1.
Andean civilizations
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The Andean civilizations made up a loose patchwork of different cultures that developed from the highlands of Colombia to the Atacama Desert. The most advanced civilizations were those of the Inca Empire and the Muisca, there were other cultures in Ancient Peru and earlier cultures in Tiwanaku and the Norte Chico civilization. The Inca Empire was the last sovereign political entity that emerged from the Andean civilizations before the Spanish conquest, the Inca Empire was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated, Spanish rule ended or transformed many elements of the Andean civilizations notably influencing religion and architecture. The Norte Chico civilization was a complex society that included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world and it flourished between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC. The alternative name, Caral-Supe, is derived from the Sacred City of Caral in the Supe Valley, complex society in Norte Chico arose a millennium after Sumer in Mesopotamia, was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids, and predated the Mesoamerican Olmec by nearly two millennia. The Chavín culture in Peru is thought to have been primarily a religious cult, the culture apparently began in the Andes highlands and then spread outward throughout the country. The Chavín culture has very distinctive art styles, particularly in effigy pots, Chavin de Huantar was an important ritual centre for Chavin Culture, dating to around 1,500 BC. The Valdivia Culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas and it emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture and thrived on the Santa Elena peninsula near the modern-day town of Valdivia, Ecuador between 3500 BC and 1800 BC. The Nazca culture was the culture that flourished from 100 to 800 AD beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage. They also built a system of underground aqueducts, known as puquios. The Nazca Province in the Ica Region was named for this people, the Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru from about 100 AD to 800 AD, during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography. They are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions, Tiwanaku is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, South America. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the shore of Lake Titicaca in the La Paz Department, Ingavi Province, Tiwanaku Municipality. The site was first recorded in history by Spanish conquistador
2.
Quechua language
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
3.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
4.
Quechua languages
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
5.
Aymara language
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Aymara /aɪməˈrɑː/ is an Aymaran language spoken by the Aymara people of the Andes. It is one of only a handful of Native American languages with over one million speakers, Aymara, along with Quechua and Spanish, is an official language of Bolivia and Peru. It is also spoken, to a lesser extent, by some communities in northern Chile. Some linguists have claimed that Aymara is related to its more widely spoken neighbor, Aymara is an agglutinating and, to a certain extent, a polysynthetic language. It has a word order. The ethnonym Aymara may be derived from the name of some group occupying the southern part of what is now the Quechua speaking area of Apurímac. In this document, he uses the term aymaraes to refer to the people, the language was then called Colla. It is believed that Colla was the name of an Aymara nation at the time of conquest, however, Cerron-Palomino disputes this claim and asserts that Colla were in fact Puquina speakers who were the rulers of Tiwanaku in the first and third centuries. This hypothesis suggests that the area ruled by the Puquina came to adopt Aymara languages in their southern region. In any case, the use of Aymara to refer to the language may have first occurred in the works of the lawyer, magistrate and tax collector in Potosí and Cusco, Juan Polo de Ondegardo. More than a century passed before Aymara entered general usage to refer to the language spoken by the Aymara people, in the meantime the Aymara language was referred to as the language of the Colla. The entire history of this term is thoroughly outlined in his book, Voces del Ande, the suggestion that Aymara comes from the Aymara words jaya and mara is almost certainly a mistaken folk etymology. It is often assumed that the Aymara language descends from the language spoken in Tiwanaku on the grounds that it is the language of that area today. Aymara placenames are found all the way north into central Peru, indeed, Aymara is actually the one of two extant members of a wider language family, the other surviving representative being Jaqaru. The family was established by the research of Lucy Briggs and Dr. Martha Hardman de Bautista of the Program in Linguistics at the University of Florida. Jaqaru and Kawki communities are in the district of Tupe, Yauyos Valley, in the Dept. of Lima, terminology for this wider language family is not yet well established. Hardman has proposed the name Jaqi while other widely respected Peruvian linguists have proposed names for the same language family. Each of these three proposals has its followers in Andean linguistics, in English usage, some linguists use the term Aymaran languages for the family and reserve Aymara for the Altiplano branch
6.
