1.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
2.
SB.TV
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The media platform has its origins and roots in urban music. However, even though its earlier uploaded videos contained entirely amateur footage, the channels latest uploads contain professional recordings, SB. TV have diversified into events and have curated stages at Bestival, Wireless, Outlook and other internationally renowned festivals. SB. TV were also invited to interviews with a host of leading politicians at 10 Downing Street. Edwards has also built a relationship with the Royal Family and first interviewed HRH Prince Charles in 2013, today, the YouTube channel has gained many millions of views and thousands of subscribers, as well as Facebook fans and Twitter followers. SB. TV has been credited with discovering Ed Sheeran whose music was aired exclusively on the channel in February 2010 - a full year before he achieved worldwide fame, SB. TV has been said to attract higher audiences of young people than ITV. SB. TV was founded in 2006, when a teenage Jamal Edwards MBE began filming rap freestyles with a handycam, a channel 4 documentary series, Bedroom to Boardroom that follows SB. TV was filmed in Edwards first office, Camden Collective. As the channel began to more attention, it also began offering lifestyle interviews and event coverage. Recently, the company has cited its aim to become a more diverse youth lifestyle broadcaster and this has been seen in the inclusion of acoustic artists such as Ed Sheeran and other popular artists such as Jessie J, Nicki Minaj, The Wanted and Pixie Lott. In February 2011, SB. TV launched their own music label Just Jam and recently announced their first signing as east London MC, in March 2011 it had been suggested that the company were expected to go into business with restaurant chain Nandos. In August 2011, Edwards was featured in a Google Chrome advertisement by London advertising agency BBH, the SB. TV website subsequently crashed as close to a million people searched Jamal Edwards. The advert was revealed to be the second most watched video advertisement on YouTube in the UK in 2011, on 10 April 2012, SB. TV released a video with grime collective Boy Better Know, to celebrate reaching 100 million views across all videos. In a nod to his grandparents, he received an St Vincent Business Award in 2013, Edwards was honoured when he became one of the Queen’s Young Leaders, after being called upon to run the first ever social media hub at Buckingham Palace. Achievements like this saw Jamal placed at no.2 in The Guardian’s top 30 young people in digital media 2014, in 2014, Edwards was invited to collaborate with American Freshman on a headware range for Topman. The snapbacks and bucket hats went on sale in the summer to critical acclaim, impressed by one aspiring entrepreneur, Joe Carnell, in 2014 they went into business together and they’re now the proud co-founders of UGOT, a yogurt, juice and health bar chain. Already winning awards in Yorkshire, there’s a branch open in Newcastle with plans afoot for Manchester, SBTV continue to broadcast video whether for music, freestyle, acoustic, interviews or any other categories within youth culture. All of the content is displayed on their YouTube channel. This content is produced by SBTV but they do allow submissions as well. The company also uses social networking extensively to interact with viewers through which new blog, Just like broadcasting, SBTV has always produced its own content and have developed new techniques over time
3.
Digital television
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Digital television is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the channel bandwidth. It is a service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Several regions of the world are in different stages of adaptation and are implementing different broadcasting standards and this standard has been adopted in Europe, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand. Advanced Television System Committee uses eight-level vestigial sideband for terrestrial broadcasting and this standard has been adopted by six countries, United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Dominican Republic and Honduras. Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving and it supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC that been adopted in most of South America and is also being embraced by Portuguese-speaking African countries. Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcasting adopts time-domain synchronous OFDM technology with a signal frame to serve as the guard interval of the OFDM block. The DTMB standard has adopted in the Peoples Republic of China, including Hong Kong. Digital TVs roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive and it wasnt until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. S. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration, then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a standard was feasible. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements, the final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the electronics industry and the computer industry over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior
4.
Digital Video Broadcasting
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Digital Video Broadcasting is a set of internationally open standards for digital television. The interaction of the DVB sub-standards is described in the DVB Cookbook, many aspects of DVB are patented, including elements of the MPEG video coding and audio coding. Devices interact with the physical layer via a parallel interface, synchronous serial interface. All data is transmitted in MPEG transport streams with additional constraints. A standard for temporally-compressed distribution to mobile devices was published in November 2004 and these distribution systems differ mainly in the modulation schemes used and error correcting codes used, due to the different technical constraints. DVB-S uses QPSK, 8-PSK or 16-QAM, DVB-S2 uses QPSK, 8-PSK, 16-APSK or 32-APSK, at the broadcasters decision. QPSK and 8-PSK are the only regularly used. DVB-C uses QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM or 256-QAM, lastly, DVB-T uses 16-QAM or 64-QAM in combination with OFDM and can support hierarchical modulation. The DVB-T2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in June 2008, ETSI adopted the standard on 9 September 2009. DVB has established a 3D TV group to identify what kind of 3D-TV solution does the market want and need, the CM-3DTV group held a DVB 3D-TV Kick-off Workshop in Geneva on 25 January 2010, followed by the first CM-3DTV meeting the next day. DVB now defines a new standard for 3D video broadcast, DVB 3D-TV, older technologies such as teletext and vertical blanking interval data are also supported by the standards to ease conversion. However, for many more advanced alternatives like DVB-SUB for subtitling are available. The conditional access system defines a Common Scrambling Algorithm and a physical Common Interface for accessing scrambled content, dVB-CA providers develop their wholly proprietary conditional access systems with reference to these specifications. Multiple simultaneous CA systems can be assigned to a scrambled DVB program stream providing operational and commercial flexibility for the service provider, dVB-CPCM has been the source of much controversy in the popular press and It is said that CPCM is the DVBs answer to the failed American Broadcast Flag. By comparison, the rival DigiCipher 2 based ATSC system will not have this issue until 2048 due in part to 32 bits being used, recently, DVB has adopted a profile of the metadata defined by the TV-Anytime Forum. This is an XML Schema based technology and the DVB profile is tailored for enhanced Personal Digital Recorders, DVB lately also started an activity to develop a service for IPTV which also includes metadata definitions for a broadband content guide. The DVB Multimedia Home Platform defines a Java-based platform for the development of consumer video system applications, in addition to providing abstractions for many DVB and MPEG-2 concepts, it provides interfaces for other features like network card control, application download, and layered graphics. DVB has standardised a number of channels that work together with DVB to create bi-directional communication
5.
DVB-T
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This system transmits compressed digital audio, digital video and other data in an MPEG transport stream, using coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing modulation. It is also the format widely used worldwide for Electronic News Gathering for transmission of video, in the case of DVB-T, there are two choices for the number of carriers known as 2K-mode or 8K-mode. These are actually 1,705 or 6,817 sub-carriers that are approximately 4 kHz or 1 kHz apart, DVB-T offers three different modulation schemes. The DVB-T Standard is published as EN300744, Framing structure, channel coding, many countries that have adopted DVB-T have published standards for their implementation. These include the D-book in the UK, the Italian DGTVi, DVB-T has been further developed into newer standards such as DVB-H, which was a commercial failure and is no longer in operation, and DVB-T2, which was initially finalised in August 2011. DVB-T as a digital transmission delivers data in a series of blocks at the symbol rate. DVB-T is a COFDM transmission technique which includes the use of a Guard Interval and it allows the receiver to cope with strong multipath situations. Within a geographical area, DVB-T also allows single-frequency network operation, in such cases the signals from each transmitter in the SFN needs to be accurately time-aligned, which is done by sync information in the stream and timing at each transmitter referenced to GPS. The length of the Guard Interval can be chosen and it is a trade-off between data rate and SFN capability. The longer the interval the larger is the potential SFN area without creating intersymbol interference. It is possible to operate SFNs which do not fulfill the guard interval condition if the self-interference is properly planned and monitored, with reference to the figure, a short description of the signal processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing Compressed video, compressed audio, one or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream, this is the basic digital stream which is being transmitted and received by TV sets or home Set Top Boxes. Allowed bitrates for the transported data depend on a number of coding and modulation parameters, splitter Two different MPEG-TSs can be transmitted at the same time, using a technique called Hierarchical Transmission. It may be used to transmit, for example a standard definition SDTV signal, generally, the SDTV signal is more robust than the HDTV one. At the receiver, depending on the quality of the received signal, MUX adaptation and energy dispersal The MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length. With a technique called energy dispersal, the sequence is decorrelated. External interleaver Convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, Internal encoder A second level of error correction is given by a punctured convolutional code, which is often denoted in STBs menus as FEC. There are five valid coding rates, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6, Internal interleaver Data sequence is rearranged again, aiming to reduce the influence of burst errors
6.
