1.
Succour (album)
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Succour is the second studio album by British band Seefeel. It was released on 20 March 1995 on Warp and did not receive a release in the United States, pitchfork Media praised the album in 2017, placing it on their The 50 Best IDM Albums of All Time list. Seefeel followed these releases with Succour in 1995, prior to the albums release, a single for the track Fracture was released on 26 September 1994. Succour was released on 25 March 1995 by Warp and it was released on compact disc, cassette, vinyl and as a digital download. The album was not released in the United States and led to a breakup of the group in 1996. Mark Clifford focused on his side-project Disjecta while Peacock, Fletcher, Allmusic described the album as something of a disappointment and the LP was a bit too skeletal for most rock critics or music fans. A review by Glenn Swan for Allmusic, opined that there are a couple rough spots, Succour received a mixed review from Select stating the group had found their own identity, noting tracks like Fracture, Vex, Meol and Succour are clearly the product of deeper research. The review concluded that the voice is not quite their own yet, opining that awestruck poor relations of μ-Ziq. Pitchfork Media praised the album in 2017, placing it on their The 50 Best IDM Albums of All Time list and their review declared it a a singular album that has no equivalent—a sound so elemental, it’s no wonder the Designers Republic chose the cover they did. All tracks written by Mark Clifford except where otherwise noted, credits adapted from Succour compact disc sleeve. Seefeel – producer Mark Clifford – mixing, arrangements Geoff Pesche – mastering Francis Arkwright – digital editing 1995 in music Music of the United Kingdom Succour at MusicBrainz
2.
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
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The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built originally by Lockheed. Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medevac and it is now the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. Over forty variants and versions of the Hercules, including a civilian one marketed as the Lockheed L-100, the C-130 entered service with the U. S. in the 1950s, followed by Australia and others. During its years of service, the Hercules family has participated in numerous military, the C-130 Hercules is the longest continuously produced military aircraft at over 60 years, with the updated Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules currently being produced. The new transport would have a capacity of 92 passengers,72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers in a compartment that was approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high. Unlike transports derived from passenger airliners, it was to be designed from the ground-up as a transport with loading from a hinged loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage. A key feature was the introduction of the Allison T56 turboprop powerplant, as was the case on helicopters of that era, such as the UH-1 Huey, turboshafts produced much more power for their weight than piston engines. Lockheed would subsequently use the engines and technology in the Lockheed L-188 Electra. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter also had a ramp, which made it possible to drive vehicles onto the plane. The ramp on the Hercules was also used to airdrop cargo, the new Lockheed cargo plane design possessed a range of 1,100 nmi, takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine shut down. Fairchild, North American, Martin, and Northrop declined to participate, the remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs, Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, and Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was an affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins, starting with a 130-page proposal for the Lockheed L-206, both Hibbard and Johnson signed the proposal and the company won the contract for the now-designated Model 82 on 2 July 1951. The first flight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23 August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, the aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype, but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to Edwards Air Force Base, Jack Real, kelly Johnson flew chase in a Lockheed P2V Neptune. After the two prototypes were completed, production began in Marietta, Georgia, where over 2,300 C-130s have been built through 2009. The initial production model, the C-130A, was powered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade propellers, deliveries began in December 1956, continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in 1959. Some A-models were equipped with skis and re-designated C-130D, four-bladed Hamilton Standard propellers replaced the Aeroproducts three-blade propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models
3.
Albania
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Albania, officially the Republic of Albania, is a country in Southeastern Europe. It has a population of 3.03 million as of 2016, Tirana is the nations capital and largest city, followed by Durrës and Vlorë. The country has a coastline on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea to the west. Albania is less than 72 km from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which connects the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea. In antiquity, the area of Albania was home to several Illyrian, Thracian. After the Illyrian Wars, it part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior. In 1190, the first Albanian state, the Principality of Arbanon was established by archon Progon in the region of Krujë, the territory of Albania was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, of which it remained part of for the next five centuries. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, following the Balkan Wars, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy in 1939, which formed Greater Albania, before becoming a Nazi German protectorate in 1943. The following year, a socialist Peoples Republic was established under the leadership of Enver Hoxha, Albania experienced widespread social and political transformations in the communist era, as well as isolation from much of the international community. In 1991, the Socialist Republic was dissolved and the Republic of Albania was established, Albania is a democratic and developing country with an upper-middle income economy. The service sector dominates the economy, followed by the industrial. After the fall of communism in Albania, Free-market reforms have opened the country to foreign investment, especially in the development of energy, Albania has a high HDI and provides universal health care system and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the Council of Europe, the OSCE and it is also an official candidate for membership in the European Union. Albania is one of the members of the Energy Community, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation. It is home to the largest lake in Southern Europe and one of the oldest lakes in Europe, Albania is the Medieval Latin name of the country. The name may have a continuation in the name of a settlement called Albanon and Arbanon. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country Arbëri or Arbëni, Albanians today call their country Shqipëri. As early as the 17th century the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria, the two terms are popularly interpreted as Land of the Eagles and Children of the Eagles
4.
Kosovo
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Kosovo is a disputed territory and partially recognised state in Southeastern Europe that declared independence from Serbia in February 2008 as the Republic of Kosovo. Kosovo is landlocked in the central Balkan Peninsula, with its strategic position in the Balkans, it serves as an important link in the connection between central and south Europe, the Adriatic Sea, and Black Sea. Its capital and largest city is Pristina, and other urban areas include Prizren, Pejë. It is bordered by Albania to the southwest, the Republic of Macedonia to the southeast, Montenegro to the west, while Serbia recognises administration of the territory by Kosovos elected government, it still continues to claim it as its own Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. In antiquity, the Dardanian Kingdom, and later the Roman province of Dardania was located in the region, the area was inhabited by several ancient Illyrian tribes. In the Middle Ages, it was part of the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian Empires, Kosovo was the core of the medieval Serbian state and it has been the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church from the 14th century when its status was upgraded into a patriarchate. After being part of the Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the early 20th century, the war ended with a military intervention of NATO, which forced the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to withdraw its troops from Kosovo, which became a UN protectorate under UNSCR1244. On 17 February 2008 Kosovos Parliament declared independence and it has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 111 UN member states, Taiwan, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Cook Islands and Niue. Serbia refuses to recognise Kosovo as a state, although with the Brussels Agreement of 2013 it has accepted the legitimacy of Kosovar institutions, the entire region is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova or Kosovë. The name of the plain was applied to the Kosovo Province created in 1864, Albanians refer to Kosovo as Dardania, the name of a Roman province located in Central Balkans that was formed in 284 AD which covered the territory of modern Kosovo. The name is derived from the Albanian word dardha/dardā which means pear, the former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a Dardanian identity and the Kosovan flag and presidential seal refer to this national identity. However, the name Kosova remains more widely used among the Albanian population, the official conventional long name of the state is Republic of Kosovo, as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally. This arrangement, which has dubbed the asterisk agreement, was agreed in an 11-point arrangement agreed on 24 February 2012. By the independence declaration in 2008, its long name became Republic of Kosovo. In prehistory, the succeeding Starčevo culture, Vinča culture, Bubanj-Hum culture, the area in and around Kosovo has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years. During the Neolithic age, Kosovo lay within the area of the Vinča-Turdaş culture which is characterised by West Balkan black, bronze and Iron Age tombs have been found in Metohija. However, life during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is not confirmed yet, therefore, until arguments of Paleolithic and Mesolithic man are confirmed, Neolithic man, respectively the Neolithic sites are considered as the chronological beginning of population in Kosovo. From this period until today Kosovo has been inhabited, and traces of activities of societies from prehistoric, ancient, whereas, in some archaeological sites, multilayer settlements clearly reflect the continuity of life through centuries
5.
