1.
Computing
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Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating a mathematical sequence of steps known as an algorithm — e. g. through computers. The field of computing includes computer engineering, software engineering, computer science, information systems, the ACM Computing Curricula 2005 defined computing as follows, In a general way, we can define computing to mean any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computers. For example, an information systems specialist will view computing somewhat differently from a software engineer, regardless of the context, doing computing well can be complicated and difficult. Because society needs people to do computing well, we must think of computing not only as a profession, the fundamental question underlying all computing is What can be automated. The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating, in earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, but long before abstractions like the number arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts include one-to-one correspondence, comparison to a standard, the earliest known tool for use in computation was the abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon circa 2400 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles, abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known computer and most advanced system of calculation known to date - preceding Greek methods by 2,000 years. The first recorded idea of using electronics for computing was the 1931 paper The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena by C. E. Wynn-Williams. Claude Shannons 1938 paper A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations, a computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program. The program has a form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its source code form, enables a programmer to study. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, the execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer and they trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions, computer software or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software
2.
Hypertext
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Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress sequence or by touching the screen. Apart from text, the hypertext is also sometimes used to describe tables, images. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, as implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet. The English prefix hyper- comes from the Greek prefix ὑπερ- and means over or beyond and it signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. The term hypertext is often used where the term hypermedia might seem appropriate, instead they use the strange term interactive multimedia, this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. Hypertext documents can either be static or dynamic, static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus, links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the months of 1990. In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published The Garden of Forking Paths, in 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called As We May Think, about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, in 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content. He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System in 1967 at Brown University, in December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as The Mother of All Demos. The first hypermedia application is considered to be the Aspen Movie Map. The Movie Map allowed users to choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape. In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental hyperediting functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features, guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J. Brown at UKC in 1982. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J, in 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document, in August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention
3.
Anchor text
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The anchor text, link label, link text, or link title is the visible, clickable text in a hyperlink. The words contained in the text can determine the ranking that the page will receive by search engines. Since 1998, some web browsers have added the ability to show a tooltip for a hyperlink before it is selected, not all links have anchor texts because it may be obvious where the link will lead due to the context in which it is used. Anchor texts normally remain below 60 characters, different browsers will display anchor texts differently. Usually, web search engines analyze anchor text from hyperlinks on web pages, other services apply the basic principles of anchor text analysis as well. For instance, academic search engines may use citation context to classify academic articles, anchor text usually gives the user relevant descriptive or contextual information about the content of the links destination. The anchor text may or may not be related to the text of the URL of the link. This proper method of linking is beneficial to users and webmasters as anchor text holds significant weight in search engine rankings, the limit of the concept is building sentences only composed with linked words. Anchor text is weighted highly in search algorithms, because the linked text is usually relevant to the landing page. Anchor text can also serve the purpose of directing the user to internal pages on the site, webmasters may use anchor text to procure high results in search engine results pages. Googles Webmaster Tools facilitate this optimization by letting website owners view the most common words in anchor text linking to their site, moving forward, Google would be paying more attention to a diversified link profile which has a mix of anchor text and other types of links. However a 2016 study of anchor text influence across 16,000 keywords found that presence of exact and partial match anchor links continues to have a strong correlation with Google rankings. August 2016 study conducted by Moz, found that Exact and partial match domains can be affected by over optimization penalty since Google considers domain Brand, example, search engine optimization is an exact match anchor because its linking to a page about search engine optimization. Partial Match an anchor that is used with a keyword and a variation that mirrors the page that is being linked to, example, different search engine optimization techniques is a partial match anchor when its linking to a page about search engine optimization. Branded a brand that is used as the anchor, wikipedia is a branded anchor text. Naked Link a URL that is used as an anchor, www. wikipedia. com is a naked link anchor. Generic a generic word or phrase that is used as the anchor, click here is a generic anchor. Other variations may include go here, visit this website, etc, images whenever an image is linked, Google will use the ALT tag as the anchor text
4.
Wikipedia
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Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia that aims to allow anyone to edit articles. Wikipedia is the largest and most popular reference work on the Internet and is ranked among the ten most popular websites. Wikipedia is owned by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation, Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger. Sanger coined its name, a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia, There was only the English language version initially, but it quickly developed similar versions in other languages, which differ in content and in editing practices. With 5,377,348 articles, the English Wikipedia is the largest of the more than 290 Wikipedia encyclopedias, in 2005, Nature published a peer review comparing 42 science articles from Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia, and found that Wikipedias level of accuracy approached Encyclopædia Britannicas. Other collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before Wikipedia, but none were so successful, Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9,2000, under the ownership of Bomis and its main figures were Jimmy Wales, the CEO of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, while Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. On January 10,2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, as a single English-language edition at www. wikipedia. com, Wikipedias policy of neutral point-of-view was codified in its first months. Otherwise, there were few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. Originally, Bomis intended to make Wikipedia a business for profit, Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. By August 8,2001, Wikipedia had over 8,000 articles, on September 25,2001, Wikipedia had over 13,000 articles. By the end of 2001, it had grown to approximately 20,000 articles and 18 language editions and it had reached 26 language editions by late 2002,46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the final days of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the servers were taken down permanently in 2003. Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in Wikipedia and these moves encouraged Wales to announce that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and to change Wikipedias domain from wikipedia. com to wikipedia. org. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006, a team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the projects increasing exclusivity and resistance to change. Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called low-hanging fruit—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been created, the Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend
5.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
6.
Mechanism (engineering)
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A mechanism is a device designed to transform input forces and movement into a desired set of output forces and the movement. In this context, his use of machine is generally interpreted to mean mechanism, the combination of force and movement defines power, and a mechanism is designed to manage power in order to achieve a desired set of forces and movement. A mechanism is usually a piece of a process or mechanical system. Sometimes an entire machine may be referred to as a mechanism, examples are the steering mechanism in a car, or the winding mechanism of a wristwatch. From the time of Archimedes through the Renaissance, mechanisms were considered to be constructed from simple machines, such as the lever, pulley, screw, wheel and axle, wedge and inclined plane. It was Reuleaux who focussed on bodies, called links, in order to use geometry to study the movement of a mechanism, its links are modeled as rigid bodies. This means distances between points in a link are assumed to be unchanged as the moves, that is the link does not flex. Thus, the movement between points in two connected links is considered to result from the kinematic pair that joins them. A mechanism is modeled as an assembly of rigid links and kinematic pairs, Reuleaux called the ideal connections between links kinematic pairs. He distinguished between higher pairs which were said to have contact between the two links and lower pairs that have area contact between the links. J. Phillips shows that there are ways to construct pairs that do not fit this simple. Lower pair, A lower pair is a joint that has surface contact between the pair of elements. This imposes five constraints on the movement of the links. This imposes five constraints on the movement of the links. A cylindrical joint requires that a line in the body remain co-linear with a line in the fixed body. It is a combination of a joint and a sliding joint. This joint has two degrees of freedom, a spherical joint, or ball joint, requires that a point in the moving body maintain contact with a point in the fixed body. This joint has three degrees of freedom, a planar joint requires that a plane in the moving body maintain contact with a plane in fixed body
7.