Puquina language
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Puquina is an extinct language once spoken by a native ethnic group in the region surrounding Lake Titicaca and in the north of Chile. It is often associated with the culture that built Tiwanaku, remnants of Puquina can be found in the Quechuan and Spanish languages spoken in the south of Peru, mainly in Arequipa, Moquegua and Tacna, as well as in Bolivia. There also seem to be remnants in the Kallawaya language, which may be a language formed from Quechuan languages. Some theories claim that Qhapaq Simi, the language of the nobility of the Inca Empire, was closely related to Puquina. Sometimes the term Puquina is used for the Uru language, which is distinctly different, adelaar, Willem and van de Kerke, Simon. In, Mily Crevels and Pieter Muysken Lenguas de Bolivia, vol
7.
Jaqi
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Aymaran is one of the two dominant language families of the central Andes, along with Quechuan. Hardman proposed the name Jaqi for the family of languages, Alfredo Torero Aru to speak, Aymaran languages have only three phonemic vowels /a i u/, which in most varieties of Aymara and Jaqaru are distinguished by length. Length is commonly transcribed using umlauts in Aymara and length diacritics in Jaqaru, though Aymaran languages vary in terms of consonant inventories, they have several features in common. Aymara and Jaqaru both contain phonemic stops at labial, alveolar, palatal, velar and uvular points of articulation, stops are distinguished by ejective and aspirated features. Both also contain alveolar, palatal, and velar fricatives and several central and lateral approximants, Aymaran languages differ from Quechuan languages in that all verbal and nominal roots must end in a vowel, even in loanwords, Spanish habas became Aymara hawasa and Jaqaru háwaša. That feature is not found in other Andean languages, like Quechuan languages, Ayamaran languages are highly agglutinative. However, they differ in that many agglutinative suffixes trigger vowel suppression in the preceding roots, an example is the loss of final vowel in the word apa, when it becomes ap-su. Aymaran consists of two languages, Aymara, Southern and Central dialects divergent and sometimes considered separate languages. Aymara has approximately 2.2 million speakers,1.7 million in Bolivia,350,000 in Peru, Jaqaru has approximately 725 speakers in central Peru, and Laeki had 9 surviving speakers as of 2005. Kawki is little documented though its relationship with Jaqaru is extremely close, Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift Adelaar, Willem F. H. & Muysken, Pieter C. American Indian languages, The historical linguistics of Native America, the native languages of South America. Mosley & R. E. Asher, Atlas of the worlds languages
8.
Muchik
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Mochica is a Chimuan language formerly spoken along the northwest coast of Peru and in an inland village. First documented in 1607, the language was spoken in the area during the 17th. By the end of the 19th century the language was dying out and it died out as a spoken language around 1920, but certain words and phrases continued to be used until the 1960s. It is a best known as the language of the Moche culture. Mochica is typologically different from the main languages on the west coast of South America, namely the Quechuan languages, Aymara. Mochica appears to be a language isolate with no links to any other American Indian language. The reconstruction or recovery of the sounds is problematic. Different scholars who worked with the language used different notations, in fact their interpretations differ markedly, casting doubt on some sounds. Lehman made a comparison of existing sources, enriched with observations of 1929. The long-awaited field notes of Brüning from 1904-05 have been kept in the Museum of Ethnology, Hamburg, though still unpublished. The language probably had six simple vowels and six more elongated vowels, /i, iː, ä, äː, e, eː, ø, øː, o, oː, u, uː/. The Gestión de Cultura of Morrope in Peru has launched a program to learn this language and this program has been well received by people and adopted by many schools, and also have launched other activities such as the development of ceramics, mates, etc. Abstract of Mochica from the Languages of the World series
9.