Muzaffarabad
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Muzaffarabad is the capital and 2nd largest city of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan after Mirpur. It is located in Muzaffarabad District on the banks of the Jhelum and Neelum rivers, the original name of Muzaffarabad was Udabhanda. Hieun tsang, the celebrated Buddhist pilgrim who is said to have visited the valley in 633 A. D mentions Pan-nu-tso, i. e. modern day Punch and he entered the valley via Baramula gorge. Udabhanda was the capital of the Shahi dynasty, the Shahi, also called Shahiya, dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley and the old province of Gandhara from the decline of the Kushan Empire in third century to the early ninth century. The kingdom was known as Kabul-shahan or Ratbel-shahan when they had their capitals in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura for its new capital. The term Shahi is the title of the rulers, likely related to the Kushan form Shao or Persian form Shah, Muzaffarabad is at the confluence of the Jhelum and Neelum rivers. It is 138 km from Rawalpindi and about 76 km from Abbottabad, the present name of Muzaffarabad has been given to it after the name of Sultan Muzaffar Khan, a chief of Bomba Dynasty. There are two forts, Red and Black, on the sides of river Neelum. The Neelum river streams through the town, joins the river Jhelum at Domel, the city was the site of the epicenter of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, which occurred on October 8,2005 and had a magnitude of 7.6. The disaster destroyed 50% of the buildings in the city and is estimated to have killed up to 80,000 people in the Pakistani-controlled areas of Kashmir, as of 8 October 2005 the Pakistani governments official death toll was 87,350. Some estimates put the death toll over 100,000, other languages spoken include Urdu, Shina and Balti. The population of the according to the 1998 census was 725,000. Muzaffarabad city has one constituency in Legislative Assembly of Azad Jammu & Kashmir i. e. LA-26 currently held by Barrister Iftikhar Ali Gillani of PML-N. The closest railway stations are Murree in Pakistan and Baramulla in the Indian state of Jammu, in Muzaffarabad there are 2 public Sector Hospitals with 550 beds,4 RHCs with 48 beds and 27 BHUs/Dispensaries with 74 beds. City has 161 doctors,105 Nurses,2 Pharmacists,2 Drug Inspectors,2 Health Education officer,56 Health Teacher/MCH/L. H. V &95 Mid wives, Muzaffarabad District has 641 Primary Schools,134 Middle Schools,130 Secondary Schools &11 Higher Secondary Schools. Out of Which 502 are boys schools &532 are girls schools
6.
Islamabad
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Islamabad is the capital city of Pakistan located within the federal Islamabad Capital Territory. The city is the seat of Pakistan and is administered by the Islamabad Metropolitan Corporation. Islamabad is located in the Pothohar Plateau in the part of the country. The region has historically been a part of the crossroads of Punjab, Islamabad was built during the 1960s to replace Karachi as Pakistans capital. The city is known for the presence of several parks and forests, including the Margalla Hills National Park, the city is home several landmarks, including the Faisal Mosque, the largest mosque in South Asia and the fourth largest in the world. Other landmarks include the Pakistans National Monument and Democracy Square, Islamabad is a gamma+ world city, it is categorised as very high on the Human Development Index, the highest in the country. The city has the highest cost of living in Pakistan, and its population is dominated by middle, the city is home to sixteen universities, including the Quaid-e-Azam University and NUST. The city is one of the safest in Pakistan, and has a surveillance system with 1,900 CCTV cameras. The name of the city, Islamabad is derived from two words, Islam and abad, meaning City of Islam, Islam is an Arabic word which refers to the religion of Islam and -abad is a Persian place name that means inhabited place or city. Islamabad Capital Territory, located on the Pothohar Plateau of the Punjab region, is considered one of the earliest sites of settlement in Asia. Some of the earliest Stone Age artefacts in the world have found on the plateau. Rudimentary stones recovered from the terraces of the Soan River testify to the endeavours of early man in the inter-glacial period, items of pottery and utensils dating back to prehistory have been found. Excavations have revealed evidence of a prehistoric culture, one end of the Indus Valley Civilization flourished here between the 23rd and 18th centuries BC. Later the area was a settlement of the Aryan community. A Buddhist town once existed in the region, many great armies such as those of Zahiruddin Babur, Genghis Khan, Timur and Ahmad Shah Durrani used the corridor through Islamabad on their way to invade the rest of the Indian Subcontinent. Modern Islamabad is based on the old settlement known as Saidpur, the British took control of the region from the Sikhs in 1849 and built South Asias largest cantonment in the region. When Pakistan gained independence in 1947, the port city of Karachi was its first national capital. In the 1960s, Islamabad was constructed as a capital for several reasons
7.
Khost Province
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Khost is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the eastern part of the country next to Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Khost province used to be part of Paktia province in the past, the city of Khost serves as the capital of Khost province. The population of the province is around 546,800, which is mostly a tribal society, Khost Airport serves the province for domestic flights to Afghanistans capital, Kabul. In September 2011, work on the construction of Khost International Airport began and it is estimated the airport will cost $2.5 million. The funds for the project are being provided by the Afghan government, the airport will be located in a desert between Ismailkhel and Tani District. The current governor of the Province is Abdul Jabbar Naeemi, the city of Khost is the capital of Khost province. All law enforcement activities throughout the province are controlled by the Afghan National Police, the border of Afghanistans Khost province with neighboring Pakistans FATA is monitored and protected by the Afghan Border Police, which is part of the ANP. The border is called the Durand Line and is known to be one of the most dangerous in the due to heavy militant activities. A provincial police chief is assigned to both the ANP and ABP. The police chief represents the Ministry of the Interior in Kabul, the ANP is backed by other Afghan National Security Forces, including the NATO-led forces. The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 34% in 2005 to 35% in 2011, the percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 18% in 2005 to 32% in 2011. The overall literacy rate fell from 28% in 2005 to 15% in 2011, the overall net enrolment rate fell from 38% in 2005 to 37% in 2011. The population of Khost province is around 546,800, the Pashtun people make up 99% of the population, with the remaining 1% being Tajiks and others. Khost Province is traversed by the Kurram River, which rises from the Rokian Defile, passes through the district, and then enters the country of the Turis or the Kurram Valley
8.
Humanitarianism
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Humanitarianism is a moral of kindness, benevolence, and sympathy extended to all human beings. Humanitarianism has been an evolving concept historically, but universality is a theme in its evolution. No distinction is to be made on the grounds of gender, sexual orientation, race, caste, age, religion, ability, the historian G. M. Trevelyan viewed humanitarianism as the product of rationalism upon Puritanism. The idea that mankind could be improved by deliberate social change distinct from the conferring of charity was relatively new, reform distinguished the humanitarian movement from philanthropy. Christian philanthropy tended to reform as political. In contrast, the movement thought reform essential to remove abuses. European individualism can be traced to the Greeks and it was the stoics, who like Aristotle, attributed significance to the human soul, but who, unlike Aristotle, considered all human beings equal in that significance. Natural law, as the stoics conceived it, was based upon this principle of spiritual equality, positive law was subject to the law of nature and, hence, uniquely to the ancient world, the stoics opposed slavery. In 18th century Enlightenment Europe, the idea of the equal moral significance of the individual in this world re-emerged grounded upon reason. Prevention of cruelty to animals involved extension of the principle to non-humans, the stoics had grounded moral significance on capacity to reason. In the 18th century, conflicting religious belief became tolerated to a degree unthinkable a century earlier, in England, pressure on Parliament led to regulation of working hours and amelioration of working conditions. An international dimension was added to humanitarian reform with the founding of the International Red Cross, finally, cruelty to animals became punishable. In contrast, social action in the 19th century was influenced by feeling and, in some instances. The initiative remained with small groups of reformers, which set about influencing public opinion, one reason for the change was the advent of democracy - limited though it was until well into the 19th century. The industrial proletariat crowding into cities made it feasible to hold mass meetings, Political pamphlets had first circulated in England during the civil war. In fiction, novels like Uncle Toms Cabin and those of Charles Dickens drew attention to social wrongs and this led to a change in approach which became less philosophical and more emotive, fastening on the inhumanity to which social action was directed. In 1503, the Spanish Governor in the Indies, Nicolás de Ovando, las Casas, who accompanied him, observed the toll of the work, and suggested the Indians be replaced by Negroes, thus beginning the transatlantic slave trade. Some 900,000 slaves were landed in the Americas by 1600, from the 17th century, demand for African labour expanded greatly with the increased importation of sugar into Europe
9.
Natural disaster
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An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population. In a vulnerable area, however, such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake, a landslide is described as an outward and downward slope movement of an abundance of slope-forming materials including rock, soil, artificial, or even a combination of these things. During World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the campaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front. Many of the avalanches were caused by artillery fire, an earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earths crust that creates seismic waves. At the Earths surface earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking, earthquakes are caused by slippage within geological faults. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the seismic focus, the point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife and it is usually the secondary events that they trigger such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis and volcanoes. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, when natural erosion or human mining makes the ground too weak to support the structures built on it, the ground can collapse and produce a sinkhole. Volcanoes can cause destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. The effects include the eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or falling rocks. Second, lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano, third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash – may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight, since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such as engines. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow, a lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armero was buried, a specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. It also killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere, the main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years. It is a violent, sudden and destructive change either in quality of water or in distribution or movement of water on land below the surface or in atmosphere. A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land, the EU Floods Directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land which is usually not covered by water
10.