Index (publishing)
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An index is a list of words or phrases and associated pointers to where useful material relating to that heading can be found in a document or collection of documents. Examples are an index in the matter of a book. The pointers are typically page numbers, paragraph numbers or section numbers, in a library catalog the words are authors, titles, subject headings, etc. and the pointers are call numbers. But according to G. Norman Knight, at that period, as often as not, among the first indexes – in the modern sense – to a book in the English language was one in Plutarchs Parallel Lives, in Sir Thomas Norths 1595 translation. A section entitled An Alphabetical Table of the most material contents of the book may be found in Henry Scobells Acts. This section comes after An index of the general titles comprised in the ensuing Table, both of these indexes predate the index to Alexander Crudens Concordance, which is erroneously held to be the earliest index found in an English book. The word is derived from Latin, in which means one who points out. In Latin, the form of the word is indices. However, this form is now seen as an archaism by many writers and commentators, the Chicago Manual of Style allows both forms. G. Norman Knight quotes Shakespeares lines from Troilus and Cressida – And in such indexes, – and comments, But the real importance of this passage is that it establishes for all time the correct literary plural, we can leave the Latin form indices to the mathematicians. The indexer reads through the text, identifying indexable concepts, the indexer creates index headings to represent those concepts, which are phrased such that they can be found when in alphabetical order. These headings and their associated locators are entered into specialist indexing software which handles the formatting of the index, the index is then edited to impose consistency throughout the index. Indexers must analyze the text to enable presentation of concepts and ideas in the index that may not be named within the text. In the United States, according to tradition, the index for a book is the responsibility of the author. Most indexing is done by freelancers hired by authors, publishers or an independent business which manages the production of a book, some publishers and database companies employ indexers. Commercial software packets are available for aiding an indexer in building a book index, there are several dedicated, indexing software programs available to assist with the special sorting and copying needs involved in index preparation. The most widely known include Cindex, Macrex and SkyIndex, tExtract is a hybrid semi-automatic program combining conventional manual indexing with automated indexing features and text linking. Embedded indexing involves including the index headings in the midst of the text itself, a usable index is then generated automatically from the embedded text using the position of the embedded headings to determine the locators
8.
Letter (message)
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A letter is a written message from one party to another containing information. Letters promote the preservation of communication between parties, they may bring friends or relatives closer together, enrich professional relationships and provide a means of self-expression. Letters contribute to the protection and conservation of literacy, Letters have been sent since antiquity and are mentioned in the Iliad. Works by both Herodotus and Thucydides also mention letters, historically, letters have existed from the time of ancient India, ancient Egypt and Sumer, through Rome, Greece and China, up to the present day. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century, letters were used to self-educate, Letters were a way to practice critical reading, self-expressive writing, polemical writing and also exchange ideas with like-minded others. For some people, letters were seen as a written performance, for others, it was not only seen as a performance but also as a way of communication and a method of gaining feedback. Letters make up several of the books of the Bible, archives of correspondence, whether for personal, diplomatic, or business reasons, serve as primary sources for historians. At certain times, the writing of letters has risen to be an art form, in the ancient world letters were written on a various different materials, including metal, lead, wax-coated wooden tablets, pottery fragments, animal skin, and papyrus. From Ovid, we learn that Acontius used an apple for his letter to Cydippe, as communication technology has diversified, posted letters have become less important as a routine form of communication. For example, the development of the telegraph drastically shortened the time taken to send a communication, at the telegraph office closest to the destination, the signal was converted back into writing on paper and delivered to the recipient. The next step was the telex which avoided the need for local delivery, then followed the fax machine, a letter could be transferred electrically from the sender to the receiver through the telephone network as an image. Due to the timelessness and universality of letter writing, there is a wealth of letters, the study of letter writing usually involves both the study of rhetoric and grammar. Despite email, letters are still popular, particularly in business, Letters have the following advantages over email, No special device is needed to receive a letter, just a postal address, and the letter can be read immediately on receipt. An advertising mailing can reach every address in a particular area, a letter provides immediate, and in principle permanent, physical record of communication, without the need for printing. A letter in the senders own handwriting is more personal than an email, if required, small physical objects can be enclosed in the envelope with the letter. Letters are unable to transmit malware or other files that can be transmitted by email. Letter writing leads to the mastery of the technique of good writing, letter writing can provide an extension of the face-to-face therapeutic encounter. Here is how a letter gets from the sender to the recipient, Sender writes letter, Sender ensures that the recipients address includes the Zip or Postal Code and often includes his/her return address on the envelope
9.
Glossary
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A glossary, also known as a vocabulary or clavis, is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. Traditionally, a glossary appears at the end of a book and includes terms within that book that are newly introduced, uncommon. While glossaries are most commonly associated with books, in some cases. A bilingual glossary is a list of terms in one language defined in a language or glossed by synonyms in another language. In a general sense, a glossary contains explanations of concepts relevant to a field of study or action. In this sense, the term is related to the notion of ontology, automatic methods have been also provided that transform a glossary into an ontology or a computational lexicon. A core glossary is a glossary or defining dictionary that enables definition of other concepts. It contains a working vocabulary and definitions for important or frequently encountered concepts. Computational approaches to the extraction of glossaries from corpora or the Web have been developed in the recent years. These methods typically start from domain terminology and extract one or more glosses for each term of interest, glosses can then be analyzed to extract hypernyms of the defined term and other lexical and semantic relations
10.
HTML element
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An HTML element is an individual component of an HTML document or web page, once this has been parsed into the Document Object Model. HTML is composed of a tree of HTML nodes, such as text nodes, each node can have HTML attributes specified. Nodes can also have content, including nodes and text. Many HTML nodes represent semantics, or meaning, for example, the title node represents the title of the document. HTML documents are delivered as documents and these are then parsed, which turns them into the Document Object Model internal representation, within the web browser. Presentation by the web browser, such as screen rendering or access by JavaScript, is performed on this internal model. Early HTML documents, and to an extent today, were largely invalid HTML. The parsing process was required to fix-up these errors, as best it could. The resultant model was not correct, but it would at least be valid. A valid model was produced, no matter how bad the tag soup supplied had been, only in the rarest cases would the parser abandon parsing altogether. Elements and tags are terms that are widely confused, HTML documents contain tags, but do not contain the elements. The elements are generated after the parsing step, from these tags. As is generally understood, the position of an element is indicated as spanning from a tag, possibly including some child content. This is the case for many, but not all, elements within an HTML document, as HTML is based on SGML, its parsing also depends on the use of a DTD, specifically an HTML DTD such as that for HTML4.01. The DTD specifies which element types are possible and it specifies the valid combinations in which they may appear in a document. It is part of general SGML behaviour that where only one structure is possible. As a simple example, the <p> start tag indicating the start of a paragraph element should be closed by an end tag. Also the DTD states that paragraph elements cannot be nested, SGML is complex, which has limited its widespread adoption and understanding
11.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
12.