Digital terrestrial television
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Digital terrestrial television is a technological evolution of broadcast television and an advancement over analog television. A terrestrial implementation of digital television uses a aerial to broadcast to a conventional television antenna instead of a satellite dish or cable television connection. The amount of data that can be transmitted is directly affected by channel capacity, the modulation method in DVB-T is COFDM with either 64 or 16-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. In general, a 64QAM channel is capable of transmitting a bit rate. 16 and 64QAM constellations can be combined in a single multiplex, the DVB-T standard is not used for terrestrial digital television in North America. Instead, the ATSC standard calls for 8VSB modulation, which has similar characteristics to the vestigial sideband modulation used for analog television. This provides considerably more immunity to interference, but is not immune — as DVB-T is — to multipath distortion, both systems use the MPEG transport stream and H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 video codec specified in MPEG-2, they differ significantly in how related services are encoded. DTTV is received either via a digital set-top box, TV gateway or integrated tuner included with television sets, some set-top-boxes and TV gateways include digital video recorder functionality. This is quite common in the UK, see external links, indoor aerials are even more likely to be affected by these issues and possibly need replacing. Main articles, List of digital television deployments by country, Digital television transition Afghanistan started digital transmissions in MPEG-4 on Sunday,31 August 2014, Afghanistan adopted DVB-T2 system for digital television. India adopted DVB-T system for television in July 1999. The first DVB-T transmission was started on 26 January 2003 in the four metropolitan cities by Doordarshan. Currently the terrestrial transmission is available in digital and analog formats. 4 high power DVB-T transmitters were set up in the top 4 cities, an additional 190 high power, and 400 low power DVB-T2 transmitters have been approved for Tier I, II and III cities of the country by 2017. The Indian telecom regulator, TRAI, had recommended the I&B to allow private broadcast companies to use the DTT technology, so far, the Indian I&B ministry only permits private broadcast companies to use satellite, cable and IPTV based systems. Israel started digital transmissions in MPEG-4 on Sunday,2 August 2009, Israel was the first nation in the Middle East and the first non-European nation to shut down its analogue TV distribution system. The new service which is operated by the Second Authority for Radio, according to government decisions, the system will expand to include two additional multiplexes that will carry new channels and HD versions of the existing channels. In this matter nothing has been decided upon until the end on 2012, on 20 March 2013 it was announced that Thomson Broadcast had won a major contract with The Second Authority for Television and Radio for the extension of its nationwide DVB-T/DVB-T2 network
7.
DVB-T2
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DVB has been standardized by ETSI. This system transmits compressed digital audio, video, and other data in physical layer pipes, the higher offered bit rate, with respect to its predecessor DVB-T, makes it a system suited for carrying HDTV signals on the terrestrial TV channel. As of 2014, it was implemented in broadcasts in the United Kingdom, Italy, Finland, Germany, Sweden, Thailand Flanders, Serbia, Ukraine, Croatia, Denmark, Romania, in March 2006 DVB decided to study options for an upgraded DVB-T standard. The novel system should provide a minimum 30% increase in payload, the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 agreed with the regulator Ofcom to convert one UK multiplex to DVB-T2 to increase capacity for HDTV via DTT. They expected the first TV region to use the new standard would be Granada in November 2009 and it was expected that over time there would be enough DVB-T2 receivers sold to switch all DTT transmissions to DVB-T2, and H.264. Ofcom published its decision on 3 April 2008, for HDTV using DVB-T2 and H.264. ITV and C4 had, as expected, applied to Ofcom for the 2 additional HD slots available from 2009 to 2012. Ofcom indicated that it found a channel covering 3.7 million households in London. Ofcom indicated that they would look for more unused UHF channels in other parts of the UK, the DVB-T2 draft standard was ratified by the DVB Steering Board on 26 June 2008, and published on the DVB homepage as DVB-T2 standard BlueBook. It was handed over to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute by DVB. ORG on 20 June 2008, the ETSI process resulted in the DVB-T2 standard being adopted on 9 September 2009. The ETSI process had several phases, but the changes were text clarifications. Since the DVB-T2 physical layer specification was complete, and there would be no further technical enhancements, a draft PSI/SI specification document was also agreed with the DVB-TM-GBS group. Prototype receivers were shown in September IBC2008 and more recent version at the IBC2009 in Amsterdam, as of 2012, Appear TV also produce DVB-T2 receivers, DVB-T2 modulators and DVB-T2 gateways. Other companies like ENKOM or IfN develop software based decoding, NORDIG published a DVB-T2 receiver specification and performance requirement on 1 July 2009. The DTGs test house, DTG Testing are testing Freeview HD products against this specification, many tests broadcast transmission using this standard are being in process in France, with local Gap filler near Rennes CCETT. DVB-T2 was tested in October 2010, in Geneva region, with Mont Salèves repeater, a mobile van was testing BER, strength, and quality reception, with special PCs used as spectrum analysers, constellation testers. The van was moving in Canton Geneva, and France, however, there were none demonstrated in TELECOM2011 at Palexpo. The following characteristics have been devised for the T2 standard, COFDM modulation with QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM, OFDM modes are 1k, 2k, 4k, 8k, 16k, and 32k
8.
Satellite television
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A direct-broadcast satellite is a type of artificial satellite which usually broadcasts satellite television signals for home reception. The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television or direct-to-home television and these services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels, really intended for cable distribution, in 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which each country was allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service. Over the years, this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage areas, at present, numerous countries have brought into use their BSS Plan allocations. By contrast, the term DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a range of frequencies transmitted from satellites that are not part of any internationally planned band. The term DBS is often used interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services received by relatively small dishes, a DBS service usually refers to either a commercial service, or a group of free channels available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, the second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc, was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, by 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay model, and it launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is used in the UK or Ireland. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB, PrimeStar began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined by DirecTV, in 1994. At the time, DirecTVs introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut in American history, although PrimeStar transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. DirecTV purchased PrimeStar in 1999 and moved all of that subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporations controlling interest in DirecTV, in 1996, EchoStars Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTVs primary competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under, astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system. Dominion Video Satellite Inc. s Sky Angel launched on a platform in the United States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith. It grew from six to 36 television and radio channels of entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming. Dominion, under its corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc. Sky Angel, although a separate and independent DBS service, used the satellites, transmission facilities
9.
DVB-S2
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Digital Video Broadcasting - Satellite - Second Generation is a digital television broadcast standard that has been designed as a successor for the popular DVB-S system. It was developed in 2003 by the DVB Project, an industry consortium. DVB-S2 is envisaged for broadcast services including standard and HDTV, interactive services including Internet access, the development of DVB-S2 coincided with the introduction of HDTV and H.264 video codecs. Two new key features that were added compared to the DVB-S standard are, for low encoding complexity, the LDPC codes chosen have a special structure, also known as Irregular Repeat-Accumulate codes. VCM and ACM modes, which allow optimizing bandwidth utilization by dynamically changing transmission parameters, DVB-S2 achieves a significantly better performance than its predecessors – mainly allowing for an increase of available bitrate over the same satellite transponder bandwidth. The measured DVB-S2 performance gain over DVB-S is around 30% at the satellite transponder bandwidth. In March 2014, DVB-S2X specification has been published by DVB Project as an optional extension adding further improvements, direct input of one or more MPEG-2 Transport Streams. MPEG-TS is supported using a compatibility mode, the native stream format for DVB-S2 is called Generic Stream, and can be used to efficiently carry IP-based data, including MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 services. Backward compatibility to DVB-S, intended for end users, and DVB-DSNG, used for backhauls and electronic news gathering. Variable coding and modulation to optimize bandwidth utilization based on the priority of the input data, adaptive coding and modulation to allow flexibly adapting transmission parameters to the reception conditions of terminals, e. g. switching to a lower code rate during fading. Four modulation modes, QPSK and 8PSK are proposed for broadcast applications, improved rolloff, α =0.20 and α =0.25 in addition to the roll-off of DVB-S α =0.35. Improved coding, a modern large LDPC code is concatenated with an outer BCH code to achieve quasi-error-free reception conditions on an AWGN channel, the outer code is introduced to avoid error floors at low bit-error rates. A single forward error correction or FEC frame may have either 64800 bits or 16200 bits, if VCM or ACM is used, the broadcast can be a combination of normal and short frames. Several code rates for flexible configuration of parameters, 1/4, 1/3, 2/5, 1/2, 3/5, 2/3, 3/4, 4/5, 5/6, 8/9. Code rates 1/4, 1/3, and 2/5 have been introduced for exceptionally poor reception conditions in combination with QPSK modulation, encoding values 8/9 and 9/10 behave poorly under marginal link conditions. However, with targeted spot Ku or Ka band downlinks these code rates may be recommended to prevent out-of-region viewing for copyright or cultural reasons, optional input stream synchronization to provide a constant end-to-end delay. Depending on code rate and modulation, the system can operate at a C/N between −2.4 dB and 16 dB with a free goal of a 10−7 TS packet error rate. Distance to the Shannon limit ranges from 0.7 dB to 1.2 dB, modes and features of DVB-S2 in comparison to DVB-S, Envisaged scenarios for DVB-S2 by the standard document are, Broadcasting television services in SDTV or HDTV
10.