Anthropogenic hazard
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Anthropogenic hazards are those hazards caused directly or indirectly by human action or inaction. They can be contrasted with natural hazards, anthropogenic hazards may adversely affect humans, other organisms and biomes and eco-systems. The frequency and severity of hazards are key elements in some risk analysis methodologies, hazards may also be described in relation to the impact that they have. Environmental hazards may be different from human hazards. A hazard only exists if there is a pathway to exposure, as an example the center of the earth consists of molten material at very high temperatures which would be a severe hazard if contact was made with the core. However, there is no way of making contact with the core, therefore the center of the earth currently poses no hazard. Societal hazards occur when the behavior of individuals or groups of individuals give rise to a reasonable apprehension of injury or death, understanding what makes individuals act in a way that puts others at risk has been the subject of much research in many developed countries. Mitigating the hazard of criminality is very dependent on time and place with some areas, civil disorder is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe forms of disturbance when many people are involved and are set upon a common aim. Such behavior is only hazardous for those involved as participants or those controlling the disturbance or those indirectly involved as passers-by or shopkeepers for example. For the great majority, staying out of the way of the disturbance eliminates the hazard, the common definition of terrorism is the use or threatened use of violence for the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological goal. Definitions of terrorism may also vary geographically, War is a conflict between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on humanity, other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and police action. Acts of war are excluded from insurance contracts and sometimes from disaster planning. Industrial accidents resulting in releases of hazardous materials usually occur in a commercial context and they often have an environmental impact but also can be hazardous for people living in proximity. The Bhopal disaster saw the release of Dioxins into the environment seriously affecting large numbers of people. It is probably the worlds worst industrial accident to date, engineering hazards occur when structures used by people fail or the materials used in their construction prove to be hazardous. Failure of dams was not infrequent during the Victorian era, such as the Dale Dyke dam failure in Sheffield, England in 1864, causing the Great Sheffield Flood, which killed at least 240 people. In 1889, the failure of the South Fork Dam on the Little Conemaugh River near Johnstown, Pennsylvania, produced the Johnstown Flood, in developed economies, many hazardous materials are put in the domestic and commercial waste stream
11.
Suffering
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Suffering, or pain in a broad sense feeling, may be an experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the element that makes up the negative valence of affective phenomena. The opposite of suffering is pleasure, or happiness, Suffering is often categorized as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable, factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. Attitudes toward suffering may vary widely, in the sufferer or other people, according to how much it is regarded as avoidable or unavoidable, useful or useless, Suffering occurs in the lives of sentient beings in numerous manners, and often dramatically. As a result, many fields of activity are concerned with some aspects of suffering. The word pain usually refers to pain, but it is also a common synonym of suffering. The words pain and suffering are often used together in different ways. For instance, they may be used as interchangeable synonyms, or they may be used in contradistinction to one another, as in pain is physical, suffering is mental, or pain is inevitable, suffering is optional. Or they may be used to each other, as in pain is physical suffering. Qualifiers, such as physical, mental, emotional, and psychological, are used for referring to certain types of pain or suffering. In particular, mental pain may be used in relationship with physical pain for distinguishing between two categories of pain or suffering. Other current words that have a definition with some similarity to suffering include distress, unhappiness, misery, affliction, woe, ill, discomfort, displeasure, hedonism, as an ethical theory, claims that good and bad consist ultimately in pleasure and pain. Jeremy Bentham developed hedonistic utilitarianism, a doctrine in ethics, politics. Bentham argued that the act or policy was that which would cause the greatest happiness of the greatest number. He suggested a procedure called hedonic or felicific calculus, for determining how much pleasure, John Stuart Mill improved and promoted the doctrine of hedonistic utilitarianism. Human suffering makes a direct appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway. David Pearce, for his part, advocates a utilitarianism that aims straightforwardly at the abolition of suffering through the use of biotechnology, richard Ryder came to the same conclusion in his concepts of speciesism and painism
12.
Dignity
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Moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions use the concept of dignity to express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment. In the modern context dignity can function as an extension of the Enlightenment-era concepts of inherent, Dignity also has descriptive meanings pertaining to human worth. In general, the term has various functions and meanings depending on how the term is used, the English word dignity, attested from the early 13th century, comes from Latin dignitas by way of French dignité. There is also a history of special philosophical use of this term. However, it is rarely defined outright in political, legal, Human dignity can be violated in multiple ways. The main categories of violations are, Humiliation Violations of human dignity in terms of humiliation refer to acts that humiliate or diminish the self-worth of a person or a group, acts of humiliation are context dependent but we normally have an intuitive understanding where such a violation occurs. As Schachter noted, “it has been assumed that a violation of human dignity can be recognized even if the abstract term cannot be defined. ‘I know it when I see it even if I cannot tell you what it is’” and this approach is common in judicial decisions where judges refer to violations of human dignity as injuries to peoples self-worth or their self-esteem. Instrumentalization or objectification This aspect refers to treating a person as an instrument or as means to some other goal. Degradation Violations of human dignity as degradation refer to acts that degrade the value of human beings and these are acts that, even if done by consent, convey a message that diminishes the importance or value of all human beings. Dehumanization These are acts that strip a person or a group of their human characteristics and it may involve describing or treating them as animals or as a lower type of human beings. This has occurred in such as the Holocaust and in Rwanda where the minority were compared to insects. Some of the practices that violate human dignity include torture, rape, social exclusion, labor exploitation, bonded labor, both absolute and relative poverty are violations of human dignity, although they also have other significant dimensions, such as social injustice. Involuntary poverty is unusual among violations of dignity because it is usually the result of acts of omission rather than acts of commission. Another example of violation of human dignity, especially for women in developing countries, is lack of sanitation, a further example of violation of human dignity, affecting women mainly in developing countries, is female genital mutilation. The movie The Magic Christian depicts a man and his son who test the limits of dignity by forcing people to perform self-degrading acts for money. A philosopher of the Renaissance, Pico della Mirandola, granted dignity to ideas, in his Oration on the Dignity of Man, he told hostile clerics about the dignity of the liberal arts and about the dignity and the glory of angels. His comments implied the dignity of philosophers and this oration is commonly seen as one of the central texts of the Renaissance, intimately tied with the growth of humanist philosophies
13.
Development aid
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Development aid is financial aid given by governments and other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social, and political development of developing countries. It is distinguished from humanitarian aid by focusing on alleviating poverty in the long term, Most development aid comes from the Western industrialised countries but some poorer countries also contribute aid. The proportion is currently about 70% bilateral 30% multilateral, about 80-85% of developmental aid comes from government sources as official development assistance. The remaining 15-20% comes from organisations such as non-governmental organisations, foundations. In addition, remittances received from migrants working or living in diaspora form a significant amount of international transfer, some governments also include military assistance in the notion foreign aid, although many NGOs tend to disapprove of this. Official development assistance is a measure of government-contributed aid, compiled by the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation, the DAC consists of 34 of the largest aid-donating countries. The concept of development aid goes back to the era at the turn of the twentieth century. The traditional government policy had tended to favor laissez-faire style economics, with the market for capital. The first challenge first by Britain was the crisis that occurred after World War I. Prior to the passage of the 1929 Colonial Development Act, the doctrine that governed Britain with their territories was that of financial self-sufficiency, what this simply meant was that the colonies were responsible for themselves. Britain was not going to use the money belongs to the metropole to pay for things in the colonies. The colonies did not only have to pay for infrastructural development, the colonies generated the revenues to pay for these through different forms of taxations. The standard taxation was the import and export taxes, goods going out of the colonies were taxed and those coming in were also taxed. Apart from these taxes, the colonizers introduced two forms of taxes, hut tax and labor tax. The hut tax is akin to a property tax today, every grown up adult male had their own hut. Each of these had to pay a tax, labor tax was the work that the people had to do without any remunerations or with meager stipends. As the economic crisis widened and had significant impact on the colonies, revenues generated from taxes continued to decline, while this was going on, Britain experienced major unemployment rates. Parliament began to discuss ways in which they could deal with Britains unemployment rates, the 1929 Act, though meager in the resources it made available for development, was a significant Act because it opened the door for Britain to make future investments in the colonies
14.
Socioeconomics
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Socioeconomics is the social science that studies how economic activity affects and is shaped by social processes. In general it analyzes how societies progress, stagnate, or regress because of their local or regional economy, socioeconomics is sometimes used as an umbrella term with different usages. The term social economics may refer broadly to the use of economics in the study of society, more narrowly, contemporary practice considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social markets and the formation of social norms. In the latter, it studies the relation of economics to social values, in criticizing mainstream economics for its alleged faulty philosophical premises and neglect of dysfunctional economic relationships, such advocates tend to classify social economics as heterodox. Nevertheless, regarding freedom, overwhelmingly research shows that although it has its negative effects, especially in a shorter term. These trends of increasing prosperity with augmenting economic freedom are confirmed even when we compare them within different territories of countries, in many cases, socioeconomists focus on the social impact of some sort of economic change. Such changes might include a factory, market manipulation, the signing of international trade treaties, new natural gas regulation. Such social effects can be wide-ranging in size, anywhere from local effects on a community to changes to an entire society. Examples of causes of socioeconomic impacts include new technologies such as cars or mobile phones, changes in laws, changes in the physical environment, and ecological changes. These may affect patterns of consumption, the distribution of incomes and wealth, the way in which people behave, and the overall quality of life. The goal of socioeconomic study is generally to bring about development, usually by improvements in metrics such as GDP, life expectancy, literacy, levels of employment. From the Mises Institute, select among sections, an Overview of Theories, Methods, and Themes in the Field, Forum for Social Economics 44, 1-23. The Theory of Social Production, Springer, Berlin, Economy and Society,2 v. Description and scroll to chapter-preview links. Association for Social Economics The Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics Economy and Society Journal of Socio-Economics Review of Social Economy Socio-Economic Review
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United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
16.