Transclusion
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In computer science, transclusion is the inclusion of part or all of an electronic document into one or more other documents by hypertext reference. Transclusion is usually performed when the document is displayed, and is normally automatic. The result of transclusion is a single integrated document made of parts assembled on the fly from separate sources, Transclusion facilitates modular design, a resource is stored once and distributed for reuse in multiple documents. Updates or corrections to a resource are then reflected in any referencing documents, Ted Nelson coined the term for his 1980 nonlinear book Literary Machines. Transclusion works better when transcluded sections of text are self-contained, so that the meaning, for example, formulations like as explained in the previous section are problematic, because the transcluded section may appear in a different context, causing confusion. What constitutes context neutral text varies, but often includes things like company information or boilerplate, parameterization implies the ability to modify certain portions or subsections of a transcluded text depending on exogenous variables that can be changed independently. This is customarily done by supplying a transcluded text with one or more substitution placeholders and these placeholders are then replaced with the corresponding variable values prior to rendering the final transcluded output in context. Ted Nelson, who originated the words hypertext and hypermedia. Part of his proposal was the idea that micropayments could be automatically exacted from the reader for all the text, however, according to Nelson, the concept of transclusion had already formed part of his 1965 description of hypertext. Some hypertext systems, including Ted Nelsons own Xanadu Project, support transclusion, Nelson has delivered a demonstration of Web transclusion, the Little Transquoter. It creates a new format built on portion addresses from Web pages, HTTP, as a transmission protocol, has rudimentary support for transclusion via byte serving, specifying a byte range in an HTTP request message. Transclusion can occur either before or after transmission, for example, An HTML document may be pre-composed by the server before delivery to the client using Server-Side Includes or another server-side application. XML Entities or HTML Objects may be parsed by the client, a web browser may cache elements using its own algorithms, which can operate without explicit directives in the documents markup. AngularJS employs transclusion for nested directive operation, publishers of web content may object to the transclusion of material from their own web sites into other web sites, or they may require an agreement to do so. Critics of the practice may refer to forms of inline linking as bandwidth theft or leeching. Other publishers may seek specifically to have their materials transcluded into other web sites, as in the form of web advertising, HTML defines elements for client-side transclusion of images, scripts, stylesheets, other documents, and other types of media. HTML has relied heavily on client-side transclusion from the earliest days of the Web, such scripts may transclude elements or documents from a server after the web browser has rendered the page, in response to user input or changing conditions, for example. Future versions of HTML may support deeper transclusion of portions of documents using XML technologies such as entities, XPointer document referencing, an interesting use of Transclusion is found in the single-page application TiddlyWiki, http, //tiddlywiki. com/#Transclusion
13.
Web crawler
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A Web crawler, sometimes called a spider, is an Internet bot that systematically browses the World Wide Web, typically for the purpose of Web indexing. Web search engines and some sites use Web crawling or spidering software to update their web content or indices of others sites web content. Web crawlers can copy all the pages they visit for later processing by an engine which indexes the downloaded pages so the users can search much more efficiently. Crawlers consume resources on the systems they visit and often visit sites without approval, issues of schedule, load, and politeness come into play when large collections of pages are accessed. Mechanisms exist for public sites not wishing to be crawled to make known to the crawling agent. For instance, including a robots. txt file can request bots to index only parts of a website, as the number of pages on the internet is extremely large, even the largest crawlers fall short of making a complete index. For that reason search engines were bad at giving relevant search results in the years of the World Wide Web. This is improved greatly by modern engines, nowadays very good results are given instantly. Crawlers can validate hyperlinks and HTML code and they can also be used for web scraping. A Web crawler may also be called a Web spider, an ant, a Web crawler starts with a list of URLs to visit, called the seeds. As the crawler visits these URLs, it all the hyperlinks in the page and adds them to the list of URLs to visit. URLs from the frontier are recursively visited according to a set of policies, if the crawler is performing archiving of websites it copies and saves the information as it goes. The archives are stored in such a way they can be viewed, read and navigated as they were on the live web. The archive is known as the repository and is designed to store, the repository only stores HTML pages and these pages are stored as distinct files. A repository is similar to any system that stores data. The only difference is that a repository does not need all the functionality offered by a database system, the repository stores the most recent version of the web page retrieved by the crawler. The large volume implies the crawler can only download a limited number of the Web pages within a given time, the high rate of change can imply the pages might have already been updated or even deleted. The number of possible URLs crawled being generated by server-side software has made it difficult for web crawlers to avoid retrieving duplicate content
14.
Thumbnail
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Thumbnails are reduced-size versions of pictures or videos, used to help in recognizing and organizing them, serving the same role for images as a normal text index does for words. Some web designers produce thumbnails with HTML or client-side scripting that makes the users browser shrink the picture and this results in no saved bandwidth, and the visual quality of browser resizing is usually less than ideal. Displaying a significant part of the picture instead of the frame can allow the use of a smaller thumbnail while maintaining recognizability. For example, when thumbnailing a full-body portrait of a person, however, this may mislead the viewer about what the image contains, so is more suited to artistic presentations than searching or catalogue browsing. In 2002, the court in the US case Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation ruled that it was use for Internet search engines to use thumbnail images to help web users find what they seek. The word thumbnail is a reference to the thumbnail and alludes towards the small size of the image or picture. The word was then used figuratively, in noun and adjective form, to refer to anything small or concise, such as a biographical essay. The use of the thumbnail in the specific context of computer images as a small graphical representation, as of a larger graphic. The Denver Public Library Digitization and Cataloguing Program produces thumbnails that are 160 pixels in the long dimension, the California Digital Library Guidelines for Digital Images recommend 150-200 pixels for each dimension. Picture Australia requires thumbnails to be 150 pixels in the long dimension, the International Dunhuang Project Standards for Digitization and Image Management specifies a height of 96 pixels at 72 ppi. DeviantArt automatically produces thumbnails that are maximum 150 pixels in the long dimension, flickr automatically produces thumbnails that are a maximum 240 pixels in the long dimension, or smaller 75×75 pixels. It also applies unsharp mask to them, picasa automatically produces thumbnails that are a maximum 144 pixels in the long dimension, or 160×160 pixels album thumbnails. The term vignette is sometimes used to describe an image that is smaller than the original, larger than a thumbnail, thumbnail sketches are similar to doodles, but may include as much detail as a small sketch. Image organizer Contact print, a cognate of the thumbnail Thumbshots
15.