DVB-C
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DVB-C stands for Digital Video Broadcasting - Cable and it is the DVB European consortium standard for the broadcast transmission of digital television over cable. This system transmits an MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 family digital audio/digital video stream, the standard was first published by the ETSI in 1994, and subsequently became the most widely used transmission system for digital cable television in Europe, Asia and South America. It is deployed worldwide in systems ranging from the cable television networks down to smaller satellite master antenna TV systems. On February 18,2008 it was announced that a new standard – DVB-C2 – would be developed during 2008, proposals including simulation programs and information on patent rights could be submitted until June 16,2008. The final DVB-C2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in April 2009, modes and features of DVB-C2 in comparison to DVB-C, With reference to the figure, a short description of the single processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing, video, audio, and data streams are multiplexed into an MPEG program stream, one or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream. This is the digital stream which is being transmitted and received by home set top boxes or relevant integrable decoder module. Allowed bitrates for the transported MPEG-2 depend on a number of modulation parameters, MUX adaptation and energy dispersal, the MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length. With a technique called energy dispersal, the sequence is decorrelated. External interleaver, convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, byte/m-tuple conversion, data bytes are encoded into bit m-tuples. Differential coding, In order to get a rotation-invariant constellation, this unit shall apply a differential encoding of the two Most Significant Bits of each symbol, QAM Mapper, the bit sequence is mapped into a base-band digital sequence of complex symbols. There are 5 allowed modulation modes, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM, base-band shaping, the QAM signal is filtered with a raised-cosine shaped filter, in order to remove mutual signal interference at the receiving side. DAC and front-end, the signal is transformed into an analog signal, with a digital-to-analog converter. The receiving STB adopts techniques which are dual to those used in the transmission
11.
Cable television
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This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables, analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel is a television network available via cable television, alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. Examples of cable/satellite channels/cable networks available in many countries are HBO, MTV, Cartoon Network, E. Eurosport, the abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting for radio are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924, Cable television has gone through a series of steps of evolution in the United States and Canada. Particularly in Canada, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Early systems carried only a maximum of seven channels, using 2,4,5 or 6,7,9,11 and 13, as the equipment was unable to confine the signal discreetly within the assigned channel bandwidth. The reason 4 and 5 along with 6 and 7 could be used together was because of the 4 MHz gap between 4 and 5 and the nearly 90 MHz gap between 6 and 7. Even though eight channels are listed, in systems that maximized 7 channels. As equipment improved, all channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be priority, later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups, about this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7-13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2-13 on each of the two cables, during the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. These stations evolved partially into todays over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e. g, many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into todays many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries, Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, by the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulator to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection, by subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels
12.
DVB-H
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DVB-H is one of three prevalent mobile TV formats. It is a specification for bringing broadcast services to mobile handsets. DVB-H was formally adopted as ETSI standard EN302304 in November 2004, the DVB-H specification can be downloaded from the official DVB-H website. From March 2008, DVB-H is officially endorsed by the European Union as the technology for terrestrial mobile broadcasting. DVB-H has been a failure, and the service is no longer on-air. Finland was the last country to switch-off its signals in March 2012, DVB-H technology is a superset of the successful DVB-T system for digital terrestrial television, with additional features to meet the specific requirements of handheld, battery-powered receivers. Time slicing technology is employed to power consumption for small handheld terminals. IP datagrams are transmitted as data bursts in time slots. Each burst may contain up to two megabits of data, there are 64 parity bits for each 191 data bits, protected by Reed-Solomon codes. The front end of the switches on only for the time interval when the data burst of a selected service is on air. Within this short period of time a data rate is received which can be stored in a buffer. This buffer can either store the downloaded applications or playout live streams, the achievable power saving depends on the relation of the on/off-time. If there are ten or more bursted services in a DVB-H stream. DVB-H is a system which was carefully tested by the DVB-H Validation Task Force in the course of 2004. DVB-SH improved radio performances and can be seen as an evolution of DVB-H, DVB-H is designed to work in the following bands, VHF-III UHF-IV/V L DVB-SH now and DVB-NGH in the near future are expected to expand the supported bands. DVB-H can coexist with DVB-T in the same multiplex, DVB-IPDC is the specification for broadcasting mobile TV services based on Internet Protocol. In short, with regard to mobile TV, these specifications define what is delivered, how it is delivered, how it is described and they cover system architecture, use cases, DVB PSI/SI signalling, electronic service guide, content delivery protocols, and service purchase and protection. Almost all of these have now published as formal ETSI standards
13.
DVB-SH
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The DVB Project published the DVB-SH standard in February 2007. The DVB-SH system was designed for frequencies below 3 GHz, supporting UHF band and it complements and improves the existing DVB-H physical layer standard. Like its sister specification, it is based on DVB IP Datacast delivery, electronic service guides and service purchase, DVB-SH specifies two operational modes, SH-A, specifies the use of COFDM modulation on both satellite and terrestrial links with the possibility of running both links in SFN mode. SH-B, uses Time-Division Multiplexing on the link and COFDM on the terrestrial link. The improvements to signal requirements translates to better in-building penetration, better in-car coverage, DVB-SH chipsets are being developed now by DiBcom and NXP Semiconductors, and are expected to be available in beginning of 2008. Initial specifications show that the chipsets supports both UHF and S-Band and are compatible with DVB-H, DiBcom has announced a DVB-SH chip with availability in 2008 Q3. The chip has dual RF tuners supporting VHF, UHF, L-Band and S-Band frequencies, other partners involved in TVMSL are Sagem Wireless, Alenia, RFS, Philips, DiBcom, TeamCast, UDcast, CNRS, INRIA, CEA-LETI. ICO, one of the biggest satellite operators in the United States, in 2007 announced a deployment of an hybrid satellite/terrestrial network in DVB-SH with Alcatel-Lucent. ICO G1 satellite carrying DVB-SH technology on board was launched on April 14,2008 and it is the worlds first DVB-SH satellite in orbit. Eutelsat W2A satellite carrying a Solaris Mobile DVB-SH S band payload was launched on 3 April 2009, S-band payload was scheduled to enter into service in May 2009 but this not occurred due to an anomaly currently being investigated. On 1 July 2009, Solaris Mobile filed the insurance claim, the technical findings indicate that the company should be able to offer some, but not all of the services it was planning to offer. It will be built by Thales Alenia Space and launched in early 2011 launched by ILS, DVB-SH in S-band is seen as an alternative in Europe. Recent field trials and studies showed better performance in radio than DVB-H standard that would lead to cheaper costs for network deployments. In France again, SFR and Alcatel-Lucent teamed up to deploy a DVB-SH trial, the results confirmed the theorical assumptions on the superiority of the DVB-SH to DVB-H, being the natural evolution of this legacy one. In Italy,3 Italia, RAI and Alcatel-Lucent joined forces for the first DVB-SH trial in Italy
14.
