1.
Lancashire
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Lancashire is a non-metropolitan ceremonial county in north west England. The county town is Lancaster although the administrative centre is Preston. The county has a population of 1,449,300, people from Lancashire are known as Lancastrians. The history of Lancashire begins with its founding in the 12th century, in the Domesday Book of 1086, some of its lands were treated as part of Yorkshire. The land that lay between the Ribble and Mersey, Inter Ripam et Mersam, was included in the returns for Cheshire, when its boundaries were established, it bordered Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. Lancashire emerged as a commercial and industrial region during the Industrial Revolution. Liverpool and Manchester grew into its largest cities, dominating global trade, the county contained several mill towns and the collieries of the Lancashire Coalfield. By the 1830s, approximately 85% of all cotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire, Accrington, Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Bury, Chorley, Colne, Darwen, Manchester, Nelson, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale and Wigan were major cotton mill towns during this time. Blackpool was a centre for tourism for the inhabitants of Lancashires mill towns, the detached northern part of Lancashire in the Lake District, including the Furness Peninsula and Cartmel, was merged with Cumberland and Westmorland to form Cumbria. Lancashire lost 709 square miles of land to other counties, about two fifths of its area, although it did gain some land from the West Riding of Yorkshire. Today the county borders Cumbria to the north, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south and North and West Yorkshire to the east, with a coastline on the Irish Sea to the west. The county palatine boundaries remain the same with the Duke of Lancaster exercising sovereignty rights, including the appointment of lords lieutenant in Greater Manchester, the county was established in 1182, later than many other counties. During Roman times the area was part of the Brigantes tribal area in the zone of Roman Britain. The towns of Manchester, Lancaster, Ribchester, Burrow, Elslack, in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal in 410AD the northern parts of the county probably formed part of the Brythonic kingdom of Rheged, a successor entity to the Brigantes tribe. During the mid-8th century, the area was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, in the Domesday Book, land between the Ribble and Mersey were known as Inter Ripam et Mersam and included in the returns for Cheshire. Although some historians consider this to mean south Lancashire was then part of Cheshire and it is also claimed that the territory to the north formed part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It bordered on Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire, the county was divided into hundreds, Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonsdale, Salford and West Derby. Lonsdale was further partitioned into Lonsdale North, the part north of the sands of Morecambe Bay including Furness and Cartmel
2.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
3.
Ha-ha
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A ha-ha is a recessed landscape design element that creates a vertical barrier while preserving an uninterrupted view of the landscape beyond. The design includes a turfed incline which slopes downward to a vertical face. Ha-has are used in design to prevent access to a garden, for example by grazing livestock. In security design, the element is used to deter vehicular access to a site while minimizing visual obstruction, the name ha-ha may derive from the unexpected moment of discovery when, on approach, the vertical drop suddenly becomes visible. Before mechanical lawn mowers, a way to keep large areas of grassland trimmed was to allow livestock, usually sheep. The ha-ha fit well with Chinese gardening ideas of concealing barriers with nature, the basic design of sunken ditches is of ancient origin, being a feature of deer parks in England. The deer-leap or saltatorium consisted of a ditch with one steep side surmounted by a pale or hedge, on Dartmoor the deer-leap was known as a leapyeat. The concept of the ha-ha is of French origin, with the term being attested in toponyms in New France from 1686, Ha. from where it takes its name. This sort of opening is haha, on occasions, to be preferred, for that it does not at all interrupt the prospect. The etymology of the term is given as being an expression of surprise—someone says ha ha or ah. ah. when they encounter such a feature. Then deemed so astonishing, that the people called them Ha. Has. to express their surprise at finding a sudden and unperceived check to their walk, thomas Jefferson, describing the garden at Stowe after his visit in April 1786, also uses the term with exclamation marks, The inclosure is entirely by ha. ha. In Britain, the ha-ha is a feature of the gardens laid out by Charles Bridgeman. Horace Walpole credits Bridgeman with the invention of the ha-ha but was unaware of the earlier French origins, during his excavations at Iona in the period 1964–1984, Richard Reece discovered an 18th-century ha-ha designed to protect the abbey from cattle. Ice houses were built into ha-ha walls because they provide a subtle entrance that makes the ice house a less intrusive structure. They vary in depth from about 0.6 m to 2.7 m, an unusually long example is the ha-ha that separates the Royal Artillery Barracks Field from Woolwich Common in southeast London. The Royal Artillery ha-ha is maintained in a state of preservation by the Ministry of Defence, it is a Listed Building. There is a shorter ha-ha in the grounds of the nearby Jacobean, in Australia, ha-has were also used at Victorian-era lunatic asylums such as Yarra Bend Asylum, Beechworth Asylum, and Kew Lunatic Asylum
4.