United Nations Development Programme
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The United Nations Development Programme is the United Nations global development network. Headquartered in New York City, UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and it provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly, the UNDP Administrator is the third highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General. UNDP also encourages the protection of rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programmes. The UNDP Human Development Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure, in addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports. UNDP is funded entirely by contributions from member nations. The organization operates in 177 countries, where it works with governments to meet development challenges. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Currently, the UNDP is one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP, the UNDP was founded on 22 November 1965 with the merger of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. The rationale was to avoid duplication of activities, the EPTA was set up in 1949 to help the economic and political aspects of underdeveloped countries while the Special Fund was to enlarge the scope of UN technical assistance. The Special Fund arose from the idea of a Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development, while countries such as the Nordic countries were proponents of such a United Nations controlled fund. The concept of SUNFED was dropped to form the Special Fund and this Special Fund was some compromise over the SUNFED concept, it did not provide investment capital, but only helped to bring pre-conditions for private investment. With the US proposing and creating the International Development Association within the World Banks umbrella, the EPTA, in 2013, UNDP’s entire budget was approximately US$5 billion. The following table lists the top 15 DAC5 Digit Sectors to which UNDP has committed funding, the UNDP claims on the IATI Registry website that the data covers 100% of development flows. UNDP’s offices and staff are on the ground in 177 countries, working with governments, UNDP links and coordinates global and national efforts to achieve the goals and national development priorities laid out by host countries. UNDP also supports existing democratic institutions by increasing dialogue, enhancing national debate, UNDP also works at the macro level to reform trade, encourage debt relief and foreign investment, and ensure the poorest of the poor benefit from globalisation. On the ground, UNDP sponsors developmental pilot projects, promotes the role of women in development, in this way, UNDP works with local leaders and governments to provide opportunities for impoverished people to create businesses and improve their economic condition
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United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
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Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, and it is a member of the United Nations Development Group. The UNHCR has won two Nobel Peace Prizes, once in 1954 and again in 1981, following the demise of the League of Nations and the formation of the United Nations the international community was acutely aware of the refugee crisis following the end of World War II. In 1947, the International Refugee Organization was founded by the United Nations, the IRO was the first international agency to deal comprehensively with all aspects of refugees lives. Preceding this was the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, which was established in 1944 to address the millions of people displaced across Europe as a result of World War II. In the late 1940s, the IRO fell out of favor, however, the organization was only intended to operate for 3 years, from January 1951, due to the disagreement of many UN member states over the implications of a permanent body. UNHCRs mandate was set out in its statute, annexed to resolution 428 of the United Nations General Assembly of 1950. This mandate has been broadened by numerous resolutions of the General Assembly and its Economic. According to UNHCR, mandate is to provide, on a non-political and humanitarian basis, international protection to refugees, soon after the signing of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, it became clear that refugees were not solely restricted to Europe. In 1956, UNHCR was involved in coordinating the response to the uprising in Hungary, the responses marked the beginning of a wider, global mandate in refugee protection and humanitarian assistance. By the end of the decade, two-thirds of UNHCRs budget was focused on operations in Africa and in just one decade, the organizations focus had shifted from an almost exclusive focus on Europe. In 1967, the Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees was ratified to remove the geographical and temporal restrictions of UNHCR under the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. In the 1970s, UNHCR refugee operations continued to spread around the globe, adding to the woes in Asia was the Vietnam war, with millions fleeing the war-torn country. The 1980s saw new challenges for UNHCR, with member states unwilling to resettle refugees due to the sharp rise in refugee numbers over the 1970s. Often, these refugees were not fleeing wars between states, but inter-ethnic conflict in newly independent states, the targeting of civilians as military strategy added to the displacement in many nations, so even minor conflicts could result in a large number of displaced persons. As a result, the UNHCR became more involved with assistance programs within refugee camps. The end of the Cold War marked continued inter-ethnic conflict and contributed heavily to refugee flight, UNHCR was established on 14 December 1950 and succeeded the earlier United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The agency is mandated to lead and co-ordinate international action to protect refugees and its primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. UNHCR maintains a database of information, ProGres, which was created during the Kosovo War in the 1990s
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United Nations Children's Fund
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The United Nations Childrens Fund is a United Nations programme headquartered in New York City that provides humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. It is a member of the United Nations Development Group, the Polish physician Ludwik Rajchman is widely regarded as the founder of UNICEF and served as its first chairman from 1946. On Rajchmans suggestion, the American Maurice Pate was appointed its first executive director, in 1950, UNICEFs mandate was extended to address the long-term needs of children and women in developing countries everywhere. UNICEF relies on contributions from governments and private donors, UNICEFs total income for 2008 was US$3,372,540,239, governments contribute two-thirds of the organizations resources. Private groups and some six million individuals contribute the rest through national committees and it is estimated that 92 per cent of UNICEF revenue is distributed to programme services. UNICEFs programmes emphasize developing community-level services to promote the health and well-being of children, UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Prince of Asturias Award of Concord in 2006. Most of UNICEFs work is in the field, with staff in over 190 countries and territories, more than 200 country offices carry out UNICEFs mission through programmes developed with host governments. Seven regional offices provide technical assistance to country offices as needed, a 36-member executive board establishes policies, approves programmes and oversees administrative and financial plans. The executive board is made up of government representatives who are elected by the United Nations Economic and Social Council, there are national committees in 34 countries, each established as an independent local non-governmental organization. The national committees raise funds from the private sector, UNICEF is funded entirely by voluntary contributions, and the National Committees collectively raise around one-third of UNICEFs annual income. This comes through contributions from corporations, civil society organizations around six million individual donors worldwide, UNICEF is present in 191 countries and territories around the world, but not involved in nine others. Many people in developed countries first hear about UNICEFs work through the activities of one of the 36 National Committees for UNICEF, the US Fund for UNICEF is the oldest of the national committees, founded in 1947. On 19 April 2007, Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg was appointed UNICEF Eminent Advocate for Children, in which role she has visited Brazil, China, and Burundi. In 2009, the British retailer Tesco used Change for Good as advertising and they went on to call on the public who have children’s welfare at heart, to consider carefully who they support when making consumer choices. As part of the agreement, FC Barcelona will wear the UNICEF logo on the front of their uniform and this was the first time a football club sponsored an organization rather than the other way around. It was also the first time in FC Barcelonas history that they have had another organizations name across the front of their uniform, in January 2007 UNICEF struck a partnership with Canadas national tent pegging team. The team was officially re-flagged as UNICEF Team Canada, its riders wear UNICEFs logo in competition, the Swedish club Hammarby IF followed the Spanish and Canadian lead on 14 April 2007, also raising funds for UNICEF and displaying the UNICEF name on their sportswear. The Danish football club Brøndby IF participated in an arrangement from 2008 to 2013
19.
World Food Programme
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The World Food Programme is the food-assistance branch of the United Nations and the worlds largest humanitarian organization addressing hunger and promoting food security. According to the WFP, it provides assistance to an average of 80 million people in 75 countries each year. From its headquarters in Rome and from more than 80 country offices around the world and it is a member of the United Nations Development Group and part of its Executive Committee. The WFP was formally established in 1963 by the FAO and the United Nations General Assembly on an experimental basis. In 1965, the programme was extended to a continuing basis, the WFP is governed by an Executive Board which consists of representatives from 36 member states. Ertharin Cousin is the current Executive Director, appointed jointly by the UN Secretary General and she heads the Secretariat of the WFP. The European Union is a permanent observer in the WFP and, as a major donor and its vision is a world in which every man, woman and child has access at all times to the food needed for an active and healthy life. The WFP has a staff of about 11,500 people, the WFP strives to eradicate hunger and malnutrition, with the ultimate goal in mind of eliminating the need for food aid itself. Food-for-work programmes help promote environmental and economic stability and agricultural production, in 2013, the WFP reached 80.9 million people in 75 countries and provided 3.1 million tonnes of food, including nutritionally improved products such as Plumpysup, Plumpydoz, and Supercereal Plus. 7.8 million malnourished children received special support in 2013. The WFP has scaled up its use of cash and vouchers as food assistance tools,7.9 million people received assistance through cash or voucher programmes in 2013. In the same year, the WFP purchased food in 91 countries, among its other activities, the WFP has coordinated the five-year Purchase for Progress pilot project. Launched in September 2008, P4P assists smallholder farmers by offering opportunities to access agricultural markets. The project resulted in 366,000 metric tons of food produced and generated more than $148 million in income for its smallholder farmers. The WFP focuses its food assistance on those who are most vulnerable to hunger, which most frequently means women, children, the sick and the elderly. School-feeding and/or take-home ration programmes in 71 countries help students focus on their studies and encourage parents to send their children, especially girls, the WFP operations are funded by voluntary donations from world governments, corporations and private donors. The organizations administrative costs are only seven percent—one of the lowest and best among aid agencies, in 2011, the WFPs total revenue was $3.73 billion. From 2008-2012, private donors donated around $500 million, the Fast Information Technology and Telecommunications Emergency and Support Team is a small, elite, technical team of emergency responders within the IT division of the World Food Programme
20.