ATSC standards
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Advanced Television Systems Committee standards are a set of standards for digital television transmission over terrestrial, cable, and satellite networks. It is largely a replacement for the analog NTSC standard, and like that standard, used mostly in the United States, other former users of NTSC, like Japan, have not used ATSC during their digital television transition. The standard is now administered by the Advanced Television Systems Committee, the standard includes a number of patented elements, and licensing is required for devices that use these parts of the standard. Key among these is the 8VSB modulation system used for over-the-air broadcasts, ATSC includes two primary high definition video formats, 1080i and 720p. It also includes standard-definition formats, although initially only HDTV services were launched in the digital format, the high-definition television standards defined by the ATSC produce wide screen 16,9 images up to 1920×1080 pixels in size – more than six times the display resolution of the earlier standard. However, many different image sizes are also supported, the reduced bandwidth requirements of lower-resolution images allow up to six standard-definition subchannels to be broadcast on a single 6 MHz TV channel. ATSC standards are marked A/x and can be downloaded for free from the ATSCs website at ATSC. org, ATSC Standard A/72 was approved in 2008 and introduces H. 264/AVC video coding to the ATSC system. ATSC supports 5. 1-channel surround sound using the Dolby Digitals AC-3 format, numerous auxiliary datacasting services can also be provided. Many aspects of ATSC are patented, including elements of the MPEG video coding, the AC-3 audio coding, the cost of patent licensing, estimated at up to $50 per digital TV receiver, has prompted complaints by manufacturers. As with other systems, ATSC depends on numerous interwoven standards, broadcasters who used ATSC and wanted to retain an analog signal were temporarily forced to broadcast on two separate channels, as the ATSC system requires the use of an entire separate channel. Channel numbers in ATSC do not correspond to RF frequency ranges, there is also a standard for distributed transmission systems, a form of single-frequency network which allows for the synchronised operation of multiple on-channel booster stations. Dolby Digital AC-3 is used as the audio codec, though it was standardized as A/52 by the ATSC and it allows the transport of up to five channels of sound with a sixth channel for low-frequency effects. In contrast, Japanese ISDB HDTV broadcasts use MPEGs Advanced Audio Coding as the audio codec, MPEG-2 audio was a contender for the ATSC standard during the DTV Grand Alliance shootout, but lost out to Dolby AC-3. The Grand Alliance issued a statement finding the MPEG-2 system to be equivalent to Dolby. Later, a story emerged that MIT had entered into an agreement with Dolby whereupon the university would be awarded a sum of money if the MPEG-2 system was rejected. Dolby also offered an incentive for Zenith to switch their vote, however, the ATSC system supports a number of different display resolutions, aspect ratios, and frame rates. The formats are listed here by resolution, form of scanning, for transport, ATSC uses the MPEG systems specification, known as an MPEG transport stream, to encapsulate data, subject to certain constraints. ATSC uses 188-byte MPEG transport stream packets to carry data, before decoding of audio and video takes place, the receiver must demodulate and apply error correction to the signal
15.
ATSC 3.0
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ATSC3.0 is a major version of the ATSC standards and was created by the Advanced Television Systems Committee. ATSC3.0 will support mobile television, 3D television, 4K UHD, high range, high frame rate. ATSC3.0 comprises around 20 standards covering different aspects of the system, South Korean broadcasters plan to begin ATSC3.0 broadcasts in February 2017. ATSC3.0 uses a signal which allows a receiver to discover. The bootstrap signal has a configuration that can allow for new signal types to be used in the future. ATSC3.0 uses a layer that is based on orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing modulation with low-density parity-check code FEC codes. With a 6 MHz channel the bit rate can vary from 1 Mbit/s to 57 Mbit/s depending on the parameters that are used, ATSC3.0 can have up to 4 physical layer pipes in a channel with different robustness levels used for each PLP. An example of how PLP can be used would be a channel that delivers HD video over a robust PLP, ATSC3.0 supports Dolby AC-4 and MPEG-H 3D Audio. ATSC3.0 supports three video formats, Legacy SD Video, Interlaced HD Video, and Progressive Video, Legacy SD Video and Interlaced HD Video support frame rates up to 60 fps and can only use the Rec.709 color space. Legacy SD Video and Interlaced HD Video are included for compatibility with existing content and cant use HDR, HFR, Legacy SD Video Legacy SD Video supports resolutions up to 720x480 and supports High Efficiency Video Coding Main 10 profile at Level 3.1 Main Tier. Interlaced HD Video Interlaced HD Video supports resolutions up to 1920x1080 interlaced video, Progressive Video Progressive Video supports resolutions up to 3840x2160 progressive scan and supports HEVC Main 10 profile at Level 5.2 Main Tier. Progressive Video supports frame rates up to 120 fps and the Rec.2020 color space, Progressive Video supports HDR using Hybrid Log-Gamma and Perceptual Quantizer. ATSC3.0 supports digital watermarking of the audio signal, ATSC3.0 will provide even more services to the viewer and increased bandwidth efficiency and compression performance, which requires breaking backwards compatibility with the original ATSC system. ATSC3.0 is expected to emerge within the next decade, the test involved multiplexing multiple HD and SD subchannels together, experimenting with both current MPEG-2 / H.262 and MPEG-4 AVC / H.264 video codecs. In September 2015 further tests in the Baltimore and Washington, DC area were announced by Sinclair Broadcast Groups Baltimore station, WBFF, the Futurecast system had previously been tested in October 2014 during off-air hours through Madison, Wisconsin ABC affiliate WKOW. Unlike ATSC1. 0/2. 0s Distributed Transmission Systems pseudo-single-frequency network operations, further tests began in on January 6,2016 of ATSC3.0 with High Dynamic Range from Las Vegas independent station, KHMP-LD on UHF18. It would later be joined in these tests by Sinclairs CW affiliate, LG Electronics tested the standard with 4K on February 23,2016. With the test considered a success, South Korea announced that ATSC3.0 broadcasts would start in February 2017, on March 28,2016, the Bootstrap component of ATSC3.0 was upgraded from candidate standard to finalized standard
16.
ATSC-M/H
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ATSC-M/H is a U. S. standard for mobile digital TV that allows TV broadcasts to be received by mobile devices. ATSC-M/H is a mobile TV extension to preexisting terrestrial TV broadcasting standard ATSC A/53 and it corresponds to the European DVB-H and 1seg extensions of DVB-T and ISDB-T terrestrial digital TV standards respectively. ATSC is optimized for a reception in the typical North American environment. The ATSC transmission scheme is not robust enough against doppler shift and multipath radio interference in mobile environments, to overcome these issues, additional channel coding mechanisms are introduced in ATSC-M/H to protect the signal. Ten systems from different companies were proposed, and two remaining systems were presented with transmitter and receiver prototypes, MPH, was developed by LG Electronics, a-VSB was developed by Samsung and Rohde & Schwarz. To find the best solution, the Advanced Television Systems Committee assigned the Open Mobile Video Coalition to test both systems, the test report was presented on May 15,2008. As a result of detailed work by the OMVC, a final standard draft was designed by the Advanced Television Systems Committee. In the following six months, the industry tested the standard, before it became an official standard, additional improvements were proposed. ATSC members approved the ballot on 15 Oct.2009 to official standard A/153, the individual Parts of A/153 are as follows, Part 1 “ATSC Mobile DTV System” describes the overall ATSC Mobile DTV system and explains the organization of the standard. It also describes the explicit signaling requirements that are implemented by data structures throughout the other Parts, Part 2 “RF/Transmission System Characteristics” describes how the data is processed and placed into the VSB frame. Major elements include the Reed Solomon Frame, a Transmission Parameter Channel, Part 3 “Service Multiplex and Transport Subsystem Characteristics” covers the service multiplex and transport subsystem, which comprises several layers in the stack. Part 4 “Announcement”, Part 4 covers Announcement, where services can optionally be announced using a Service Guide, the guide specified in Part 4 is based on an Open Mobile Alliance broadcast OMA BCAST-Electronic program guide, with constraints and extensions. Part 6 “Service Protection” covers Service Protection, which refers to the protection of content, either files or streams, major elements include the Right Issue Object and Short-Term Key Message. Part 7 “AVC and SVC Video System Characteristics” defines the Advanced Video Coding, additional elements covered in this Part included closed captioning and Active Format Description. Part 8 “AHE AAC Audio System Characteristics” defines the High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding Audio System in the ATSC Mobile DTV system, Part 9 “Scalable Full Channel Mobile Mode” ATSC-M/H is a service for mobile TV receivers and partly uses the 19.39 Mbit/s ATSC 8VSB stream. The mobile data is carried in an unreferenced Packet ID, so legacy receivers ignore the mobile data, ATSC-M/H bandwidth consumes fixed chunks of 917kbit/s out of the total ATSC Bandwidth. Each such chunk is called an M/H Group, a data pipe called a parade is a collection of one to eight M/H groups. A parade conveys one or two ensembles which are logical pipes of IP datagrams and those datagrams in turn carry TV services, System Signaling tables, OMA DRM key streams and the Electronic Service Guide
17.