Image resolution
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Image resolution is the detail an image holds. The term applies to digital images, film images. Higher resolution means more image detail, image resolution can be measured in various ways. Resolution quantifies how close lines can be to other and still be visibly resolved. Resolution units can be tied to physical sizes, to the size of a picture. Line pairs are used instead of lines, a line pair comprises a dark line. A line is either a line or a light line. A resolution of 10 lines per millimeter means 5 dark lines alternating with 5 light lines, photographic lens and film resolution are most often quoted in line pairs per millimeter. The resolution of digital cameras can be described in different ways. Resolution is the capability of the sensor to observe or measure the smallest object clearly with distinct boundaries, there is a difference between the resolution and a pixel. A pixel is actually a unit of the digital Resolution depends upon the size of the pixel, usually, with any given lens setting, the smaller the size of the pixel, the higher the resolution will be and the clearer the object in the image will be. Images having smaller pixel sizes might consist of more pixels, the number of pixels correlates to the amount of information within the image. An image of N pixels height by M pixels wide can have any less than N lines per picture height. Other conventions include describing pixels per unit or pixels per area unit. None of these pixel resolutions are true resolutions, but they are referred to as such. Below is an illustration of how the image might appear at different pixel resolutions. An image that is 2048 pixels in width and 1536 pixels in height has a total of 2048×1536 =3,145,728 pixels or 3.1 megapixels, one could refer to it as 2048 by 1536 or a 3. 1-megapixel image. Or, you can think of it as a low quality image if printed at about 28.5 inches wide
16.
Cropping (image)
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Cropping is the removal of the outer parts of an image to improve framing, accentuate subject matter or change aspect ratio. Depending on the application, this may be performed on a photograph, artwork or film footage. The practice is common to the film, broadcasting, photographic, graphic design, in the printing, graphic design and photography industries, cropping is the removal of unwanted areas from a photographic or illustrated image. It is considered one of the few editing actions permissible in modern photojournalism along with balance, colour correction. A crop made from the top and bottom of a photograph may produce an aspect which mimics the panoramic format, both of these formats are not cropped as such, rather the product of highly specialised optical configuration and camera design. Aspect ratio concerns are an issue in film making. Rather than cropping, the cinematographer traditionally uses mattes to increase the latitude for alternative aspect ratios in projection and broadcast. This process has become standard in the United Kingdom, in TV shows where many archive clips are used, which gives them a zoomed-in, cramped image with significantly reduced resolution. Another option is a process called pillarboxing, where bands are placed down the sides of the screen. See this article for a description of the problem. Typical cropping in cinematographic and broadcast applications Various methods may be used following cropping or may be used on the original image, however, using texture synthesis, it is possible to artificially add a band around an image, synthetically uncropping it. An uncrop plug-in exists for the GIMP image editor
17.
Magnification
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Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in appearance, not in physical size. This enlargement is quantified by a number also called magnification. When this number is less one, it refers to a reduction in size. Typically, magnification is related to scaling up visuals or images to be able to see detail, increasing resolution, using microscope, printing techniques. In all cases, the magnification of the image does not change the perspective of the image, some optical instruments provide visual aid by magnifying small or distant subjects. A magnifying glass, which uses a lens to make things look bigger by allowing the user to hold them closer to their eye. A microscope, which makes an object appear as a much larger image at a comfortable distance for viewing. A microscope is similar in layout to a telescope except that the object being viewed is close to the objective, a slide projector, which projects a large image of a small slide on a screen. Optical magnification is the ratio between the apparent size of an object and its size, and thus it is a dimensionless number. Optical magnification is sometimes referred to as power, although this can lead to confusion with optical power, for real images, such as images projected on a screen, size means a linear dimension. For optical instruments with an eyepiece, the dimension of the image seen in the eyepiece cannot be given. Strictly speaking, one should take the tangent of that angle, example, The angular size of the full moon is 0. 5°. In binoculars with 10x magnification it appears to subtend an angle of 5°, the linear magnification of a thin lens is where f is the focal length and d o is the distance from the lens to the object. Note that for real images, M is negative and the image is inverted, for virtual images, M is positive and the image is upright. The image recorded by a film or image sensor is always a real image and is usually inverted. When measuring the height of an image using the cartesian sign convention the value for hi will be negative. However, the sign convention used in photography is real is positive. Therefore in photography, Object height and distance are always real, when the focal length is positive the images height, distance and magnification are real and positive
18.
Desktop publishing
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Desktop publishing is the creation of documents using page layout skills on a personal computer primarily for print. Desktop publishing software can generate layouts and produce typographic quality text and images comparable to traditional typography and this technology allows individuals, businesses, and other organizations to self-publish a wide range of printed matter. Desktop publishing is also the reference for digital typography. When used skillfully, desktop publishing allows the user to produce a variety of materials, from menus to magazines and books. Desktop publishing methods provide more control over design, layout, however, word processing software has evolved to include some, though by no means all, capabilities previously available only with professional printing or desktop publishing. Although what is classified as DTP software is usually limited to print and PDF publications, the content produced by desktop publishers may also be exported and used for electronic media. Desktop publishing began in 1983 with a developed by James Davise at a community newspaper in Philadelphia. The program Type Processor One ran on a PC using a card for a WYSIWYG display and was offered commercially by Best info in 1984. Later on, Adobe PageMaker overtook Microsoft Word in professional DTP in 1985, before the advent of desktop publishing, the only option available to most people for producing typed documents was a typewriter, which offered only a handful of typefaces and one or two font sizes. Indeed, one popular desktop publishing book was entitled The Mac is not a typewriter, newspapers and other print publications made the move to DTP-based programs from older layout systems such as Atex and other programs in the early 1980s. By the standards of the 2010s, early 1980s desktop publishing was a primitive affair, however, it was a revolutionary combination at the time, and was received with considerable acclaim. Behind-the-scenes technologies developed by Adobe Systems set the foundation for professional desktop publishing applications, the LaserWriter and LaserWriter Plus printers included high quality, scalable Adobe PostScript fonts built into their ROM memory. Macintosh-based systems continued to dominate the market into 1986, when the GEM-based Ventura Publisher was introduced for MS-DOS computers and this made it suitable for manuals and other long-format documents. Software was published even for 8-bit computers like the Apple II and Commodore 64, Home Publisher, The Newsroom, however, some desktop publishers who mastered the programs were able to realize truly professional results. DTP skill levels range from what may be learned in a few hours to what requires a college education, the discipline of DTP skills range from technical skills such as prepress production and programming to creative skills such as communication design and graphic image development. There are two types of pages in desktop publishing, electronic pages and virtual paper pages to be printed on physical paper pages, all computerized documents are technically electronic, which are limited in size only by computer memory or computer data storage space. Some desktop publishing programs allow custom sizes designated for large format printing used in posters, billboards, a virtual page for printing has a predesignated size of virtual printing material and can be viewed on a monitor in WYSIWYG format. Each page for printing has trim sizes and an area if bleed printing is not possible as is the case with most desktop printers
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Page layout
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Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement of visual elements on a page. It generally involves organizational principles of composition to achieve specific communication objectives, the high-level page layout involves deciding on the overall arrangement of text and images, and possibly on the size or shape of the medium. It requires intelligence, sentience, and creativity, and is informed by culture, psychology, low-level pagination and typesetting are more mechanical processes. Given certain parameters - boundaries of areas, the typeface, font size. Until desktop publishing became dominant, these processes were still done by people, the result might be published as-is or might be tweaked by a graphic designer. With manuscripts, all of the elements are added by hand, so the creator can determine the layout directly as they create the work, any images would be created by engraving. This process is called imposition, and potentially includes arranging multiple pages to be printed on the sheet of paper which will later be folded. An imposition proof might be created to check the final placement, the invention of hot metal typesetting in 1884 sped up the typesetting process by allowing workers to produce slugs - entire lines of text - using a keyboard. The slugs were the result of metal being poured into molds temporarily assembled by the typesetting machine. The layout process remained the same as with metal type. Offset lithography allows the bright and dark areas of an image to control ink placement on the printing press and this means that if a single copy of the page can be created on paper and photographed, then any number of copies could be printed. Type could be set with a typewriter, or to achieve results comparable to letterpress. The IBM Selectric Composer, for example, could produce type of different size, different fonts, with photoengraving and halftone, physical photographs could be transferred into print directly, rather than relying on hand-made engravings. Completed pages become known as camera-ready, mechanicals or mechanical art and these machines became increasingly sophisticated, with computer-driven models able to store text on magnetic tape. In addition to being used as devices for computer operators. Printers attached directly to computers allowed them to print documents directly, early dot matrix printing was sufficient for office documents, but was of too low a quality for professional typesetting. Inkjet printing and laser printing did produce sufficient quality type, with modern desktop publishing software such as flagship software Adobe Indesign and cloud-based Lucidpress, the layout process can occur entirely on-screen. A finished document can be printed as the camera-ready version
20.