Somalia
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Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Somalia has the longest coastline on Africas mainland, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Climatically, hot conditions prevail year-round, with monsoon winds. Somalia has an population of around 12.3 million. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis, who have inhabited the northern part of the country. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the southern regions, the official languages of Somalia are Somali and Arabic, both of which belong to the Afroasiatic family. Most people in the country are Muslim, with the majority being Sunni, in antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial centre. It is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient Land of Punt, during the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Empire, the Adal Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, and the Geledi Sultanate. The toponym Somalia was coined by the Italian explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, Italian occupation lasted until 1941, yielding to British military administration. British Somaliland would remain a protectorate, while Italian Somaliland in 1949 became a United Nations Trusteeship under Italian administration, in 1960, the two regions united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. The Supreme Revolutionary Council seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, led by Mohamed Siad Barre, this government later collapsed in 1991 as the Somali Civil War broke out. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum, during this period, due to the absence of a central government, Somalia was a failed state, and residents returned to customary and religious law in most regions. A few autonomous regions, including the Somaliland and Puntland administrations emerged in the north, the early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations. The Transitional National Government was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, in 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nations southern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union. The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups such as Al-Shabaab, by mid-2012, the insurgents had lost most of the territory that they had seized. In 2011–2012, a political process providing benchmarks for the establishment of permanent democratic institutions was launched, within this administrative framework a new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, which reformed Somalia as a federation. Somalia has maintained an informal economy, mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, Somalia has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here, the oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE
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Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
22.
Henry Dunant
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Henry Dunant, also known as Henri Dunant, was the founder of the Red Cross, and the first recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. The 1864 Geneva Convention was based on Dunants ideas, in 1901 he received the first Nobel Peace Prize together with Frédéric Passy, making Dunant the first Swiss Nobel laureate. Dunant was a Swiss businessman and social activist, during a business trip in 1859, he was witness to the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino in modern-day Italy. He recorded his memories and experiences in the book A Memory of Solferino which inspired the creation of the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1863, Dunant was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the first son of businessman Jean-Jacques Dunant and Antoinette Dunant-Colladon. His family was devoutly Calvinist and had significant influence in Geneva society and his parents stressed the value of social work, and his father was active helping orphans and parolees, while his mother worked with the sick and poor. His father worked in a prison and an orphanage, Dunant grew up during the period of religious awakening known as the Réveil, and at age 18 he joined the Geneva Society for Alms giving. On 30 November 1852, he founded the Geneva chapter of the YMCA, in 1849, at age 21, Dunant was forced to leave the Collège Calvin due to poor grades, and he began an apprenticeship with the money-changing firm Lullin et Sautter. After its successful conclusion, he remained as an employee of the bank, in 1853, Dunant visited Algeria, Tunisia, and Sicily, on assignment with a company devoted to the colonies of Setif. Despite little experience, he fulfilled the assignment. Inspired by the trip, he wrote his first book with the title An Account of the Regency in Tunis, however, the land and water rights were not clearly assigned, and the colonial authorities were not especially cooperative. As a result, Dunant decided to directly to French emperor Napoléon III. France was fighting on the side of Piedmont-Sardinia against Austria, who had occupied much of todays Italy, napoleons headquarters were located in the small city of Solferino. Dunant wrote a book full of praise for Napoleon III with the intention to present it to the emperor. Dunant arrived in Solferino on the evening of 24 June 1859, twenty-three thousand wounded, dying and dead remained on the battlefield, and there appeared to be little attempt to provide care. Shocked, Dunant himself took the initiative to organize the population, especially the women and girls, to provide assistance to the injured. They lacked sufficient materials and supplies, and Dunant himself organized the purchase of needed materials and he convinced the population to service the wounded without regard to their side in the conflict as per the slogan Tutti fratelli coined by the women of nearby city Castiglione delle Stiviere. He also succeeded in gaining the release of Austrian doctors captured by the French, after returning to Geneva early in July, Dunant decided to write a book about his experiences, which he titled Un Souvenir de Solferino. It was published in 1862 in an edition of 1,600 copies and was printed at Dunants own expense, within the book, he described the battle, its costs, and the chaotic circumstances afterwards
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Battle of Solferino
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It was the last major battle in world history where all the armies were under the personal command of their monarchs. Perhaps 300,000 soldiers fought in the important battle, the largest since the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, there were about 130,000 Austrian troops and a combined total of 140,000 French and allied Piedmontese troops. After the battle, the Austrian Emperor refrained from further direct command of the army, the battle led the Swiss Jean-Henri Dunant to write his book, A Memory of Solferino. Although he did not witness the battle, he toured the following the battle and was greatly moved by what he saw. Horrified by the suffering of wounded soldiers left on the battlefield, Dunant set about a process led to the Geneva Conventions. The Battle of Solferino was an engagement in the Second Italian War of Independence. The wars geopolitical context was the nationalist struggle to unify Italy, the battle took place near the villages of Solferino and San Martino, Italy, south of Lake Garda between Milan and Verona. The confrontation was between the Austrians, on one side, and the French and Piedmontese forces, who opposed their advance, in the morning of 23 June, after the arrival of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian army changed direction to counterattack along the river Chiese. At the same time, Napoleon III ordered his troops to advance, while the Piedmontese fought the Austrian right wing near San Martino, the French battled to the south of them near Solferino against the main Austrian corps. The French army at Solferino, personally led by Napoleon III, was divided in four Corps plus the Imperial Guard, many of its men and generals were veterans of the French conquest of Algeria and the Crimean War, but its commander-in-chief had no military experience of note. The Sardinian army had four divisions on the field, according to the allied battle plan formulated on 24 June, the Franco-Sardinian army moved east to deploy along the right river banks of the Mincio. The French were to occupy the villages of Solferino, Cavriana, Guidizzolo and Medole with, respectively, the 1st Corps, 2nd Corps, 3rd Corps, the four Sardinian divisions were to take Pozzolengo. After marching a few kilometers, the allies came into contact with the Austrian troops, the battle started at Medole around 4 am. Marching towards Guidizzolo, the 4th Corps encountered an Austrian infantry regiment of the Austrian 1st Army, general Niel immediately decided to engage the enemy and deployed his forces east of Medole. This move prevented the three corps of the Austrian 1st Army from aiding their comrades of the 2nd Army near Solferino, the French forces were numerically inferior to the Austrians. The 4th Corps contained three divisions under de Luzy, Vinoy and Failly and a cavalry brigade. Niel, holding a line of 5 kilometres in length, was able to stop the Austrian assaults on his position by ably warding off attacks. After 15 hours of combat the Austrians retreated, both sides having lost in total nearly 15,000 men, around 4,30 am the advance guard of the 1st Corps came into contact with the Austrian V Corps under Stadion near Castiglione delle Stiviere
24.
International Committee of the Red Cross
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The International Committee of the Red Cross is a humanitarian institution based in Geneva, Switzerland and a three-time Nobel Prize Laureate. State parties to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 and 2005 have given the ICRC a mandate to protect victims of international and internal armed conflicts, such victims include war wounded, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other non-combatants. The ICRC is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement along with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and 190 National Societies. It is the oldest and most honoured organization within the Movement and one of the most widely recognized organizations in the world, having won three Nobel Peace Prizes in 1917,1944, and 1963. When he arrived in the town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June, he witnessed the Battle of Solferino. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were wounded on the field. Henry Dunant was shocked by the aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment. He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in Geneva, he decided to write a book entitled A Memory of Solferino which he published with his own money in 1862 and he sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe. In addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of wounded on the battlefield as well as medics. On 9 February 1863 in Geneva, Henry Dunant founded the Committee of the Five as a commission of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunants ideas and to organize a conference about their possible implementation. Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the International Committee for Relief to the Wounded, in October 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field. The states and kingdoms represented by delegates were Baden, Bavaria, France, Britain, Hanover, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden. Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva. On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field. Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention, Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and Württemberg
25.