Padiham
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Padiham /ˈpædiəm/ is a small town and civil parish on the River Calder, about 3 miles west of Burnley and south of Pendle Hill, in Lancashire, England. It is part of the Borough of Burnley, but has its own council with varied powers. Padiham was originally a village lying by the River Calder. It is still surrounded by attractive countryside on an arc running from the north-west to the north-east in the foothills of Pendle Hill. According to the United Kingdom Census 2011, the parish has a population of 10,098, no prehistoric or Roman sites have been found in the urban area and Padiham, a name of Anglo-Saxon origin, is not recorded in the Domesday Book. The first recorded mention of the town, as Padyngham, dates from 1294, for hundreds of years it was a market town where produce from Pendleside was bought and sold. The town expanded and was redeveloped during the Industrial Revolution. Padihams population peaked around 1921 at about 14,000 declining to 10,000 in the early 1960s and 8,998 at the time of the 2001 census. This follows people moving to the south of England in search of work following the decline of the cotton, coal. The Queen, together with Prince Philip, first visited Burnley, Nelson, Padiham was once a township in the ancient parish of Whalley. This became a parish in 1866. An urban district covered the town from 1894, however at this time the rural areas mainly to the north became a new parish called Northtown. But the Padiham Green area, previously part of Hapton, transferred to Padiham with another small area following in 1935, since 1974 Padiham has formed part of the Borough of Burnley. A Town Council was established in 2002, Burnley Borough Council now addresses public correspondence to both the people of Burnley and Padiham. Padiham is part of Lancashire County Council and the Parliamentary Constituency is Burnley currently represented by Julie Cooper for the Labour Party, in the 19th century, Padihams industry was based on coal-mining and weaving. Helm Mill on Factory Lane was the first mill built in 1807, by 1906 there were twenty cotton mills though the best preserved, now converted into flats, is Victoria Mill, built 1852–53 with an 1873 extension, in Ightenhall Street. Industrial development was helped by the proximity of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal about 2 miles south, by 1848, Padiham had many coal pits around the town, including two large collieries and a number of smaller workings. The availability of coal and water nearby helped the development of the industry in the town
5.
Borough of Burnley
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The Borough of Burnley is a local government district of Lancashire, England, with the status of a non-metropolitan district and borough. It has an area of 42.7 square miles and a population of 87,400, the borough is bounded by Hyndburn, Ribble Valley, Pendle, Rossendale – all in Lancashire – and the borough of Calderdale in West Yorkshire. It is governed by Burnley Borough Council, which has controlled by the Liberal Democrats since 2008. The district was formed on 1 April 1974, when the county borough of Burnley merged with the urban district of Padiham. At this time Simonstone and the parish of North Town were included in the borough. Another part was transferred to Pendle districts Higham with West Close Booth and small adjustments occurred to the boundaries with Padiham, in 2007 its proposal to merge with neighbouring Pendle Borough Council to form a larger unitary authority was rejected by the government. Burnley Borough Council has had a predominantly Labour controlled history, the party returned to power in 2012, the borough comprises 15 wards electing a total of 45 councillors. The borough contains the parishes of Ightenhill, Habergham Eaves, Dunnockshaw and Clowbridge, Hapton, Cliviger, Briercliffe. Padiham Town Council was established in 2002, since 2002, a number of BNP councillors have been elected in the borough, with the last councilor losing her seat in the Hapton with Park ward in 2012. Places in the borough of Burnley include, The boroughs population has fallen from a high of 130,339 in 1911 to an estimated 87,700 in 2005, between 1991 and 2001, it fell by 2. 6%. Its employment rate of 59. 0% places it 261st out of 376 local authorities in England & Wales, just 12. 6% of its workforce are graduates, education Services in the borough are provided and controlled by Lancashire County Council. The Hospital Trust operates Burnley General Hospital, while the PCT operates the network of GP surgeries, policing Services in the borough are provided by the Pennine division of Lancashire Constabulary based at Burnley Police station, and controlled by Lancashire County Council. Plans are in place to merge the pennine division into the eastern division. Policing Services of the boroughs Railways are provided by North West division of the British Transport Police - the nearest Transport Police office being in Preston, Fire and rescue services in the borough are provided by Lancashire Fire and Rescue Service and controlled by Lancashire County Council. The borough Council has signed up to Lancashires Municipal Waste Management Strategy, there are currently 2 household waste recycling centres run by Lancashire County Council in the borough. One located on Grosvenor Street in Burnley and the second on Park Road in Padiham,3 months later they then announced the closure of the Padiham site as part of cost-cutting measures, increasing the unsuitability of the new Burnley site’s location
6.