Image map
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In HTML and XHTML, an image map is a list of coordinates relating to a specific image, created in order to hyperlink areas of the image to different destinations. For example, a map of the world may have each country hyperlinked to further information about that country, the intention of an image map is to provide an easy way of linking various parts of an image without dividing the image into separate image files. Server-side image maps were first supported in Mosaic version 1.1, server-side image maps enable the web browser to send positional information to the server about where the user clicks within an image. This allows the server to make decisions about what content to return in response. Elements can be rectangles, polygons or circles, every pair has an X and a Y value and is separated with a comma. When a user clicks anywhere inside this area, they are taken to the English Wikipedias home page, a more modern approach is to overlay links on an image using CSS absolute positioning, however, this only supports rectangular clickable areas. This CSS technique may be suitable for making an image map work properly on iPhones, as a result, most image maps coded by hand are simple polygons. Examples of these applications are Adobes Dreamweaver or KImageMapEditor, and the imagemap plugin found in GIMP, Image maps which do not make their clickable areas obvious risk subjecting the user to mystery meat navigation. Even when they do, where they lead may not be obvious and this can be partially remedied with rollover effects. CSS Image Map Techniques and Tutorials Tutorial Design Reviver
21.
Politics of Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
22.
Skin (computing)
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As such, a skin can completely change the look and feel and navigation interface of a piece of application software or operating system. Software that is capable of having a skin applied is referred to as being skinnable, and the process of writing or applying such a skin is known as skinning. The most popular skins are for instant messaging clients, media center, some platforms support changing the standard interface, including most using the X Window System. For those that do not, programs can add the functionality, like WindowBlinds for Microsoft Windows and this allows the user to select or design a different skin at will, and also allows for more deep changes in the position and function of the interface elements. The benefit of skinning in user interfaces is disputed, while some find it useful or pleasant to be able to change the appearance of software, a changed appearance can complicate technical support and training. A user interface that has been customized by one person may appear completely unfamiliar to another who knows the software under a different appearance. Some usability practitioners feel that this flexibility requires interaction design expertise that users might not have, many websites are skinnable, particularly those that provide social capabilities. Some sites provide skins that make primarily cosmetic changes, while some—such as H2G2—offer skins that make changes to page layout. Theme Computer wallpaper Look and feel User interface engineering Industrial design Windows Aero Windows XP visual styles
23.
Tim Berners-Lee
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Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee OM KBE FRS FREng FRSA FBCS, also known as TimBL, is an English computer scientist, best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the development of the Web. He is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation and is a researcher and holder of the founders chair at the MIT Computer Science. He is a director of the Web Science Research Initiative, in 2011, he was named as a member of the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation. In 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, in April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Named in Time magazines list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and he tweeted This is for everyone, which instantly was spelled out in LCD lights attached to the chairs of the 80,000 people in the audience. Berners-Lee was born in London, England, United Kingdom, one of four born to Mary Lee Woods. His parents worked on the first commercially built computer, the Ferranti Mark 1, a keen trainspotter as a child, he learnt about electronics from tinkering with a model railway. He studied at The Queens College, Oxford, from 1973 to 1976, after graduation, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at the telecommunications company Plessey in Poole, Dorset. In 1978, he joined D. G. Nash in Ferndown, Dorset, Berners-Lee worked as an independent contractor at CERN from June to December 1980. While in Geneva, he proposed a project based on the concept of hypertext, to demonstrate it, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE. After leaving CERN in late 1980, he went to work at John Pooles Image Computer Systems, Ltd, in Bournemouth and he ran the companys technical side for three years. The project he worked on was a remote procedure call which gave him experience in computer networking. In 1984, he returned to CERN as a fellow and it then was accepted by his manager, Mike Sendall. He used similar ideas to those underlying the ENQUIRE system to create the World Wide Web, for which he designed and his software also functioned as an editor, and the first Web server, CERN HTTPd. The first web site was built at CERN, despite this being an international organisation hosted by Switzerland, the office that Berners-Lee used was just across the border in France. It was put online on 6 August 1991 for the first time, It provided an explanation of what the World Wide Web was and we can connect with each other instantly, all over the world. In 1994, Berners-Lee founded the W3C at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web
24.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
25.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
26.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
27.
Graph (discrete mathematics)
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In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a graph is a structure amounting to a set of objects in which some pairs of the objects are in some sense related. The objects correspond to mathematical abstractions called vertices and each of the pairs of vertices is called an edge. Typically, a graph is depicted in form as a set of dots for the vertices. Graphs are one of the objects of study in discrete mathematics, the edges may be directed or undirected. In contrast, if any edge from a person A to a person B corresponds to As admiring B, then this graph is directed, because admiration is not necessarily reciprocated. The former type of graph is called a graph and the edges are called undirected edges while the latter type of graph is called a directed graph. Graphs are the subject studied by graph theory. The word graph was first used in this sense by J. J. Sylvester in 1878, the following are some of the more basic ways of defining graphs and related mathematical structures. In one very common sense of the term, a graph is an ordered pair G = comprising a set V of vertices, nodes or points together with a set E of edges, arcs or lines, which are 2-element subsets of V. To avoid ambiguity, this type of graph may be described precisely as undirected, other senses of graph stem from different conceptions of the edge set. In one more general conception, E is a set together with a relation of incidence that associates with each two vertices. In another generalized notion, E is a multiset of unordered pairs of vertices, many authors call these types of object multigraphs or pseudographs. All of these variants and others are described more fully below, the vertices belonging to an edge are called the ends or end vertices of the edge. A vertex may exist in a graph and not belong to an edge, V and E are usually taken to be finite, and many of the well-known results are not true for infinite graphs because many of the arguments fail in the infinite case. Moreover, V is often assumed to be non-empty, but E is allowed to be the empty set, the order of a graph is |V|, its number of vertices. The size of a graph is |E|, its number of edges, the degree or valency of a vertex is the number of edges that connect to it, where an edge that connects to the vertex at both ends is counted twice. For an edge, graph theorists usually use the shorter notation xy. As stated above, in different contexts it may be useful to refine the term graph with different degrees of generality, whenever it is necessary to draw a strict distinction, the following terms are used
28.