Inca religion
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In the heterogeneous Inca Empire, polytheistic religions were practiced. Some deities, such as Pachamama and Viracocha, were known throughout the empire, Inca deities occupied the three realms, hanan pacha, the celestial realm in the sky. Ukhu pacha, the earth realm. Kay pacha, the earth realm, where humans live. Ukhu pacha was the domain of Pachamama, the Earth mother, kanopa was the God of Pregnancy. Con-Tici Viracocha Pachayachachic, the first god, creator of the three ancient realms and their inhabitants, was also the father of Inti, many ancient Andean peoples traced their origins to ancestral deities. Multiple clans could share similar ancestral origins, the Inca claimed descent from the Sun and the Moon, their Father and Mother. Many clans claimed descent from early proto-humans that emerged from local sites in nature called pacarinas, the earliest ancestors of the Inca were known as Ayar, the first of which was Manco Cápac or Ayar Manco. Inca mythology tells of his travels, in which he and the Ayar shaped and marked the land, religious traditions in the Andes tended to vary among different ayllus. The Inca attempted to combine their deities with conquered ones in ways that raised the status of their own, one example of this is Pachamama, the goddess of Earth, who was worshiped long before the rise of the Inca. In the Inca mythology Pachamama having been integrated was placed below the Moon who the Inca believed ruled over all female gods, a theme in Inca mythology is the duality of the Cosmos. The realms were separated into the upper and lower realms, the hanan pacha, kay pacha, the realm of the outer earth, where humans resided was viewed as an intermediary realm between hanan pacha and ukhu pacha. The realms were represented by the condor, puma and snake, sacred sites or things named waka were spread around the Inca Empire. A waka could also be an object such as pottery which was believed to be a deity-carrying vessel. Spiritual leaders in a community would use prayer and offerings to communicate with a waka for advice or assistance, human sacrifice was part of Incan rituals in which they usually sacrificed a child or a slave. The Incan people thought it was an honor to die as an offering, divination was used to inform people in the city of social events, predict battle outcomes, and ask for metaphysical intervention. Divination was an important part of Inca religion, as reflected in the following quote, apachetas, coca and the sun were major elements in pre-Conquest religion, and divination, the worship of sacred mountains and the bringing retribution against enemies were important ritual practices. The Inca calendar had 12 months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival, the Incan year started in December, and began with Qhapaq Raymi, the magnificent festival
10.
Imperial cult
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An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor, or a dynasty of emperors, are worshipped as demigods or deities. Cult here is used to worship, not in the modern pejorative sense. The cult may be one of personality in the case of a newly arisen Euhemerus figure or one of identity or supranational identity in the case of a multi-ethnic state. A divine king is a monarch who is held in a religious significance by his subjects. This system of government combines theocracy with an absolute monarchy, the Ptolemaic dynasty based their own legitimacy in the eyes of their Greek subjects on their association with, and incorporation into, the cult of Alexander the Great. In Imperial China, an emperor was considered the Son of Heaven, the scion and representative of heaven on earth, he was the ruler of all under heaven, the bearer of the Mandate of Heaven, his commands considered sacred edicts. A number of legendary figures preceding the proper imperial era of China also hold the title of emperor, such as the Yellow Emperor. Even before the rise of the Caesars, there are traces of a regal spirituality in Roman society, King Numitor corresponds to the regal-sacred principle in early Roman history. Romulus, the founder of Rome, was heroized into Quirinus. Varro spoke of the mystery and power of Roman regality. In Plutarchs Phyrro,19.5, the Greek ambassador declared amid the Roman Senate he felt instead like being in the midst of an assembly of Kings. As the Roman Empire developed the Imperial cult gradually developed more formally and this practice began at the start of the Empire under Augustus, and became a prominent element of Roman religion. The cult spread over the whole Empire within a few decades, Emperor Diocletian further reinforced it when he demanded the proskynesis and adopted the adjective sacrum for all things pertaining to the imperial person. The deification of emperors was gradually abandoned after the emperor Constantine I started supporting Christianity, however, the concept of the imperial person as sacred carried over, in a Christianized form, into the Byzantine Empire. In ancient Japan, it was customary for every clan to claim descendancy from gods, later in history, this was considered common practice by noble families, and the head members of the family, including that of the imperial family, were not seen to be divine. It was not until the Meiji period, that the Japanese Emperor began to be venerated along with a sense of nationalism. Arahitogami – the concept of a god who is a human being applied to the Shōwa Emperor, ningen-sengen – the declaration with which the Shōwa Emperor, on New Years Day 1946, declined claims of divinity, keeping with traditional family values as expressed in the Shinto religion. Devaraja is the Hindu-Buddhist cult of deified royalty in Southeast Asia and it is simply described as Southeast Asian concept of divine king
11.