ISDB
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The Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a Japanese standard for digital television and digital radio used by the countrys radio and television networks. ISDB replaced NTSC-J analog television system and the previously used MUSE Hi-vision analogue HDTV system in Japan, Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting services using ISDB-T started in Japan in December 2003 and in Brazil in December 2007 as a trial. Since many countries have adopted ISDB over other digital broadcasting standards, the standards can be obtained for free at the Japanese organization DiBEG website and at ARIB. The core standards of ISDB are ISDB-S, ISDB-T, ISDB-C and 2, ISDB-T and ISDB-Tsb are for mobile reception in TV bands. 1seg is the name of an ISDB-T service for reception on cell phones, laptop computers, the concept was named for its similarity to ISDN, because both allow multiple channels of data to be transmitted together. This is also much like another digital radio system, Eureka 147, which each group of stations on a transmitter an ensemble. ISDB-T operates on unused TV channels, an approach taken by countries for TV. The various flavors of ISDB differ mainly in the modulations used, the 12 GHz band ISDB-S uses PSK modulation,2.6 GHz band digital sound broadcasting uses CDM, and ISDB-T uses COFDM with PSK/QAM. Besides audio and video transmission, ISDB also defines data connections with the internet as a channel over several media. This is used, for example, for interactive interfaces like data broadcasting, the ISDB specification describes a lot of interfaces, but most importantly the Common Interface for Conditional Access System. While ISDB has examples of implementing various kinds of CASes, in Japan CAS called B-CAS is used, defines the Common Scrambling Algorithm system called MULTI2 required for scrambling television. The ISDB CAS system in Japan is operated by a company named B-CAS, the Japanese ISDB signal is always encrypted by the B-CAS system even if it is a free television program. That is why it is commonly called Pay per view system without charge, an interface for mobile reception is under consideration. Since all digital systems carry digital data content, a DVD or high-definition recorder could easily copy content losslessly. Hollywood requested copy protection, this was the reason for RMP being mandated. The content has three modes, “copy once”, “copy free” and “copy never”, “Copy never” programming may only be timeshifted and cannot be permanently stored. There are two types of ISDB receiver, Television and set-top box, the aspect ratio of an ISDB-receiving television set is 16,9, televisions fulfilling these specs are called Hi-Vision TV. There are three TV types, Cathode ray tube, plasma display panel and liquid crystal display, with LCD being the most popular Hi-Vision TV on the Japanese market nowadays
18.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
19.
1seg
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1seg is a mobile terrestrial digital audio/video and data broadcasting service in Japan, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, Peru and the Philippines. Service began experimentally during 2005 and commercially on April 1,2006 and its use in Brazil was established in late 2007, with a slight difference from the Japanese counterpart, it is broadcast under a 30 frame/s transmission setting. The ISDB-T system uses the UHF band at frequencies between 470 and 770 MHz, giving a total bandwidth 300 MHz, the bandwidth is divided into fifty name channels 13 through 62. Each channel is 6 MHz wide consisting of a 5.57 MHz wide signalling band, each of these channels is further divided into 13 segments, each with 428 kHz of bandwidth. 1 seg uses a single of these segments to carry the 1seg transport stream, 1seg, like ISDB-T uses QPSK for modulation, with 2/3 forward error correction and 1/4 guard ratio. The total datarate is 416 kbit/s, the television system uses a H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC video stream and a HE-AAC audio stream multiplexed into a MPEG transport stream. The maximum video resolution is 320x240 pixels, with a bitrate of between 220 and 320 kbit/s. Audio conforms to HE-AAC profile, with a bitrate of 48 to 64 kbit/s, additional data is transmitted using BML and occupies the remaining 10 to 100 kbit/s of bandwidth. Conditional access and copy control are implemented in 1seg broadcasting by the use of Broadcast Flag-like structure contained in the Copy Control Descriptor within the broadcast. The broadcast contents themselves are not encrypted, but the Copy Control information forces the device to encrypt stored recordings, Broadcast Markup Language, is a data-transmission service allowing text to be displayed on a 1seg TV screen. The text contains news, sports, weather forecasts, Earthquake Early Warning, further information can be found through links to content on websites, frequently those belonging to the television station itself. EPG is not included, but transmitted in separate stream, on June 23,2008, broadcaster Tokyo MX officially began using multiple-program arrangement technology to simultaneously broadcast two programs on a single divided segment. Most 1seg receivers manufactured after September 2008 are compatible with this technology, multiple-program arrangement in 1seg is named as 1seg2 or Oneseg2. NHK Educational TV and Nara Television are also started for several number of programs, until the end of March 2008, Japanese regulation required that the programs on 1seg were fundamentally the same as those broadcast on the equivalent HDTV channel. On April 1 the regulation was revised, and experimental programs by 1seg or third parties have begun airing on several stations, on January 16,2008, JEITA released their monthly shipping survey showing approx. 4.806 million mobile phones were sold in Japan in November 2007,3.054 million phones,63. 5% of the total, can receive 1seg broadcasts. In the fiscal year of 2007, on average 45% of mobile phones had 1seg reception capability out of the 22.284 million units sold, the percent increased from 26. 8% in April 2007 to 64. 2% at end of fiscal year March 2008. Car navigation system Sanyo One-seg & car navigation system and more, handheld game console 1seg PSP-2000 Tuner Nintendo DS Portable devices Set top box Others Sony Walkman NW-A919 Kodak 3-inch OLED TV and more
20.
Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast
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DTMB is the TV standard for mobile and fixed terminals used in the Peoples Republic of China, Cuba, Hong Kong, and Macau. Previously known as DMB-T/H, the DTMB is a merger of the standards ADTB-T, DMB-T and TiMi, the DTMB was created in 2004 and finally became an official DTT standard in 2006. DTMB system is compatible with fixed reception and mobile digital terrestrial television, mobile reception, is compatible with digital broadcasting TV in standard definition, digital audio broadcasting, multimedia broadcasting and data broadcasting service. Fixed reception, in addition to the services, also supports high definition digital broadcasting. This system gives flexibility to the services offered to support the combination of single-frequency networks, the different modes and parameters can be chosen depending on the type of service and networks environment. The sequence of pattern is defined in time domain and the information of the Discrete Fourier transform is defined in the frequency domain. The two frames are multiplexed in the domain, resulting in Time domain synchronization. This transmission system makes the conversion of the signal to the output data of terrestrial TV signal. The data passes through the encoder, the error protection process FEC, through the constellation mapping process, the data block and the TPS information are multiplexed, and pass through the data processor to form the body structure. It combines information from the body and the head to form the frame, finally the signal is modulated to put it in the corresponding frequency band. Bit-rate, from 4.813 Mbit/s to 32, mobile TV, DVB-H, DMB, 3G Systems and Rich Media Applications. Focal Press Media Technology Professional Series, http, //en. dtvstatus. net/ http, //www. altera. com/support/refdesigns/sys-sol/broadcast/ref-dmb-t. html IEEE Spectrum - Does China Have the Best Digital Television Standard on the Planet
21.