International humanitarian law
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International humanitarian law is the law that regulates the conduct of war. IHL is inspired by considerations of humanity and the mitigation of human suffering and it includes the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and customary international law. It is designed to balance humanitarian concerns and military necessity, and subjects warfare to the rule of law by limiting its destructive effect, serious violations of international humanitarian law are called war crimes. International humanitarian law, jus in bello, regulates the conduct of forces engaged in war or armed conflict. It is distinct from jus ad bellum which regulates the conduct of engaging in war or armed conflict and includes crimes against peace, together the jus in bello and jus ad bellum comprise the two strands of the laws of war governing all aspects of international armed conflicts. The law is mandatory for nations bound by the appropriate treaties, there are also other customary unwritten rules of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. By extension, they also both the permissive rights of these powers as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories. International humanitarian law operates on a division between rules applicable in international armed conflict and internal armed conflict. The relationship between human rights law and international humanitarian law is disputed among international law scholars. This discussion forms part of a discussion on fragmentation of international law. In a nutshell, those who favor separate, self-contained regimes emphasize the differences in applicability, international humanitarian law applies only during armed conflict. Modern international humanitarian law is made up of two streams, The law of The Hague, referred to in the past as the law of war proper. Both are branches of jus in bello, international law regarding acceptable practices while engaged in war and armed conflict. The Law of The Hague, or the laws of war proper, determines the rights and duties of belligerents in the conduct of operations and limits the choice of means in doing harm. In particular, it concerns itself with the definition of combatants, establishes rules relating to the means and methods of warfare, systematic attempts to limit the savagery of warfare only began to develop in the 19th century. Such concerns were able to build on the view of warfare by states influenced by the Age of Enlightenment. The purpose of warfare was to overcome the enemy state, which could be done by disabling the enemy combatants, the massacre of civilians in the midst of armed conflict has a long and dark history. These date back to ancient times, in the Old Testament, the King of Israel prevents the slaying of the captured, following the prophet Elishas admonition to spare enemy prisoners
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Bellary
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Bellary is a historic city in Ballari district in Karnataka state, India. It is 306 kilometres from Bangalore, the state capital, There are several legends explaining how Ballari got its name. The first is that a few devout travelling merchants halting in Ballari and they then installed a balla upside down as a Shiva Linga and worshiped it. Eventually, that place was turned into a dedicated to Balleshwara or Shiva, which became distorted to Malleshwara. The second legend is that the city is named after Indra, the king of Gods, the third legend derives the citys name from the old Kannada word Vallari and Vallapuri. The Union Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of India approved a proposal to rename the city in October 2014, numerous neolithic archaeological sites have been discovered around Ballari, such as the ash mounds at Sanganakallu, Budhihal, Kudithini, Tekkalakote, Hiregudda and Kupgal. The Sanganakallu settlement, spread over an area of 1,000 acres, is one of the largest neolithic complexes known around Ballari. After the Sevuna Yadavas and the Hoysalas were defeated by the Islamic sultanates of Delhi, the Vijayanagara Empire arose under Harihara I and Bukka I, Ballari itself was ruled by the family of Hande Hanumappa Nayaka, a Palayagara of the Vijayanagara rulers. The Hande Nayakas ceased to be rulers of Ballari after Major Thomas Munro disposed of the palayagars of the ceded districts, in 1808 AD, the ceded districts were split into the Ballari and Kadapa districts, and in 1867 AD the Ballari Municipal Council was created. Further, in 1882 AD, Anantapuram district was carved out of the Ballari District, the Maratha princely state of Sandur was surrounded by Ballari district. The industries in the town included a distillery and two steam cotton presses. The steam cotton-spinning mill established in 1894 had 17,800 spindles, on 1 October 1953 AD, the Ballari district of Madras Presidency was divided on a linguistic basis. Areas with a significant Kannada speaking population were transferred to Mysore state, the Ballari city municipal council was upgraded to a city corporation in 2004. Granite rocks and hills form a prominent feature of Bellary, the city is spread mainly around two hills of granite composition, the Ballari Gudda and the Kumbara Gudda. These two hills are dominant features and visible from every part of the city. Ballari Gudda has a circumference of nearly 2 miles and a height of 480 feet, the length of this rock from north-east to south-west is about 1,150 ft. To the east and south lies an irregular heap of boulders, to the west there is a monolith. When viewed from the south-east it looks like the profile of a face and is therefore also known as Face Hill. Bellary is located at 15. 15°N76. 93°E /15.15,76.93 and it has an average elevation of 495 meters
27.
Madras Presidency
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The Madras Presidency, or the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India. The city of Madras was the capital of the Presidency and Ootacamund or Ooty. The island of Ceylon was a part of Madras Presidency from 1793 to 1798 when it was created a Crown colony, the agency was upgraded to a Presidency in 1652 before once more reverting to its previous status in 1655. In 1684, it was re-elevated to a Presidency and Elihu Yale was appointed as president, in 1785, under the provisions of Pitts India Act, Madras became one of three provinces established by the East India Company. Thereafter, the head of the area was styled Governor rather than President and became subordinate to the Governor-General in Calcutta, a title that would persist until 1947. Judicial, legislative and executive powers rested with the Governor who was assisted by a Council whose constitution was modified by reforms enacted in 1861,1909,1919 and 1935, regular elections were conducted in Madras up to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. Following the Montague-Chelmsford reforms of 1919, Madras was the first province of British India to implement a system of dyarchy, in the early decades of the 20th century, many significant contributors to the Indian independence movement came from Madras. With the advent of Indian independence on 15 August 1947, the Presidency became the Madras Province. Madras was later admitted as Madras State, a state of the Indian Union at the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950, the discovery of dolmens from this portion of the subcontinent shows inhabitation as early as the Stone Age. The first prominent rulers of the part of the future Presidency were the Tamil pandya dynasty. Following the decline of the pandyas of Tamil Nadu and the Cholas in Tamil Nadu, the country recovered under the subsequent Pallava dynasty and its civilisation attained a peak under the later where the telugu period when telugu kings started accquiring vast places in Tamil Nadu. Following the conquest of Madurai by Malik Kafur in 1311, there was a brief lull when both culture and civilisation began to deteriorate, the Tamil and Telugu territories recovered under the Vijayanagar Empire, founded in 1336. Following the empires demise, the country was split amongst numerous sultans, polygars, between 1685 and 1947, a number of kings ruled the areas that became part of the Madras Presidency. On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted a group of English merchants a charter to establish a company which became known as the East India Company. The first of these were built at Surat on the west coast, Masulipatam is thus the oldest English trading post on Indias east coast, dating back to 1611. In 1625, another factory was established at Armagon, a few miles to the south, the English authorities decided to relocate these factories farther south, due to a shortage of cotton cloth, the main trade item of the east coast at the time. The problem was compounded when the Sultan of Golconda started harassing the local officers, an agency was created to govern the new settlement, and the factor Andrew Cogan of Masulipatnam was appointed as its first Agent. All the agencies along Indias east coast were subordinated to the East India Company presidency of Bantam in Java, by 1641, Fort St George became the Companys headquarters on the Coromandel Coast
28.
The Illustrated London News
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The Illustrated London News appeared first on Saturday 14 May 1842, as the worlds first illustrated weekly news magazine. Founded by Herbert Ingram, it appeared weekly until 1971, then less frequently thereafter, the company continues today as Illustrated London News Ltd, a publishing, content and digital agency in London, which holds the publication and business archives of the magazine. As a newsagent, Ingram was struck by the increase in newspaper sales when they featured pictures. Ingram began to plan a weekly newspaper that would contain pictures in every edition, Ingram rented an office, recruited artists and reporters, and employed as his editor Frederick William Naylor Bayley, formerly editor of the National Omnibus. The first issue of The Illustrated London News appeared on Saturday,14 May 1842, Ingram hired 200 men to carry placards through the streets of London promoting the first edition of his new newspaper. Costing sixpence, the first issue sold 26,000 copies, despite this initial success, sales of the second and subsequent editions were disappointing. Its circulation soon increased to 40,000 and by the end of its first year was 60,000, in 1851, after the newspaper published Joseph Paxtons designs for the Crystal Palace before even Prince Albert had seen them, the circulation rose to 130,000. Andrew Spottiswoodes Pictorial Times lost £20,000 before it was sold to Ingram by Henry Vizetelly, Ingram folded it into another purchase, The Ladys Newspaper, which became The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times. Vitezelly was also behind a competitor, The Illustrated Times in 1855. Ingrams other early collaborators left the business in the 1850s, nathanial Cooke, his business partner and brother-in-law, found himself in a subordinate role in the business and parted on bad terms around 1854. 1858 saw the departure of William Little, who, in addition to providing a loan of £10,000, was printer and publisher of the paper for 15 years, littles relationship with Ingram deteriorated over Ingrams harassment of their mutual sister-in-law. By 1863, The Illustrated London News was selling more than 300,000 copies every week, the death of Herbert and his eldest son left the company without a director and manager. Control passed to Ingrams widow Ann, and his friend Sir Edward William Watkin, once Ingrams two younger sons, William and Charles, were old enough, they took over as managing directors, although it was William who took the lead. It was also a period of expansion and increased competition for the ILN, as reading habits and the illustrated news market changed, the ILN bought or established a number of new publications, evolving from a single newspaper to a larger-scale publishing business. As with Herbert Ingrams purchases in the 1850s, this expansion was also a way of managing competition, dominating markets. As too with the acquisitions of the 1850s, several similar illustrated publications were established in this period by former employees of The Illustrated London News. Serious competition for the ILN appeared in 1869, with the establishment of The Graphic, Thomas was a former wood engraver for The Illustrated London News, and brought his expertise in illustrated publishing to his new magazine. The Graphic was highly popular, particularly for its coverage of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, William Ingram became chief proprietor of The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, and The Ladys Pictorial, which may have been a later title of The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times
29.