Absolute monarchy
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Absolute monarchy, or despotic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority that is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs. These are often, but not always, hereditary monarchies, in contrast, in constitutional monarchies, the head of states authority derives from and is legally bounded or restricted by a constitution or legislature. Some monarchies have weak or symbolic legislatures and other bodies that the monarch can alter or dissolve at will. Countries where a monarch still maintains absolute power are Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, Swaziland, in Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh wielded absolute power over the country and was considered a living god by his people. In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well, in ancient and medieval India, rulers of the Maurya, Satahavana, Gupta and Chalukya Empires, as well as other major and minor empires, were considered absolute monarchs. In the Khmer Empire, the kings were called Devaraja and Chakravartin, in Kingdom of Siam, the kings were esestablished Somburanaya-sittiraj. Throughout Chinese history, many emperors and one empress wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven, in pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Throughout much of European history, the right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs, such as those of Russia, claimed supreme autocratic power by right. James VI of Scotland and his son Charles I of Scotland and England tried to import this principle, there is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, a widely held story about Louis XIV of France is that he proclaimed Létat, cest moi. What Louis did say was, The interests of the state come first, when one gives these priority, one labors for ones own good. These advantages to the state redounds to ones glory, although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period, and some historians consider him a successful absolute monarch. More recently, revisionist historians have questioned whether Louis reign should be considered absolute, the King of France concentrated in his person legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He was the judicial authority. He could condemn men to death without the right of appeal and it was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them and this law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm and his actions largely originated the militaristic streak of the Hohenzollern
12.
Sapa Inca
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The Sapa Inca or Sapa Inka, also known as Apu, Inka Qhapaq, or simply Sapa, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cusco and, later, the Emperor of the Inca Empire and the Neo-Inca State. While the origins of the position are mythical and tied to the foundation of the city of Cusco. The position was hereditary, with son succeeding father, the emperor was viewed as a god. There were two known dynasties, led by the Hurin and Hanan moieties respectively, the latter was in power at the time of Spanish conquest. The last effective Sapa Inca of Inca Empire was Atahualpa, who was executed by Francisco Pizarro and his conquistadors in 1533, little is known of the rulers of the first dynasty of Sapa Incas. Evidently, they were affiliated with the Hurin moiety and their rule did not extend beyond the Kingdom of Cusco and their origins are tied to the mythical establishment of Cusco and are shrouded in later foundation myth. The dynasty was founded by Manco Cápac, considered the son of the sun god Inti. As a rough guide to the reputation of the early Sapa Incas, in later years capac meant warlord. The second dynasty was affiliated with the Hanan moiety and was founded under Inca Roca, after Cápac Yupanquis death, another of his sons, Inca Rocas half-brother Quispe Yupanqui, was intended to succeed him. However, the Hanan revolted and installed Inca Roca instead and he had been with Huayna Cápac when he died. The death of Ninan, the heir, led to the Inca Civil War between Huáscar and Atahualpa, a weakness that the Spanish exploited when they conquered the Inca Empire. This last Sapa Inca must not be confused with Túpac Amaru II, pachacutec, a resurrected Sapa Inca king who is over 500 years old, plays a major role in James Rollins novel Excavation. Kingdom of Cusco Inca Empire Neo-Inca State
13.