Web page
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A web page is a document that is suitable for the World Wide Web and web browsers. A web browser displays a web page on a monitor or mobile device, the web page is what displays, but the term also refers to a computer file, usually written in HTML or comparable markup language. Web browsers coordinate the various web resource elements for the web page, such as style sheets, scripts. Typical web pages provide hypertext that includes a bar or a sidebar menu to other web pages via hyperlinks. On a network, a web browser can retrieve a web page from a web server. On a higher level, the web server may restrict access to only a network such as a corporate intranet or it provides access to the World Wide Web. On a lower level, the web browser uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol to make such requests, dynamic website pages help the browser to enhance the web page through user input to the server. Web pages usually include information as to the colors of text and backgrounds, an HTTP1.1 web server will maintain a connection with the browser until all related resources have been requested and provided. Web browsers usually render images along with the text and other material on the web page. These scripts may run on the client computer, if the user allows, a web browser can have a Graphical User Interface, like Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Opera, or can be text-based, like Lynx or Links. Web users with disabilities often use assistive technologies and adaptive strategies to access web pages, disabled and able-bodied users may disable the download and viewing of images and other media, to save time, network bandwidth or merely to simplify their browsing experience. Users of mobile devices often have restricted displays and bandwidth, anyone may prefer not to use the fonts, font sizes, styles and color schemes selected by the web page designer and may apply their own CSS styling to the page. The World Wide Web Consortium and Web Accessibility Initiative recommend that all web pages should be designed with all of options in mind. Non-textual information, Static images may be raster graphics, typically GIF, JPEG or PNG, Animated images typically Animated GIF and SVG, but also may be Flash, Shockwave, or Java applet. Audio, typically MP3, Ogg or various proprietary formats, video, WMV, RM, FLV, MPG, MOV Interactive information, see interactive media. For on page interaction, Interactive text, see DHTML, Interactive illustrations, ranging from click to play images to games, typically using script orchestration, Flash, Java applets, SVG, or Shockwave. Buttons, forms providing an interface, typically for use with script orchestration. For between pages interaction, Hyperlinks, standard change page reactivity, forms, providing more interaction with the server and server-side databases
29.
MediaWiki
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MediaWiki is free and open-source wiki software. Originally developed by Magnus Manske and improved by Lee Daniel Crocker, it runs on many websites, including Wikipedia, Wiktionary and it is written in the PHP programming language and stores the contents into a database. Like WordPress, which is based on a licensing and architecture. The first version of the software was deployed to serve the needs of the Wikipedia encyclopedia in 2002, Wikipedia and other Wikimedia projects continue to define a large part of the requirement set for MediaWiki. The software is optimized to handle large projects, which can have terabytes of content. Because Wikipedia is one of the worlds largest websites, achieving scalability through multiple layers of caching, the software has more than 900 configuration settings and more than 2,200 extensions available for enabling various features to be added or changed. On Wikipedia alone, more than 1000 automated and semi-automated bots and this was done to eliminate legal issues arising from the help pages being imported into wikis with licenses that are incompatible with the Creative Commons license. MediaWiki development has generally favored the use of media formats. MediaWiki has a volunteer community for development and maintenance. There is also a group of paid programmers who primarily develop projects for the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikimedia participates in the Google Summer of Code by facilitating the assignment of mentors to students wishing to work on MediaWiki core, as of early November 2012, there were about two hundred developers who had committed changes to the MediaWiki core or extensions within the past year. MediaWiki also has a bug tracker, phabricator. wikimedia. org. The site is used for feature and enhancement requests. When Wikipedia was first launched in January 2001, it ran on the wiki software UseModWiki. This software soon proved limiting, both in its functionality and its performance and this software was written in PHP and stored all its information in a MySQL database. It launched on the English Wikipedia in January 2002, and was deployed on all the Wikipedia language sites of that time. This software was referred to as the PHP script and as phase II, increasing usage soon caused load problems again, and soon afterward, another rewrite of the software began, done by Lee Daniel Crocker, which was first known as phase III. This new software was written in PHP with a MySQL backend, and kept the basic interface of the phase II software
30.
Wiki
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A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
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Ward Cunningham
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Howard G. Ward Cunningham is an American computer programmer who developed the first wiki. He currently lives in Beaverton, Oregon, and is a programmer at New Relic, previously he was the Co-Creation Czar for CitizenGlobal. He is Nikes first Code for a Better World Fellow and he has authored a book about wikis, titled The Wiki Way, and also invented Framework for Integrated Tests. He was a speaker at the first three instances of the WikiSym conference series on wiki research and practice as well as a keynote speaker at the Wikimedia Developer Summit 2017. Cunningham was born in Michigan City, Indiana and he received his Bachelors degree in interdisciplinary engineering and his masters degree in computer science from Purdue University, graduating in 1978. He is a founder of Cunningham & Cunningham, Inc and he has also served as Director of R&D at Wyatt Software and as Principal Engineer in the Tektronix Computer Research Laboratory. He is founder of The Hillside Group and has served as chair of the Pattern Languages of Programming conference which it sponsors. Cunningham was part of the Smalltalk community, from December 2003 until October 2005, he worked for Microsoft Corporation in the patterns & practices group. From October 2005 to May 2007, he held the position of Director of Committer Community Development at the Eclipse Foundation, in May 2009, Cunningham joined AboutUs as its chief technology officer. He remains an adviser with AboutUs, as of 2014, Cunningham resides in Portland, Oregon. Howard G. Ward holds a Federal Communications Commission issued Amateur Radio Extra Class license, wards call sign is Kilo Nine Oscar X-ray, K9OX. Cunningham is well known for a few widely disseminated ideas which he originated and developed, the most famous among these are the wiki and many ideas in the field of software design patterns, initiated by the Gang of Four. He owns the company Cunningham & Cunningham Inc. a consultancy that has specialized in object-oriented programming and he also created the site WikiWikiWeb, the first internet wiki. Cunningham is interested in tracking the number and location of wiki page edits as a sociological experiment, there are those who give and those who take. You can tell by reading what they write, according to Steven McGeady, Cunningham advised him in the early 1980s, The best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question, its to post the wrong answer. Although Cunningham was referring to interactions on Usenet, the law has used to describe how Wikipedia works. In 2011, Cunningham created Smallest Federated Wiki, a tool for wiki federation, Ward Cunningham has contributed to the practice of object-oriented programming, in particular the use of pattern languages and the class-responsibility-collaboration cards. He also contributes to the programming software development methodology
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Wiki software