Timothy Richard
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Timothy Richard was a Welsh Baptist missionary to China, who influenced the modernisation of China and the rise of the Chinese Republic. Richard was born on 10 October 1845 in Carmarthenshire in south Wales, the son of Timothy and Eleanor Richard, inspired by the Second Evangelical Awakening to become a missionary, Richard left teaching to enter Haverfordwest Theological College in 1865. Richard applied to the newly formed China Inland Mission, but Hudson Taylor considered that he would be of service to the denominational Baptist missions. In 1869 the Baptist Missionary Society accepted Richards application, and assigned him to Yantai, in 1897 Richard undertook a journey to India to discover the conditions of the Christian mission there. Travelling with a missionary, Arthur Gostick Shorrock, they visited Sri Lanka, Madras, Agra, Benares, Delhi, Kolkata. In China Timothy Richard became a contributor to the monthly Wan Guo Gong Bao, or Review of the Times and this paper was said. to have done more for reform than any other single agency in China. The Review attracted a wide and influential Chinese readership throughout its thirty-nine year run, One of the ways in which the Review appealed to a broad, scholarly audience was through its discussion of current events and economics. The Qing reformer Kang Youwei once said of the publication, I owe my conversion to reform chiefly on the writings of two missionaries, the Rev. Timothy Richard and the Rev. Dr. Young J. Allen. Richard also translated Looking Backward into Chinese as 百年一覺 Bainian Yi Jiao, Richards papers are preserved in the BMS archives at Regents Park College, Oxford. On death in April 1919, Richard was cremated, and his ashes placed in the columbarium of Golders Green Crematorium, the memorial tablet is largely in Chinese. Forty-Five Years in China, New York, Frederick A. Stokes Richard, conversion by the Million in China, Being Biographies and Articles,2 vols, Volume One, Volume Two Shanghai, Christian Literature Society Mary Martin Richard. Calendar of the Gods in China, soothill, W. E. Timothy Richard of China Stanley, Brian, The History of the Baptist Missionary Society, 1792-1992 Williamson, H. R. British Baptists in China, 1845-1952 D. H. Chambers, Tim China,2011 Reeve, China missionary, statesman and reformer, London, S. W. Timothy Richards Vision Education and Reform in China, 1880-1910 Worldcat
30.
Shandong
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Shandong is a coastal province of the Peoples Republic of China, and is part of the East China region. Shandongs Mount Tai is the most revered mountain of Taoism and one of the sites with the longest history of continuous religious worship. The Buddhist temples in the mountains to the south of the capital of Jinan were once among the foremost Buddhist sites in China. The city of Qufu is the birthplace of Confucius, and was established as the center of Confucianism. Individually, the two Chinese characters in the name Shandong mean mountain and east, Shandong could hence be translated literally as east of the mountains and refers to the provinces location to the east of the Taihang Mountains. A common nickname for Shandong is Qílǔ, after the States of Qi and Lu that existed in the area during the Spring and Autumn period. Whereas the State of Qi was a power of its era. Lu, however, became renowned for being the home of Confucius, the cultural dominance of the State of Lu heritage is reflected in the official abbreviation for Shandong which is 鲁. English speakers in the 19th century called the province Shan-tung, the province is on the eastern edge of the North China Plain and in the lower reaches of the Yellow River, and extends out to sea as the Shandong Peninsula. The earliest dynasties exerted varying degrees of control over western Shandong, over subsequent centuries, the Dongyi were eventually sinicized. During the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, at this time, Shandong was home to two major states, the state of Qi at Linzi and the state of Lu at Qufu. Lu is noted for being the home of Confucius, the state was, however, comparatively small, and eventually succumbed to the larger state of Chu from the south. The state of Qi was, on the hand, was a major power throughout the period. Cities it ruled included Linzi, Jimo and Ju, the Qin dynasty conquered Qi and founded the first centralized Chinese state in 221 BCE. The Han dynasty that followed created a number of commanderies supervised by two regions in what is now modern Shandong, Qingzhou in the north and Yanzhou in the south, during the division of the Three Kingdoms, Shandong belonged to the Cao Wei, which ruled over northern China. After the Three Kingdoms period, a period of unity under the Western Jin dynasty gave way to invasions by nomadic peoples from the north. Northern China, including Shandong, was overrun, Shandong stayed with the Northern Dynasties for the rest of this period. The Sui dynasty reestablished unity in 589, and the Tang dynasty presided over the golden age of China
31.
Shanghai
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Shanghai is the most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2014. As one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the Peoples Republic of China, it is a financial centre and transport hub. Located in the Yangtze River Delta in East China, Shanghai sits on the edge of the mouth of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the eastern Chinese coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, as a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War, the subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a center of commerce between China and other parts of the world, and became the financial hub of the Asia-Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the citys global influence declined. In the 1990s, the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance. The two Chinese characters in the name are 上 and 海, together meaning Upon-the-Sea. The earliest occurrence of this dates from the 11th-century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 in Chinese, a contraction of 沪渎, a 4th- or 5th-century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today, another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn or Shēnchéng, from Lord Chunshen, a third-century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F. C. Huating was another early name for Shanghai. In AD751, during the dynasty, Huating County was established at modern-day Songjiang. Today, Huating appears as the name of a hotel in the city. The city also has various nicknames in English, including Pearl of the Orient, during the Spring and Autumn period, the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period, Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu and he ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of Shen, two important events helped promote Shanghais development in the Ming dynasty
32.
Tael
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Tael or tahil can refer to any one of several weight measures of the Far East. Most commonly, it refers to the Chinese tael, a part of the Chinese system of weights, in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia it is equivalent to 10 mace or 1⁄16 catty, albeit with slightly different metric equivalents in these two places. These Chinese units of measurement are used in Chinese herbal medicine stores as well as gold. The English word tael comes through Portuguese from the Malay word tahil, early English forms of the name such as tay or taes derive from the Portuguese plural of tael, taeis. In Chinese, tael is written 兩 and has the Mandarin Chinese pronunciation in pinyin, in Chinese and Vietnamese, the phrase half a catty, eight taels, meaning two different presentations of the same thing, is still often used today. In China, there were many different weighting standards of tael depending on the region or type of trade, in general the silver tael weighed around 40 grams. The most common government measure was the Kuping tael, weighing 37.5 grams, a common commercial weight, the Caoping tael weighed 36.7 grams of marginally less pure silver. As in China, Japan used the tael as both a unit of weight and, by extension, a currency, traditional Chinese silver sycees and other currencies of fine metals were not denominated or made by a central mint and their value was determined by their weight in taels. The local tael also took precedence over any measure, so the Canton tael weighed 37.5 grams, the Convention or Shanghai tael was 33.9 g. The conversion rates between various common taels were well known, the tael was still the basis of the silver currency and sycee remained in use until the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. Common weights were 50 tael,10 tael, and 5 down to 1, the Thai equivalent of the tael is known as the tamlueng, a term derived from Khmer. It was used as a unit of equal to four baht. The tael is still in use as a measurement in a number of countries though usually only in limited contexts. Chinas standardised market tael of 31.25 g was modified by the Peoples Republic of China in 1959, the new market tael was 50 g or 1⁄10 catty to make it compatible with metric measures. In Shanghai, silver is still traded in taels, some foodstuffs in China are sold in units also called taels, but which do not necessarily weigh one tael. For cooked rice, the weight of the tael is approximated using special tael-sized ladles, other items sold in taels include the shengjian mantou and the xiaolongbao, both small buns commonly found in Shanghai. In these cases, one tael is traditionally four and eight buns respectively, the tael is a legal weight measure in Hong Kong, and is still in active use. In Hong Kong, one tael is 37.799364167 g, similar to Hong Kong, in Singapore, one tael is defined as 1 1⁄3 ounce and is approximated as 37.7994 g The Taiwan tael is 37.5 g and is still used in some contexts
33.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
34.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
35.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
36.