Pachacuti
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Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui or Pachacutec or Pachakutiq Inka Yupanki was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco which he transformed into the Inca Empire. Most archaeologists now believe that the famous Inca site of Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Pachacuti, in Quechua Pachakutiq means he who overturns space and time, and Yupanki means with honor. During his reign, Cusco grew from a hamlet into an empire that could compete with, and eventually overtake and he began an era of conquest that, within three generations, expanded the Inca dominion from the valley of Cusco to nearly the whole of western South America. He was the ruler of the Inca state who, from ruling a simple chiefdom came to rule a great empire. Although he had not been designated as successor by his father Viracocha Inca, he led a defense against the warlike army of Chanka while his father. The victory over the Chankas made Inca Viracocha recognize him as his successor around 1438, as part of his vision of a statesman and warrior chieftain he conquered many ethnic groups and states, highlighting his conquest of the Collao that enhanced the prestige of the Inca Pachacutec. Due to the expansion of their domains he was considered an exceptional leader, enlivening glorious epic stories. Numerous kurakas do not hesitate to recognize his skills and identify him as son of the Sun and he conquered the provinces of Colla-Suyu and Chinchay-Suyu. Along with his sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, and Apu Paucar Usnu, additionally, he left garrisons in subjugated lands. Pachacuti, son of Inca Viracocha, was the fourth of the Hanan dynasty and his wifes name was Mama Anahuarqui, or Quya Anawarkhi. He had three sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, Apu Paucar, and Tupac Inca Yupanqui, pacachuti had his two brothers, Ccapac Yupanqui and Huayana Yupanqui, killed after the military campaign against the province of Chinchay-Suyu. He also killed his sons Tilca Yupanqui and Auqui Yupanqui, Amaru, the older son, was originally chosen to be co-regent and eventual successor. Pachacuti later chose Tupac Inca because Amaru was not a warrior and he was also the first one to retire. Pachacutis given name was Cusi Yupanqui and he was not supposed to succeed his father Inca Viracocha who had appointed his brother Urco as crown prince. However in the midst of an invasion of Cuzco by the Chankas, while his father and brother fled the scene, Pachacuti rallied the army and prepared for a desperate defense of his homeland. In the resulting battle, the Chankas were defeated so severely that legend tells even the stones rose up to fight on Pachacutis side, thus The Earth Shaker won the support of his people and the recognition of his father as crown prince after the death of Urco. Pachacuti rebuilt much of Cusco, designing it to serve the needs of an imperial city, each suyu had a sector of the city, centering on the road leading to that province, nobles and immigrants lived in the sector corresponding to their origin. Each sector was divided into areas for the hanan and hurin moieties
14.
Atahualpa
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Atahualpa, also Atahuallpa, Atabalipa or Atawallpa was the ruler of Quito for 5 years before conquering the Inca Empire from his brother Huascar, the 13th Inca Emperor. After defeating his brother, Atahualpa became very briefly the last Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire before the Spanish conquest, Atahualpa inherited the Kingdom of Quito from his father the Sapa Inca Huayna Capac in 1525. Before Huayna died, he made a testament to the people in his empire that he intended to divide his empire into two parts. Atahualpa would become king in the Northern section of the Inca Empire, Huayna died from an infectious disease. Atahualpa became Inca emperor after he defeated and imprisoned Huáscar and massacred any pretenders to the throne at the close of the civil war. Later, while imprisoned by the Spaniards, Atahualpa gave orders to kill Huáscar in Jauja, during the Spanish conquest, the Spaniard Francisco Pizarro captured Atahualpa and used him to control the Inca Empire. Eventually, the Spanish executed Atahualpa, effectively ending the empire, throughout the Inca Empires history, the main policy of each Sapa Inca was to expand the territory of the empire. When Pachacuti, the 9th Sapa Inca ruled, the Inca Empire had expanded to northern Peru, at this point, Pachacuti sent his son Tupac Inca Yupanqui to invade and conquer the territory of present-day Ecuador. News of the expansion of the Incas reached the different tribes, as a defense against the Incas the Andean chiefdoms formed alliances with each other. Historians of that region refer to these alliances as the Quito Confederation with the Kingdom of Quito being the leader of this confederation. Around 1460, Tupac Inca Yupanqui, with an army of 200,000 warriors that were sent by his father, easily gained control of the Palta nation in southern Ecuador and northern Peru in a matter of months. However, the Inca army met resistance from the Cañaris. The leader of the Caras-Quitus was known as the King of Quito and this would be the equivalent of calling all the Kings of ancient Rome by the title of Caesar. The turning point came in the battle of Laguna de Yahuarcocha where there was such a massacre of the Quito army by the Inca Huayna Capac that the lake turned to blood in 1495. When the Cacha Duchicela Shyris XV, the King of Quito, however, the Inca Huayna Capac who grew tired of going to war decided to peacefully settle things. Breaking with Inca tradition Huayna Capac proposed to marry the Queen of Quito in order to incorporate the rest of northern Ecuador into the Inca Empire. Paccha Duchicela Shyris XVI accepted this proposal on condition that their son would be crowned King of Quito upon the death of Huayna Capac, out of this marriage alliance the Atahualpa the future King of Quito was born. Thus the rest of Ecuador was temporarily incorporated into the Inca Empire, there are a few historians that attempt to discredit the existence of the Kingdom of Quito, but to no avail, since there are more chroniclers that mention that the Kingdom of Quito existed
15.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
16.
