction of the site Chankillo, Peru, Ancient Solar Observatory
Chanquillo
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Thirteen Towers of Chankillo, viewed from the fortress
Chanquillo
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Shown within Peru
Chanquillo
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Panorama of Chanquillo
18.
Chauchilla Cemetery
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Chauchilla Cemetery is a cemetery that contains prehispanic mummified human remains and archeological artifacts, located 30 kilometres south of the city of Nazca in Peru. The cemetery was discovered in the 1920s, but had not been used since the 9th century AD, the cemetery includes many important burials over a period of 600 to 700 years. The start of the interments was in about 200 AD and it is important as a source of archaeology to Nazca culture. The cemetery has been plundered by huaqueros who have left human bones. Similar local cemeteries have been damaged to a greater extent, the site has been protected by Peruvian law since 1997 and tourists pay around seven U. S. dollars to take the two-hour tour of this ancient necropolis. The site is by the Poroma riverbed and can be accessed via a road from the Panamerican Highway. In 1997, the majority of the bones and plundered pottery were restored to the tombs. The bodies are so remarkably preserved due mainly to the dry climate in the Peruvian Desert, the bodies were clothed in embroidered cotton and then painted with a resin and kept in purpose-built tombs made from mud bricks. The resin is thought to have kept out insects and slowed bacteria trying to feed on the bodies, the nearby site of Estaquería may provide clues to the remarkable preservation of the numerous bodies in these cemeteries. At that site, archeologists found wooden pillars initially thought to have used for astronomical sightings. However, it is now believed that the posts were used to dry bodies in a mummification process and this may account for the high degree of preservation seen in thousand-year-old bodies which still have hair and the remains of soft tissue, such as skin. Chauchilla Cemetery is a prominent setting in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, though not called by name in the film, the cemetery is explicitly identified in the screenplay, promotional materials, and merchandise. This fictionalized version of the features a number of embellishments, including mask-wearing Nazcan guards. The cemetery is depicted as being built on a promontory overlooking the Nazca Valley, offering the characters a view of the famous Nazca Lines
Chauchilla Cemetery
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Mummy in the Cemetery of Chauchilla
Peru