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Wiki software is a collaborative software that runs a wiki, which allows users to create and collaboratively edit pages or entries via a web browser. A wiki system is usually a web application that runs on one or more web servers, the content, including all current and previous revisions, is usually stored in either a file system or a database. Wikis are a type of web content management system, and the most commonly supported off-the-shelf software that web hosting facilities offer, There are currently dozens of actively maintained wiki engines, in a variety of programming languages, including both open source and proprietary applications. These vary widely in their support, their support for natural language characters and conventions. The first generally recognized wiki application, WikiWikiWeb, was created by American computer programmer Ward Cunningham in 1994, the WikiWikiWeb software was later renamed WikiBase. Wiki software originated from older version control systems used for documentation, by the mid-1990s these generally had web browser interfaces. However, they lacked the ability to create links between internal pages without writing HTML code. For WikiWikiWeb, the CamelCase naming convention was used to indicate internal links, by the time MediaWiki appeared, this convention had been largely abandoned in favor of explicitly marking links in edited source code with double square brackets. Page names thus did not interrupt the flow of English and could follow standard English capitalization convention and this proved to be the critical change that allowed ordinary authors of English to write wiki pages, and non-technical users to read them. This policy was extended to natural languages, avoiding the use of unusual-looking text or awkward capitalization that violates the languages own rules. Over the next 10 years, many more applications were written. After 2005, there began to be a move toward increasing consolidation and standardization, many less-popular wiki applications were gradually abandoned, relatively few of the wiki engines currently in use were created after 2006. Wiki functionality has also added to existing content management systems. In general new wiki engines have not followed the data formats of the existing engines, as a rule newer wiki projects have not succeeded in attracting large numbers of users from the existing wiki software base. Only one data format has ever been implemented in more than one wiki, that being MediaWikis, WordPress has extensions to display and edit MediaWiki-format pages, jamwiki is a MediaWiki clone in Java, that supports MediaWiki-format pages but not extensions. Other commercial projects or clones often follow the MediaWiki format, blueSpice for MediaWiki is the only such software with a free version available. None of these support the extensions available under standard MediaWiki. Public wikis are wikis that can be read by anyone, usually, other wiki engines used regularly for public wikis include MoinMoin and PmWiki, along with many others
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WikiWikiWeb
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The WikiWikiWeb is the first ever wiki, or user-editable website. It was launched on 25 March 1995 by its inventor, programmer Ward Cunningham, the name WikiWikiWeb originally also applied to the wiki software that operated the website, written in the Perl programming language and later renamed to WikiBase. The software and website were developed in 1994 by Cunningham in order to make the exchange of ideas between programmers easier, the concept was based on the ideas developed in HyperCard stacks that Cunningham built in the late 1980s. On March 25,1995, he installed the software on his companys website, Wiki Wiki is a reduplication of wiki, a Hawaiian language word for Quick. Cunninghams idea was to make WikiWikiWebs pages quickly editable by its users, so he thought about calling it QuickWeb. This convention of wiki markup formatting is still followed by more recent wiki software, whereas others, such as the MediaWiki software that powers Wikipedia. In December 2014, WikiWikiWeb came under the attack of vandals, on February 1,2015 Cunningham announced that the Wiki had been rewritten and migrated to the new Federated Wiki. Another use of the wiki wiki
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Camel case
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Camel case is the practice of writing compound words or phrases such that each word or abbreviation in the middle of the phrase begins with a capital letter, with no intervening spaces or punctuation. Common examples include iPhone, eBay, FedEx, and HarperCollins and it is also sometimes used in online usernames such as JohnSmith, and to make multi-word domain names more legible, for example in advertisements. As the first letter of a word in camel case may or may not be capitalized. For clarity, this article calls the two alternatives upper camel case and lower camel case, some people and organizations, notably Microsoft, use the term camel case only for lower camel case. Camel case is distinct from title case, which is used for book titles and headlines. Camel case is distinct from Tall Man lettering, which uses capitals to emphasize the differences between similar-looking words. The name CamelCase is not related to the Camel Book, the nickname of the book Programming Perl. The original name of the practice, used in studies, grammars. Other names such as InterCaps or CamelCase are relatively recent and more common in computer-related communities, other synonyms include, StudlyCaps encompasses both styles of camel case, but includes even randomly mixed capitalization, as in MiXeD CaPitALiZaTioN. The earliest known occurrence of the term InterCaps on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt. folklore. computers by Avi Rappoport, the earliest use of the name CamelCase occurs in 1995, in a post by Newton Love. Love has since said, With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, I had been calling it CamelCase for years. The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET, in Italian, pronouns can be suffixed to verbs, and because the honorific form of second-person pronouns is capitalized, this can produce a sentence like non ho trovato il tempo di risponderLe. In German, the capital letter I, called Binnen-I, is sometimes used in a word like StudentInnen to indicate that both Studenten and Studentinnen are intended simultaneously. However, mid-word capitalisation does not conform to German orthography, the previous example could be correctly written using parentheses as Studenten, analogous to congressman in English. In Irish, they are used when a prefix is attached to a proper noun, for example i nGaillimh, from Gaillimh, an tAlbanach, from Albanach. In recent Scots Gaelic orthography, a hyphen has been inserted and this convention is also used by several Bantu languages and several indigenous languages of Mexico. However, they described the system as too contrary to use at present. In the scholarly transliteration of languages written in scripts, medial capitals are used in similar situations
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TiddlyWiki
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TiddlyWiki is an open-source single page application wiki in the form of a single HTML file that includes CSS, JavaScript, and the content. It is designed to be easy to customize and re-shape depending on application and it facilitates re-use of content by dividing it into small pieces called Tiddlers. TiddlyWiki introduces the division of content into its smallest, semantically meaningful, components, each tiddler is stored inside an HTML division that contains the source text and meta data in wiki markup. The purpose with this division is to enable easy re-use of content for different narratives, for example, the section youre currently reading could be a tiddler. In the TiddlyWiki user interface it would appear as it appears here, the underlying HTML source code would be something like, This same tiddler could then be reused in other contexts in the wiki. In addition to containing text, a tiddler can be a plugin with additional JavaScript, as a result, TiddlyWiki is used in a wide variety of adaptations and uses beyond that of a personal wiki. One example is for interactive graph visualization or mind-maps with the plugin TiddlyMap and that functionality was removed from Firefox, and is now replaced with a plugin called TiddlyFox. The Microsoft ActiveX FileSystemObject for Internet Explorer TiddlySaver Java applet to extend Safari, Opera, Chrome/Chromium, TiddlyWiki is designed for customization and to be shaped according to users specific needs, perhaps comparable to a high-end programming language. As such, it can be shaped into a wide and arbitrary range of special applications, examples include niche note taking applications, to-do lists, presentations, collections, authoring tools, personal databases, recipe collections, etc. TiddlyWiki has been used as a Software framework to build specialisations, socialText uses TiddlyWiki as a part of their unplugged feature. The first version of TiddlyWiki was released by Jeremy Ruston in September 2004, BT Group bought Osmosoft in 2007 appointing Ruston as BTs Head of Open Source Innovation. TiddlyWiki was selected as one of the Top 100 Tools for 2007 and 2008 by the Centre for Learning & Performance Technologies, in November 2011, Jeremy Ruston announced his departure from Osmosoft and commitment to continue development on TiddlyWiki. In December 2013 TiddlyWiki5 was released and it is a total rebuild of the original TiddlyWiki, based on HTML5 and with many significant improvements from lessons learnt over the years with the original TiddlyWiki. The original TiddlyWiki has come to be called TiddlyWiki Classic, TiddlyWiki is free and open source software and is distributed under the terms of the BSD license. The copyright of TiddlyWiki is held in trust by UnaMesa, a Non-profit organization