Sandstone
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Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
7.
Georgian architecture
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Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is eponymous for the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The style of Georgian buildings is very variable, but marked by a taste for symmetry and proportion based on the architecture of Greece and Rome. Ornament is also normally in the tradition, but typically rather restrained. In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession, before the mid-century the high-sounding title and this contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny published editions in America as well as Britain, mail-order kit homes were also popular before World War II. The architect James Gibbs was a figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century. Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking worlds equivalent of European Rococo. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke, regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. In Britain brick or stone are almost invariably used, brick is often disguised with stucco, in America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture, Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided, in grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a piano nobile or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. A single block was typical, with a perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid, this was partly to minimize window tax and their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable
8.
Hip roof
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A hip roof, hip-roof or hipped roof, is a type of roof where all sides slope downwards to the walls, usually with a fairly gentle slope. Thus a hipped roof house has no gables or other vertical sides to the roof, a square hip roof is shaped like a pyramid. Hip roofs on houses could have two sides and two trapezoidal ones. A hip roof on a plan has four faces. They are almost always at the pitch or slope, which makes them symmetrical about the centerlines. Hip roofs often have a consistent level fascia, meaning that a gutter can be fitted all around, Hip roofs often have dormer slanted sides. Hip roofs are more difficult to construct than a gabled roof, Hip roofs can be constructed on a wide variety of plan shapes. Each ridge is central over the rectangle of the building below it, the triangular faces of the roof are called the hip ends, and they are bounded by the hips themselves. The hips and hip rafters sit on a corner of the building. Where the building has a corner, a valley makes the join between the sloping surfaces. They have the advantage of giving a compact, solid appearance to a structure, in modern domestic architecture, hip roofs are commonly seen in bungalows and cottages, and have been integral to styles such as the American Foursquare. However, the hip roof has been used in different styles of architecture. A hip roof is self-bracing, requiring less diagonal bracing than a gable roof, Hip roofs are thus much better suited for hurricane regions than gable roofs. Hip roofs have no large, flat, or slab-sided ends to catch wind and are much more stable than gable roofs. However, for a region, the roof also has to be steep-sloped. When wind flows over a shallow sloped hip roof, the roof can behave like an airplane wing, lift is then created on the leeward side. The flatter the roof, the more likely this will happen, a steeper pitched hip roof tends to cause the wind to stall as it goes over the roof, breaking up the effect. If the roof slopes are less than 35 degrees from horizontal, greater than 35 degrees, and not only does wind blowing over it encounter a stalling effect, but the roof is actually held down on the wall plate by the wind pressure
9.