Digital multimedia broadcasting
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This technology, sometimes known as mobile TV, should not be confused with Digital Audio Broadcasting which was developed as a research project for the European Union. The worlds first official mobile TV service started in South Korea in May 2005 and it can operate via satellite or terrestrial transmission. DMB has also similarities with the main competing mobile TV standard. T-DMB is made for terrestrial transmissions on band III and L frequencies, DMB is unavailable in the United States because those frequencies are allocated for television broadcasting and military applications. USA is adopting ATSC-M/H for free broadcasts to mobiles, and Qualcomms proprietary MediaFLO system was used there, in Japan, 1seg is the standard, using ISDB. T-DMB uses MPEG-4 Part 10 for the video and MPEG-4 Part 3 BSAC or HE-AAC v2 for the audio, the audio and video is encapsulated in an MPEG transport stream. The stream is forward error corrected by Reed Solomon encoding and the parity word is 16 bytes long, there is convolutional interleaving made on this stream, then the stream is broadcast in data stream mode on DAB. In order to diminish the effects such as fading and shadowing. A single-chip T-DMB receiver is also provided by an MPEG transport stream demultiplexer, DMB has several applicable devices such as mobile phone, portable TV, PDA and telematics devices for automobiles. As of December 14,2007, ITU formally approved T-DMB as the global standard, smart DMB started in January 2013 in South Korea. Smart DMB has a VOD service and quality has improved from 240p to 480p. Smart DMB will be built in many Korean smartphones starting with the Galaxy Grand in January 2013, currently, DMB is being put into use in a number of countries, although mainly used in South Korea. Also see list of Countries using DAB/DMB, in 2005, South Korea became the worlds first country to start S-DMB and T-DMB service on May 1 and December 1, respectively. In December 2006, T-DMB service in South Korea consists of,7 TV channels,12 radio channels and these are broadcast on six multiplexes in the VHF band on TV channels 8 and 12. In October 2007, South Korea added broadcasting channel MBCNET to the DMB channel, but in 2010, this channel changed tnN go. In 2009 there were eight DMB video channels in Seoul, as of April 2013, S-DMB service in South Korea consists of 15 TV channels,2 radio channels and 6 data channels. South Korea has had Full T-DMB services including JSS, DLS, BWS, S-DMB service in South Korea is provided on a subscription basis through TU Media and is accessible throughout the country. T-DMB service is provided free of charge, but access is limited to selected regions, around one million receivers have been sold as of June 2006
22.
H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2
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H.262 or MPEG-2 Part 2 is a video coding format developed and maintained jointly by ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group and ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group. It is the part of the ISO/IEC MPEG-2 standard. The ITU-T Recommendation H.262 and ISO/IEC 13818-2 documents are identical, the standard is available for a fee from the ITU-T and ISO. MPEG-2 Video is similar to MPEG-1, but also support for interlaced video. MPEG-2 video is not optimized for low bit-rates, but outperforms MPEG-1 at 3 Mbit/s, all standards-conforming MPEG-2 Video decoders are fully capable of playing back MPEG-1 Video streams. The ISO/IEC approval process was completed in November 1994, the first edition was approved in July 1995 and published by ITU-T and ISO/IEC in 1996. In 1996 it was extended by two amendments to include the Registration of Copyright Identifiers and the 4,2,2 Profile, ITU-T published these amendments in 1996 and ISO in 1997. There are also other amendments published later by ITU-T and ISO, the most recent edition of the standard was published in 2013 and incorporates all prior amendments. An HDTV camera generates a raw video stream of 149,299,200 bytes per second for 24fps video and this stream must be compressed if digital TV is to fit in the bandwidth of available TV channels and if movies are to fit on DVDs. Fortunately, video compression is practical because the data in pictures is often redundant in space, for example, the sky can be blue across the top of a picture and that blue sky can persist for frame after frame. Also, because of the way the eye works, it is possible to some data from video pictures with almost no noticeable degradation in image quality. TV cameras used in broadcasting usually generate 50 pictures a second or 59.94 pictures a second, digital television requires that these pictures be digitized so that they can be processed by computer hardware. Each picture element is represented by one luma number and two chrominance numbers. These describe the brightness and the color of the pixel, thus, each digitized picture is initially represented by three rectangular arrays of numbers. Upon reception/decoding, the two fields are displayed alternately with the lines of one field interleaving between the lines of the field, this format is called interlaced video. The typical field rate is 50 or 59.94 fields per second, if the video is not interlaced, then it is called progressive video and each picture is a frame. Another common practice to reduce the rate is to thin out or subsample the two chrominance planes. In effect, the chrominance values represent the nearby values that are deleted
23.
MP3
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Compared to CD quality digital audio, MP3 compression commonly achieves 75 to 95% reduction in size. MP3 files are thus 1/4 to 1/20 the size of the digital audio stream. This is important for both transmission and storage concerns, the basis for such comparison is the CD digital audio format which requires 1411200 bit/s. A commonly used MP3 encoding setting is CBR128 kbit/s resulting in file size 1/11 of the original CD-quality file, the MP3 lossy compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a continuous sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is referred to as perceptual coding or psychoacoustics. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce the precision of less audible to human hearing. MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group as part of its MPEG-1 standard, the first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hanover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio, which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992. A backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio extension with lower sample and bit rates was published in 1995, MP3 is a streaming or broadcast format meaning that individual frames can be lost without affecting the ability to decode successfully delivered frames. Storing an MP3 stream in a file enables time-shifted playback, the MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency, in 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy and this work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths. A wide variety of compression algorithms were reported in IEEEs refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. The genesis of the MP3 technology is described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years. The immediate predecessors of MP3 were Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain, the first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder in hardware, was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips. Another predecessor of the MP3 format and technology is to be found in the perceptual codec MUSICAM based on an integer arithmetics 32 sub-bands filterbank, driven by a psychoacoustic model. It was primarily designed for Digital Audio Broadcasting and digital TV and this codec incorporated into a broadcasting system using COFDM modulation was demonstrated on air and on the field together with Radio Canada and CRC Canada during the NAB show in 1991. F. As a doctoral student at Germanys University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on music compression in the early 1980s
24.
Dolby Digital
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Dolby Digital is the name for audio compression technologies developed by Dolby Laboratories. It was originally named Dolby Stereo Digital until 1994, except for Dolby TrueHD, the audio compression is lossy. The first use of Dolby Digital was to digital sound in cinemas from 35mm film prints. It is now used for other applications such as TV broadcast, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs. Batman Returns was the first film to use Dolby Digital technology when it premiered in theaters in the summer of 1992. Dolby Digital cinema soundtracks are optically recorded on a 35 mm release print using sequential data blocks placed between every perforation hole on the track side of the film. A constant bit rate of 320 kbit/s is used, a charge-coupled device scanner in the image projector picks up a scanned video image of this area, and a processor correlates the image area and extracts the digital data as an AC-3 bitstream. The data is decoded into a 5.1 channel audio source. All film prints with Dolby Digital data also have Dolby Stereo analogue soundtracks using Dolby SR noise reduction, almost all current release cinema prints are of this type and may also include SDDS data and a timecode track to synchronize CD-ROMs carrying DTS soundtracks. The simplest way of converting existing projectors is to add a so-called penthouse digital soundhead above the projector head, however, for new projectors it made sense to use dual analogue/digital soundheads in the normal optical soundhead position under the projector head. To allow for the arrangement the data is recorded 26 frames ahead of the picture. If a penthouse soundhead is used, the data must be delayed in the processor for the amount of time. This delay can be adjusted in steps of the time between perforations, as of 2015, Dolby Digital in the cinema is being gradually replaced with Dolby Surround 7.1, a process that may take up to 2018 to complete.1 Creator. Dolby Digital is the version containing up to six discrete channels of sound. The most elaborate mode in use involves five channels for normal-range speakers. Mono and stereo modes are also supported, AC-3 supports audio sample-rates up to 48 kHz. This format has different names, Dolby Digital DD AC-3 ATSC A/52 Before 1996, was marketed as Dolby Surround AC-3, Dolby Stereo Digital, in 1991, a limited experimental release of Star Trek 6 in Dolby Digital played in 3 US theatres. In 1992, Batman Returns is the first movie to be released in Dolby Digital, Dolby Digital EX is similar in practice to Dolbys earlier Pro-Logic format, which utilized matrix technology to add a center surround channel and single rear surround channel to stereo soundtracks
25.