Michael Buerk
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Michael Duncan Buerk is an English journalist and newsreader, whose reporting of the Ethiopian famine on 23 October 1984 inspired the Band Aid charity record and, subsequently, the Live Aid concert. Buerk has been the host of BBC Radio 4s The Moral Maze since 1990, Buerks hopes of a career in the Royal Air Force were dashed when he failed an eyesight test at the selection centre. He briefly worked as a hod carrier, Buerk began his career in journalism with the Bromsgrove Messenger, South Wales Echo, and the Daily Mail. He joined Radio Bristol in 1970 before becoming a reporter for BBC News in 1973, from 1983 to 1987, Buerk was the BBCs South Africa correspondent during the dying years of apartheid in South Africa. Buerks uncompromising reports on the brutalities of the resulted in the South African government expelling him from the country after four years in the post. He later anchored the BBC Nine OClock News and BBC News at Ten, in 2010, Buerk narrated Sky1 reality show Pineapple Dance Studios. Buerk has also five guest appearances on the BBCs The One Show in April. He has also appeared as a presenter for Jason Manford on six occasions. Since July 2012, Buerk has co-presented ITVs Britains Secret Treasures with Bettany Hughes, on 6 October 2013, he began hosting Inside the National Trust, a new documentary series. Buerk has hosted BBC Radio 4s The Moral Maze since 1990, katie Russell, from Rape Crisis England and Wales, accused him of practising victim-blaming. She commented, To infer that being drunk is in any way comparable to committing the serious. Beginning on 16 November 2014, Buerk took part in the series of Im a Celebrity. Get Me Out of Here. On 3 December 2014, he was the celebrity to be eliminated in the public vote. On 28 July 2007, Buerk appeared on a celebrity version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, with Jennie Bond to raise money for NCH, the childrens charity. He is also a supporter of the British Red Cross and in October 2008 came out in support of an Alternate Reality Game, Traces of Hope, on the BBCs Children in Need, Buerk has performed several times along with an ensemble of BBC News presenters. In 2004, he dressed in leather to perform Duran Duran classics and in 2005, in particular, Buerk objected to the many women now in senior positions within the BBC. Former newsreader Anna Ford commented, Hes a dear old-fashioned chauvinist of the first order, an article was published in anticipation of Buerks 45-minute TV-essay, Michael Buerk on What Are Men For. which was part of a series on Channel Five, Dont Get Me Started. Broadcast on Tuesday 23 August 2005, Guardian television reviewer Sam Wollaston thought Buerk had been thoroughly, and quite rightly, crucified in the pre-publicity
37.
Live Aid
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Live Aid was a dual-venue concert held on 13 July 1985, and an ongoing music-based fundraising initiative. The original event was organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise funds for relief of the ongoing Ethiopian famine. Billed as the jukebox, the event was held simultaneously at Wembley Stadium in London, England, United Kingdom and John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On the same day, concerts inspired by the initiative happened in countries, such as the Soviet Union, Japan, Austria, Australia. It was one of the largest-scale satellite link-ups and television broadcasts of all time, the 1985 Live Aid concert was conceived as a follow-on to the successful charity single Do They Know Its Christmas. Which was also the brainchild of Geldof and Ure, in October 1984, images of millions of people starving to death in Ethiopia were shown in the UK in Michael Buerks BBC News reports on the 1984 famine. Bob Geldof saw the report, and called Midge Ure from Ultravox, in the hope of raising money for famine relief. Geldof then contacted colleagues in the industry and persuaded them to record the single under the title Band Aid for free. On 25 November 1984, the song was recorded at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, Geldof then set his sights on staging a huge concert to raise further funds. The idea to stage a charity concert to raise funds for Ethiopia originally came from Boy George. George and Culture Club drummer Jon Moss had taken part in the recording of Do They Know Its Christmas, and in December 1984 Culture Club were undertaking a tour of the UK, which culminated in six nights at Wembley Arena. George was so overcome by the occasion he told Geldof that they should consider organising a benefit concert and its a logical progression from the record, but the point is you dont just talk about it, you go ahead and do it. It was clear from the interview that Geldof had already had the idea to hold a dual venue concert and how the concerts should be structured, The show should be as big as is humanly possible. Theres no point just 5,000 fans turning up at Wembley, we need to have Wembley linked with Madison Square Gardens and it would be great for Duran to play three or four numbers at Wembley and then flick to Madison Square where Springsteen would be playing. While hes on, the Wembley stage could be ready for the next British act like the Thompsons or whoever. In that way lots of acts could be featured and the rights, tickets. Its not an idea, and certainly one worth exploiting. Among those involved in organising Live Aid were Harvey Goldsmith, who was responsible for the Wembley Stadium concert, and Bill Graham, the concert grew in scope, as more acts were added on both sides of the Atlantic
38.
Bob Geldof
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Robert Frederick Zenon Geldof, KBE, is an Irish singer, songwriter, author, occasional actor, and political activist. He rose to prominence as the singer of the Irish rock band The Boomtown Rats in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The band had hits with his compositions Rat Trap and I Dont Like Mondays and he co-wrote Do They Know Its Christmas. One of the singles of all time, and starred in Pink Floyds 1982 film Pink Floyd – The Wall as Pink. Geldof is widely recognised for his activism, especially anti-poverty efforts concerning Africa, in 1984 he and Midge Ure founded the charity supergroup Band Aid to raise money for famine relief in Ethiopia. They went on to organise the charity super-concert Live Aid the following year, a single father, Geldof has also been outspoken for the fathers rights movement. In 2005 he received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music, Geldof was born and brought up in Dún Laoghaire, Ireland, a son of Robert and Evelyn Geldof. His paternal grandfather, Zenon Geldof, was a Belgian immigrant and his paternal grandmother, Amelia Falk, was an English Jew from London. When Geldof was six or seven, his mother, Evelyn,41, Bob Geldof attended Blackrock College, where he was bullied for being a poor rugby player and for his middle name, Zenon. After work as a slaughterman, a navvy and pea canner in Wisbech, he was hired as a music journalist in Vancouver. He briefly guest hosted the CBC childrens program Switchback, returning to Ireland in 1975, he became lead singer of the Boomtown Rats, a rock group closely linked with the punk movement. In 1978, The Boomtown Rats had their first No.1 single in the UK with Rat Trap, in 1979, they gained international attention with their second UK No. This was both successful and controversial, Geldof had written it in the aftermath of Brenda Ann Spencers attempted massacre at an elementary school in San Diego, California in 1979. In 1980, The Boomtown Rats released the album Mondo Bongo and its single Up All Night was a hit in the U. S. and its video was played frequently on MTV. Geldof became known as an interview subject. He responded to nuns in the audience who tried to shout him down by saying they had a life with no material worries in return for which they gave themselves body. The interview caused uproar, making it impossible for The Boomtown Rats to play in Ireland again, in January 2013, Geldof announced The Boomtown Rats would be reforming to play together for the first time since 1986 at that year’s Isle of Wight Festival in June. They have subsequently announced further tour dates and released a new CD Back to Boomtown, Geldof left the Boomtown Rats in 1986, to launch a solo career and publish his autobiography, Is That It. which was a UK best-seller
39.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
40.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
41.
Ban Ki-moon
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Ban Ki-moon is a South Korean diplomat who was the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 2007 to December 2016. Before becoming Secretary-General, Ban was a diplomat in South Koreas Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He entered diplomatic service the year he graduated university, accepting his first post in New Delhi. Ban was the minister of South Korea from January 2004 to November 2006. In February 2006 he began to campaign for the office of Secretary-General, Ban was initially considered to be a long shot for the office. As foreign minister of South Korea, however, he was able to travel to all the countries on the United Nations Security Council, on 13 October 2006, he was elected to be the eighth Secretary-General by the United Nations General Assembly. On 1 January 2007, he succeeded Kofi Annan, as Secretary-General, he was responsible for several major reforms on peacekeeping and UN employment practices. Ban was named the worlds 32nd most powerful person by the Forbes list of The Worlds Most Powerful People in 2013, in 2014, he was named the third most powerful South Korean after Lee Kun-hee and Lee Jae-yong. In 2016, Foreign Policy named Ban one of the Top 100 Global Thinkers for his achievement of making the Paris Agreement a legally binding treaty less than a year after it was adopted. António Guterres was appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016 to be the successor of Ban Ki-moon as he stepped down on 31 December 2016. He was widely considered to be a candidate for the 2017 South Korean presidential election, before announcing, on February 1. Ban was born on 13 June 1944 in the farming village of Haengchi, Wonnam Township, in Eumseong County. His family then moved to the town of Chungju, where he grew up. During Bans childhood, his father had a business, but the warehouse went bankrupt. When Ban was six, his family fled to a mountainside for much of the Korean War. After the war ended, his family returned to Chungju, Ban has said that, during this time, he met American soldiers. In secondary school, Ban became a student, particularly in his studies of the English language. In 1962, Ban won an essay contest sponsored by the Red Cross, as part of the trip, Ban met U. S. President John F. Kennedy
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