Inca Civil War
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The war followed Huayna Capacs death in 1527, although it did not begin until 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war because he saw himself as the heir to the kingdom of all the Incas. Accounts from sources all vary in the exact details, in 1524-1526, the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro explored South America. There were 62 horsemen and 106 foot soldiers, smallpox was taken to the continent, causing disaster for the Incas. Sapa Inca Huayna Capac travelled north to investigate the strangers, although he never met any Spaniards, he contracted smallpox and died in 1524. His eldest son and heir, Ninan Cuyochi, died soon after him, thus it became uncertain as to who should be the next Inca king. There were no rules of succession. The choice stood between two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar, and Atahualpa, born of different mothers and he was the eldest pure Inca, because his parents, Huayna Capac and Chincha Ocllo, were siblings. Huascar was ill tempered, suspicious and disrespectful of the laws, Atahualpas mother, Paccha, was born outside the royal family and was merely the daughter of Cacha Shyri Duchicela, the former leader against the Incan conquest in the north. He was much liked in the North, as he was good tempered and carried himself with royal dignity and he allegedly had cunning and early wisdom. Nobles considered Atahualpa illegitimate and Huáscar felt it an insult that a bastard was even considered for Sapa Inca, Huáscar eventually became king, but he felt that Atahualpa should not have any more land and that he should pay homage to him. Soon after Huascar claimed the throne, he expected all subjects to swear him allegiance, to announce his loyalty, Atahualpa sent his most trusted captains to Cuzco, along with generous gifts of gold and silver. Accusing him of rebellion, he ordered some of his messengers killed, Atahualpa declared war against his brother. Just before the Spaniards arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa had sent troops to Cusco to capture Huáscar, Huáscar gathered his soldiers in preparation for attack. After getting stunned by his brother, Huascar proclaimed him a traitor, people loyal to Atahualpa created a new capital in Quito, so they could follow their preferred ruler and gain favor within the government. Atahualpa agreed to take the role of Sapa Inca in this new capital. At this news, Huáscar and his army moved north in an attack at Tumebamba. The local Cañari supported the attack, in order to expel the nearest source of power, while the army celebrated, they got drunk and allowed a woman in to meet Atahualpa
17.
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572. The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin-off campaigns into present-day Chile and Colombia, when the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area, by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations. In less than a century, the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km² in 1448, to 1,800,000 km² in 1528 and this vast area of land varied greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the control of. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire numbered more than 16,000,000, in 1528, Emperor Huayna Capac ruled the Inca Empire. He could trace his lineage back to a king named Manco Cápac, the mythical founder of the Inca clan. On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by conquest, while he had to put down a number of rebellions during his reign, by the time of his death, his legitimacy was as unquestioned as was the primacy of Inca power. However, expansion had resulted in its own problems, many parts of the empire maintained distinctive cultures and these were at best resistive participants in the imperial project. Huayna Capac relied on his sons to support his reign, while he had many legitimate and illegitimate children, two sons are historically important. Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa, also known as Huáscar, was the son of Coya Mama Rahua Occllo of the royal line and these two sons would play pivotal roles in the final years of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquistador Pizarro and his men were greatly aided in their enterprise by invading when the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador, Atahualpa was thus closer to, and had better relations with the army and its leading generals. Huayna had died before he could nominate the new heir, at the time of Huayna Capacs death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the main body of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself proclaimed Sapa Inca in Cuzco, but the army declared loyalty to Atahualpa, the resulting dispute led to the Inca Civil War. The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Atahualpa appeared to be popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army
18.