Dolby Digital Plus
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Dolby Digital Plus, also known as Enhanced AC-3 is a digital audio compression scheme developed by Dolby Labs for transport and storage of multi-channel digital audio. While Dolby Digital supports up to 5 full-bandwidth audio channels at a bitrate of 640kbit/s. A Dolby Digital Plus service consists of one or more substreams, there are three types of substreams, Independent substreams, which can contain a single 5.1 program. Up to eight independent substreams may be present in a Dolby Digital Plus stream. The channels present in an independent substream are the traditional 5.1 channels, Left, Right, Center, Left Surround, legacy substreams, which contain a single 5.1 program, and which correspond directly to Dolby Digital content. At most a single legacy substream may be present in a DD+ stream, dependent substreams, which contain additional channels beyond the traditional 5.1 channels. Metadata in the substream describes the purpose of each included channel, All DD+ streams must contain at least one independent substream or legacy substream, which contains the first 5.1 channels of the primary audio program. Additional independent substreams may be used for audio programs such as foreign language soundtracks, commentary. Dependent substreams may be provided for programs that have additional channels beyond 5.1. Within each substream, provision is made for encoding five full-bandwidth channels, one low-frequency channel, the coupling channels is used for medium-to-high-frequency information which is common to multiple full-bandwidth channels. Its context is mixed in with the channels in a fashion prescribed by the metadata. Dolby Digital Plus includes comprehensive bitstream metadata for decoder control over output loudness, downmixing, Dolby Digital Plus is nominally a 16-bit aligned protocol, though very few fields in the syntax respect any byte or word boundaries. A DD+ stream is a collection of fixed-length syncframe packets, each of which corresponds to either 256,512,768, each syncframe is independently decodable, and belongs to a specific substream within the service. A syncframe consists of the following elements, A 16-bit sync word. An Audio Frame section, which contains decoding information common to all audio blocks within the syncframe, including the information to determine how exponents. One, two, three, or six Audio Block sections and these sections contain additional decoding metadata, as well as the encoded and quantized frequency coefficients. Each Audio Block corresponds to 256 PCM samples in each channel, a final section containing user-defined auxiliary data, any necessary padding to produce uniform syncframe lengths, and a 16-bit cyclic redundancy check code for error detection. Coefficients are transmitted in a binary floating-point format, with exponents transmitted separately from mantissas and this allows for highly efficient coding
26.
High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding
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Not to be confused with MPEG-4 SLS, which is branded HD-AAC. High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding is an audio coding format for data compression of digital audio defined as an MPEG-4 Audio profile in ISO/IEC 14496-3. It is an extension of Low Complexity AAC optimized for applications such as streaming audio. HE-AAC version 1 profile uses spectral band replication to enhance the efficiency in the frequency domain. HE-AAC version 2 profile couples SBR with Parametric Stereo to enhance the efficiency of stereo signals. It is a standardized and improved version of the AACplus codec, HE-AAC is used in digital radio standards like DAB+ and Digital Radio Mondiale. The progenitor of HE-AAC was developed by Coding Technologies under the trade name CT-aacPlus, CT-aacPlus combined MPEG-2 AAC LC with the Coding Technologies invented spectral band replication. CT-aacPlus is the used by XM Radio for their satellite radio service. Subsequently, Coding Technologies submitted their SBR to MPEG as a basis of HE-AAC, HE-AAC version 1 was standardized as a profile of MPEG-4 Audio in 2003 by MPEG and published as part of MPEG-4 in document ISO/IEC 14496-3, 2001/Amd 1,2003. The HE-AAC version 2 profile was standardized in 2006 as ISO/IEC 14496-3, a parametric stereo coding tool used in HE-AAC v2 was standardized in 2004 by MPEG and published in document ISO/IEC 14496-3, 2001/Amd 2,2004. HE-AAC version 2 was also standardized under the name Enhanced aacPlus by 3GPP for 3G UMTS multimedia services in September 2004 and it is based on the AAC LC, SBR and Parametric Stereo coding tools defined in the MPEG-4 Audio standard. In addition it includes tools such as error concealment, spline resampler. It was also published by ETSI as TS126401 V6.1.0 in December 2004, prior to the standardization of HE AAC v2 by MPEG, Coding Technologies submitted the combination of HE-AAC v1 coupled with Parametric Stereo under the name Enhanced AAC+. As a result, aacPlus v2 and eAAC+ are now common trade names refer to HE-AAC v2. AAC+ and aacPlus are common names that refer to HE-AAC v1. Testing indicates that material decoded from 64 kbit/s HE-AAC does not yet have similar audio quality to material decoded from MP3 at 128 kbit/s using high quality encoders, the test, taking bitrate distribution and RMSD into account, is a tie between mp3PRO, HE AAC and Ogg Vorbis. Further controlled testing by 3GPP during their revision 6 specification process indicates that HE-AAC, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 AAC LC decoders without SBR support will decode the AAC LC part of the audio, resulting in audio output with only half the sampling frequency, thereby reducing the audio bandwidth. This usually results in the high-end, or treble, portion of the audio signal missing from the audio product, sony supports HE-AAC encoding since SonicStage version 4
27.
Very high frequency
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Very high frequency is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency electromagnetic waves from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, with corresponding wavelengths of ten to one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted high frequency, and the higher frequencies are known as ultra high frequency. Air traffic control communications and air navigation systems work at distances of 100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude, some older DVB-T receivers included channels E2 to E4 but newer ones only go down to channel E5. VHF propagation characteristics are suited for terrestrial communication, with a range generally somewhat farther than line-of-sight from the transmitter. VHF waves are restricted to the radio horizon less than 100 miles. VHF is less affected by noise and interference from electrical equipment than lower frequencies. Unlike high frequencies, the ionosphere does not usually reflect VHF waves, the distance to the radio horizon is slightly extended over the geometric line of sight to the horizon, as radio waves are weakly bent back toward the Earth by the atmosphere. These approximations are only valid for antennas at heights that are compared to the radius of the Earth. They may not necessarily be accurate in mountainous areas, since the landscape may not be transparent enough for radio waves, in engineered communications systems, more complex calculations are required to assess the probable coverage area of a proposed transmitter station. The accuracy of calculations for digital TV signals is being debated. Portable radios usually use whips or rubber ducky antennas, while base stations usually use larger fiberglass whips or collinear arrays of vertical dipoles, for directional antennas, the Yagi antenna is the most widely used as a high gain or beam antenna. For television reception, the Yagi is used, as well as the log periodic antenna due to its wider bandwidth, helical and turnstile antennas are used for satellite communication since they employ circular polarization. For even higher gain, multiple Yagis or helicals can be mounted together to make array antennas, vertical collinear arrays of dipoles can be used to make high gain omnidirectional antennas, in which more of the antennas power is radiated in horizontal directions. Television and FM broadcasting stations use arrays of specialized dipole antennas such as batwing antennas. Certain subparts of the VHF band have the same use around the world, some national uses are detailed below. 108–118 MHz, Air navigation beacons VOR and Instrument Landing System localiser, 118–137 MHz, Airband for air traffic control, AM,121.5 MHz is emergency frequency 144–146 MHz, Amateur radio. Other capital cities and regional areas used a combination of these, the initial commercial services in Hobart and Darwin were respectively allocated channels 6 and 8 rather than 7 or 9. By the early 1960s it became apparent that the 10 VHF channels were insufficient to support the growth of television services and this was rectified by the addition of three additional frequencies—channels 0, 5A and 11
28.