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Trac
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Trac is an open source, Web-based project management and bug tracking system. It has been adopted by a variety of organizations for use as a bug tracking system for free and open-source software and proprietary projects and products. Trac integrates with major version control systems including Subversion and Git, Trac is used, among others, by the Internet Research Task Force, Django, FFmpeg, jQuery UI, OpenStreetMap, WebKit and WordPress. Inspired by CVSTrac, Jonas Borgström and Daniel Lundin from Edgewall Software started writing svntrac in August 2003 using SQLite, in December 2003 they renamed it to Trac. In February 2004 the Trac version was changed first from 0.0.1 to 0.1 and that release was followed in March 2004 by 0.6 and 0.7, and 0.8 in November 2004. Edgewall Software was a consulting company, but today it no longer offers any software development. It is now solely an umbrella organization for hosting edgewall. org for the community to collaborate on developing open source Python software, in August 2005 the license was changed from the GNU General Public License to a modified BSD license. The first release under this license was Trac 0.9 in October 2005. Trac 0.10, released in September 2006, was an important release that first introduced the component system that to this day allows plugins to extend, Trac itself since this point consists mainly of optional plugin components that can be disabled or replaced entirely. MySQL database support is added as one such core component and this release added support for version control systems other than Subversion by external plugins. Trac 0.11, released in June 2008, changed the HTML template system from ClearSilver to Genshi, Trac 0.12 was released in June 2010 and became a stable long term release with the latest point release 0.12.7 from July 2015. It added internationalization and localization support using Babel, and allows using multiple version control repositories at once. Trac 0.13 was never released, and instead was turned into Trac 1.0 in September 2012 and it included the previously external plugin for Git version control support. Trac 1.1.1 from February 2013 through 1.1.6 from July 2015 are releases without long term support and compatibility guarantees, that turned into Trac 1.2 from November 2016, the latest stable release. Trac 1.3.1 from December 2016 is the current development release without long term support that will turn into Trac 1.4 eventually, for Trac 1.3.2 a switch to the Jinja template system is planned. Tracs offers an approach to project management by deeply integrating ticket tracking, version control. It allows hyperlinking information between systems, include wiki content directly in a ticket or list tickets automatically on wiki pages. The ticket system can be used for tracking bugs, tasks, issues, customized reports can be generated from parametric stored SQL queries or using an interactive ticket query system
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PmWiki
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PmWiki is wiki software written by Patrick R. Michaud in the PHP programming language. It is free software, licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License, PmWiki is designed to be easy to install and customize as an engine for creating professional web sites with one to any number of content authors. The software focuses on ease-of-use, so people with little IT or wiki experience will be able to put it to use, the software is also designed to be extensible and customizable. It is also used by university and research teams, the PmWiki markup engine is highly customizable, allowing adding, modifying or disabling markup rules, and it can support other markup languages. As an example, the Creole specifications can be enabled, PmWiki uses regular files to store content. Each page of the wiki is stored in its own file on the web server, pages are stored in ASCII format and may be edited directly by the wiki administrator. According to the author, For the standard operations, holding the information in flat files is clearly faster than accessing them in a database, PmWiki is designed to be able to store and retrieve the pages text and metadata on various systems and formats. It does not support databases in its default installation, however, via plug-ins, PmWiki can already use MySQL or SQLite databases for data storage. PmWiki supports attachments to its wiki pages, the uploads can be attached to a group of pages, individually to each page, or to the whole wiki, depending on the content needs and structure. There are PmWiki recipes allowing an easier management of the uploaded files, in PmWiki, wiki pages are contained within wiki groups. Each wiki group can have its own configuration options, plug-ins, access control, skin, sidebar, language of the content and of the interface. By default, PmWiki allows exactly one hierarchical level of the pages, special wiki groups are PmWiki, Site, SiteAdmin and Category which contain the documentation and some configuration templates. PmWiki offers a scheme that makes it possible to change the look. PmWiki permits users and administrators to establish password protection for individual pages, for example, defined zones may be established to enable collaborative work by certain groups, such as in a company intranet. Password protection can be applied to reading, editing, uploading to, PmWiki can use passwords from config files, special wiki pages. htpasswd/. htgroup files. There are also user-based authorization possibilities and authentication via various external sources, PmWiki follows a design philosophy with the main objectives of ease of installation, maintainability, and keeping non-required features out of the core distribution of the software. PmWikis design encourages customization with a selection of custom extensions. Creating and maintaining extensions and custom installations is easy thanks to a number of well documented hooks in the wiki engine, prerequisites for running the PmWiki wiki engine, PHP4.3 or later Any webserver that can run PHP scripts
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Zebra
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Zebras are several species of African equids united by their distinctive black and white striped coats. Their stripes come in different patterns, unique to each individual and they are generally social animals that live in small harems to large herds. Unlike their closest relatives, horses and donkeys, zebras have never truly domesticated. There are three species of zebras, the zebra, the Grévys zebra and the mountain zebra. The plains zebra and the mountain zebra belong to the subgenus Hippotigris, the latter resembles an ass, to which it is closely related, while the former two are more horse-like. All three belong to the genus Equus, along with other living equids, the unique stripes of zebras make them one of the animals most familiar to people. They occur in a variety of habitats, such as grasslands, savannas, woodlands, thorny scrublands, mountains, however, various anthropogenic factors have had a severe impact on zebra populations, in particular hunting for skins and habitat destruction. Grévys zebra and the mountain zebra are endangered, the name zebra in English dates back to c. 1600, from Italian zebra, perhaps from Portuguese, which in turn is said to be Congolese, the Encarta Dictionary says its ultimate origin is uncertain, but perhaps it may come from Latin equiferus meaning wild horse, from equus and ferus. The pronunciation with an initial vowel remains standard in the United States. Zebras evolved among the Old World horses within the last 4 million years and it has been suggested that zebras are polyphyletic and that striped equids evolved more than once. Extensive stripes are posited to have been of use to equids that live in low densities in deserts or ones that live in colder climates with shaggy coats. However, molecular evidence supports zebras as a monophyletic lineage, collectively, two of the species have eight subspecies. Zebra populations are diverse, and the relationships between, and the status of, several of the subspecies are not well known. It, or particular subspecies of it, have also known as the common zebra, the dauw, Burchells zebra, Chapmans zebra, Wahlbergs zebra, Selous zebra, Grants zebra, Boehms zebra. The mountain zebra of southwest Africa tends to have a coat with a white belly. It has two subspecies and is classified as vulnerable, Grévys zebra is the largest type, with a long, narrow head, making it appear rather mule-like. It is an inhabitant of the grasslands of Ethiopia and northern Kenya
. doi:10.1145/504216.504225. ISBN 9781581134209. Retrieved 2010-09-04.63