Battlement
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These gaps are termed crenels, and the act of adding crenels to a previously unbroken parapet is termed crenellation. The solid widths between the crenels are called merlons, a wall with battlements is said to be crenelated or embattled. Battlements on walls have protected walkways behind them, on tower or building tops, the roof is used as the protected fighting platform. The term originated in about the 14th century from the Old French word batailler, the word crenel derives from the ancient French cren, Latin crena, meaning a notch, mortice or other gap cut out often to receive another element or fixing, see also crenation. In medieval England a licence to crenellate granted the permission to fortify their property. The castles in England vastly outnumber the licences to crenellate, royal pardons were obtainable, on the payment of an arbitrarily determined fine, by a person who had fortified without licence. The surviving records of such licences, generally issued by letters patent, there has been academic debate over the purpose of licensing. The view of military-focused historians is that licensing restricted the number of fortifications that could be used against a royal army and they indicated to the observer that the grantee had obtained royal recognition, acknowledgment and compliment. The crown usually did not charge for the granting of such licences, battlements have been used for thousands of years, the earliest known example is in the fortress at Buhen in Egypt. Battlements were used in the walls surrounding Assyrian towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud, traces of them remain at Mycenae in Greece, and some ancient Greek vases suggest the existence of battlements. The Great Wall of China has battlements, late merlons permitted fire from the first firearms. From the 13th century, the merlons could be connected with wooden shutters that provided added protection when closed, the shutters were designed to be opened to allow shooters to fire against the attackers, and closed during reloading. The Romans used low wooden pinnacles for their first aggeres, in the battlements of Pompeii, additional protection derived from small internal buttresses or spur walls, against which the defender might stand so as to gain complete protection on one side. Loop-holes were frequent in Italian battlements, where the merlon has much greater height, Italian military architects used the so-called Ghibelline or swallowtail battlement, with V-shaped notches in the tops of the merlon, giving a horn-like effect. This would allow the defender to be protected whilst shooting standing fully upright, the normal rectangular merlons were later nicknamed Guelph. In Muslim and African fortifications, the merlons often were rounded, the battlements of the Arabs had a more decorative and varied character, and were continued from the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to the walls. They serve a similar to the cresting found in the Spanish Renaissance. European architects persistently used battlements as a decorative feature throughout the Decorated
10.
Rights of way in England and Wales
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In England and Wales, other than in the 12 Inner London Boroughs and the City of London, public rights of way are paths on which the public have a legally protected right to pass and re-pass. Private rights of way or easements also exist, definitive maps exist for the Outer London boroughs. Currently, legislation allows the Inner London boroughs to choose to produce definitive maps if they wish, in 2011 Lambeth Council passed a resolution to work towards creating a definitive map for their borough, but this does not yet exist. The City of London has produced a Public Access Map, in England and Wales a public footpath is a path on which the public have a legally protected right to travel on foot and in some areas public footpaths form a dense network of short paths. It is probable that most footpaths in the countryside are hundreds of years old, the majority of footpaths are shown on Ordnance Survey 1,25,000 and 1,50,000 maps. Local highways authorities are required to maintain the definitive map of all rights of way in their areas. If a path is shown on the map and no subsequent legal order exists then the right of way is conclusive in law. Just because a path is not shown on that map does not mean that it is not a public path, the Countryside Agency estimated that over 10% of public paths were not yet listed on the definitive map. The right of access on a public footpath normally only extends to walking, the highway right to use a right of way is restricted to passing and re-passing, associated activities, and the taking of usual accompaniments. Thus, the right to cycle exists even though it may be difficult to exercise on occasion, cyclists using a bridleway are obliged to give way to other users on foot or horseback. Definitive Map Modification Orders are needed to correct these errors, since the 2006 Regulations to the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 BOATs should more properly be referred to as byways. A road used as public path was one of the three types of right of way introduced by the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. This process was slow as it involved research into historic usage and often public enquiries and this reclassified all remaining RUPPs as restricted byways on 2 May 2006. On 2 May 2006 the Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006 reclassified all remaining Roads Used as Public Paths as restricted byways, some permissive footpaths and bridleways are shown on 1,25,000 and 1,50,000 scale Ordnance Survey maps. A permissive path is closed on a specified calendar day each year. The act of so closing or signing it ensures that any use of it does not count towards the 20 years use as of right needed to establish its public status. These are precautions to prevent it becoming designated as a right of way in relation to its permitted use. Under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 the public also has a right to walk away from rights of way on designated access land and this right is in addition to rights of way, and does not extend to horse-riders or cyclists