Ultra high frequency
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Ultra high frequency is the ITU designation for radio frequencies in the range between 300 MHz and 3 GHz, also known as the decimetre band as the wavelengths range from one meter to one decimetre. Radio waves with frequencies above the UHF band fall into the SHF or microwave frequency range, lower frequency signals fall into the VHF or lower bands. UHF radio waves propagate mainly by line of sight, they are blocked by hills, the IEEE defines the UHF radar band as frequencies between 300 MHz and 1 GHz. Two other IEEE radar bands overlap the ITU UHF band, the L band between 1 and 2 GHz and the S band between 2 and 4 GHz. Radio waves in the UHF band travel almost entirely by propagation and ground reflection, there is very little reflection from the ionosphere. They are blocked by hills and cannot travel far beyond the horizon, atmospheric moisture reduces, or attenuates, the strength of UHF signals over long distances, and the attenuation increases with frequency. UHF TV signals are generally more degraded by moisture than lower bands, occasionally when conditions are right, UHF radio waves can travel long distances by tropospheric ducting as the atmosphere warms and cools throughout the day. The length of an antenna is related to the length of the radio waves used, the UHF antenna is stubby and short, at UHF frequencies a quarter-wave monopole, the most common omnidirectional antenna is between 2.5 and 25 cm long for example. UHF is widely used in telephones, cell phones, walkie-talkies and other two-way radio systems from short range up to the visual horizon. Their transmissions do not travel far, allowing frequency reuse, public safety, business communications and personal radio services such as GMRS, PMR446, and UHF CB are often found on UHF frequencies as well as IEEE802.11 wireless LANs. The widely adapted GSM and UMTS cellular networks use UHF cellular frequencies, radio repeaters are used to retransmit UHF signals when a distance greater than the line of sight is required. Omnidirectional UHF antennas used on mobile devices are usually short whips, higher gain omnidirectional UHF antennas can be made of collinear arrays of dipoles and are used for mobile base stations and cellular base station antennas. The short wavelengths also allow high gain antennas to be conveniently small, high gain antennas for point-to-point communication links and UHF television reception are usually Yagi, log periodic, corner reflectors, or reflective array antennas. At the top end of the band slot antennas and parabolic dishes become practical, for television broadcasting specialized vertical radiators that are mostly modifications of the slot antenna or helical antenna are used, the slotted cylinder, zig-zag, and panel antennas. UHF television broadcasting fulfilled the demand for additional over-the-air television channels in urban areas, today, much of the bandwidth has been reallocated to land mobile, trunked radio and mobile telephone use. UHF channels are used for digital television. UHF spectrum is used worldwide for mobile radio systems for commercial, industrial, public safety. Many personal radio services use frequencies allocated in the UHF band, major telecommunications providers have deployed voice and data cellular networks in UHF/VHF range
29.
Super high frequency
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Super high frequency is the ITU designation for radio frequencies in the range between 3 GHz and 30 GHz. This band of frequencies is known as the centimetre band or centimetre wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten centimetres. These frequencies fall within the band, so radio waves with these frequencies are called microwaves. This frequency range is used for most radar transmitters, wireless LANs, satellite communication, microwave relay links. Wireless USB technology is anticipated to use approximately one-third of this spectrum, frequencies in the SHF range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations, S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band, or by similar NATO or EU designations. Microwaves propagate entirely by line of sight, groundwave and ionospheric reflection do not occur, although in some cases they can penetrate building walls enough for useful reception, unobstructed rights of way cleared to the first Fresnel zone are usually required. Wavelengths are small enough at microwave frequencies that the antenna can be larger than a wavelength. Therefore, they are used in point-to-point terrestrial communications links limited by the visual horizon, such high gain antennas allow frequency reuse by nearby transmitters. The size of SHF waves allows strong reflections from objects the size of automobiles, aircraft, and ships. Thus, the narrow beamwidths possible with high gain antennas and the low atmospheric attenuation as compared with higher frequencies make SHF the main frequencies used in radar. Attenuation and scattering by moisture in the increase with frequency. Small amounts of energy are randomly scattered by water vapor molecules in the troposphere. This is used in communications systems, operating at a few GHz. A powerful microwave beam is aimed just above the horizon, as it passes through the some of the microwaves are scattered back to Earth to a receiver beyond the horizon. Distances of 300 km can be achieved and these are mainly used for military communication. The wavelengths of SHF waves are small enough that they can be focused into narrow beams by high gain antennas from a meter to five meters in diameter. Directive antennas at SHF frequencies are mostly aperture antennas, such as antennas, dielectric lens, slot. Large parabolic antennas can produce very narrow beams of a few degrees or less, for omnidirectional applications like wireless devices and cellphones, small dipoles or monopoles are used
30.
Botswana
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Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana, is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa. The citizens refer to themselves as Batswana, formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966. Since then, it has maintained a tradition of stable representative democracy. Botswana is topographically flat, with up to 70 percent of its territory being the Kalahari Desert and it is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. Its border with Zambia to the north near Kazungula is poorly defined, a mid-sized country of just over 2 million people, Botswana is one of the most sparsely populated nations in the world. Around 10 percent of the lives in the capital and largest city. The economy is dominated by mining, cattle, and tourism, Botswana boasts a GDP per capita of about $18,825 per year as of 2015, which is one of the highest in Africa. Its high gross national income gives the country a modest standard of living, Botswana is a member of the African Union, the Southern African Development Community, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the United Nations. The country has been among the hardest hit by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the death rate due to AIDS or AIDS-related causes has fallen sharply from 2005 to 2013, and the number of new infections in children has also fallen. As of 2014, Botswana has the third-highest prevalence rate for HIV/AIDS, the history of Botswana starts more than 100,000 years ago, when the first humans inhabited the region. The original inhabitants of southern Africa were the Bushmen and Khoi peoples, both speak Khoisan languages and lived as hunter-gatherers. About a thousand years ago, large chiefdoms emerged that were later eclipsed by the Great Zimbabwe empire, around 1300 CE, peoples in present-day Transvaal began to coalesce into three main linguistic and political groups, including the Batswana. The Batswana, a term used also to all citizens of Botswana. Prior to European contact, the Batswana lived as herders and farmers under tribal rule, as groups broke off and moved to new land, new tribes were created. Some human development occurred before the colonial period, during the 1700s, the slave and ivory trades were expanding. To resist these pressures, Shaka, the king of the Zulu Empire, conquered tribes began to move northwest into Botswana, destroying everything in their path. In their efforts to re-establish themselves at the end of period, tribes began to exchange ivory and skins for guns with European traders. Christian missionaries sent from Europe also spread to the interior, often at the invitation of tribal chiefs who wanted guns, by 1880 every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence became permanent
31.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
32.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
33.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
34.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
35.
Venezuela
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Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a federal republic located on the northern coast of South America. It is bordered by Colombia on the west, Brazil on the south, Guyana on the east, Venezuela covers 916,445 km2 and has an estimated population of 31775371. The territory now known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples and it gained full independence as a separate country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments. This new constitution changed the name of the country to República Bolivariana de Venezuela. Venezuela is a presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District. Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River, oil was discovered in the early 20th century, and Venezuela has the worlds largest known oil reserves and has been one of the worlds leading exporters of oil. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports. The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gave Venezuela oil funds not seen since the 1980s, the Venezuelan government then established populist policies that initially boosted the Venezuelan economy and increased social spending, significantly reducing economic inequality and poverty. However, such policies later became controversial since they destabilized the economy, resulting in hyperinflation, an economic depression. According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, the stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola Piccola Venezia. The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence, where the suffix -uela is used as a term, thus. The German language 16th century-term for the area, Klein-Venedig, also means little Venice, however, Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found people who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name Venezuela may have evolved from the native word and it is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest, it has been estimated at around one million. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the Kalina, Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, the Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks and their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops, regional crops included potatoes and ullucos
36.
Ecuador
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Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil, in reflection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned. Ecuador has an economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum. The country is classified as a medium-income country, Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups, even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus, each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations, one region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language, in contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior, as a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers, the Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century
37.
Costa Rica
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It has a population of around 4.5 million, of whom nearly a quarter live in the metropolitan area of the capital and largest city, San José. Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by people before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, following a brief civil war, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army. Costa Rica is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. The country has consistently performed favourably in the Human Development Index, placing 69th in the world as of 2015 and its rapidly developing economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Costa Rica is known for its environmental policies, being the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. Costa Rica officially plans to become a country by 2021. In 2012, it became the first country in the Americas to ban recreational hunting, historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area. The oldest evidence of occupation in Costa Rica is associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots, for the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the livelihood in the territory is still unknown. The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE, shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found. The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been small compared to other nations. Costa Rica was described as the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America by a Spanish governor in 1719, for all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. Costa Rica became a democracy with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil, like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain
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