Francisco Pizarro
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Francisco Pizarro González was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire. He captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa and claimed the lands for Spain, Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain in modern-day Extremadura, Spain. He was the son of infantry colonel Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González. His date of birth is uncertain, but it is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, little attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. His father was a colonel of infantry who served in Navarre and his mother married late in life and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, who was at the conquest of Peru with his half-brother from its inception. Through his father, Francisco was a cousin, once removed. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Gulf of Urabá in Tierra Firme, Pizarro became a participant in Ojedas failed colony, commanding the remnants until he abandoned it with the survivors. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso in 1513, in 1513, Pizarro accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his crossing of the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific coast. The following year, Pedrarias Dávila became the appointed governor of Castilla de Oro. During the next five years, Pizarro became an associate of Dávila. When Dávila decided to get rid of Balboa out of distrust, he instructed Pizarro to personally arrest him, Balboa was beheaded in January 1519. For his loyalty to Dávila, Pizarro was rewarded with the positions of mayor, on 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabá. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso and, in 1513, reports of Perus riches and Cortéss success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro. He undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526, both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, in April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan an expedition to conquer the area. He returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project, Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition and he was joined by family and friends and the expedition left Panama in 1530
19.
Neo-Inca State
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The Neo-Inca State, also known as the Neo-Inca state of Vilcabamba, was the Inca state established by Inca emperor Huayna Capacs son Manco Inca Yupanqui in Vilcabamba in 1537. It is considered the remnants of the Inca Empire after the Spanish conquest and it lasted until 1572, when the last Inca stronghold was conquered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Mancos son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the authority of the Inca state. During the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, Túpac Huallpa was a puppet ruler crowned by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, after his death, Manco Inca Yupanqui joined Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. When Pizarros force arrived in Cusco, he had the caciques acknowledge Manco as their Inca, Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz. The Pizarro brothers so mistreated Manco Inca that he tried to escape in 1535. He failed, was captured and imprisoned, Hernando Pizarro released him to recover a golden statue of his father Huayana Capac. Only accompanied by two Spaniards, he escaped a second time. Manco then gathered an army of 100,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to Cusco in early 1536, after ten months, Manco retreated to the nearby fortress of Ollantaytambo in 1537. Here Manco repelled attacks by the Spaniards in the Battle of Ollantaytambo, Manco coordinated his siege of Cusco with one on Lima, led by one of his captains, Quiso Yupanqui. The Incans were able to defeat four relief expeditions sent by Francisco Pizarro from Lima and this resulted in the death of nearly 500 Spanish soldiers. Some Spaniards were captured and sent to Ollantaytambo, however, with the Spaniards position consolidated by Almagros reinforcements, Manco Inca decided that Ollantaytambo was too close to Cusco to be tenable so he withdrew further west. Abandoning Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca retreated to Vitcos and finally to the jungles of Vilcabamba. At Vilcabamba the state known as the Neo-Inca State was established by Manco, from there, he continued his attacks against the Wankas, having some success after fierce battles, and to the highlands of present-day Bolivia, where after many battles his army was defeated. They in turn were all killed by Mancos soldiers, Manco was succeeded by his son Sayri Tupaq. He was five years old at the time and he became Inca in Vilcabamba, reigning for ten years with the aid of regents. This was a time of peace with the Spanish, viceroy Pedro de la Gasca offered to provide Sayri Túpac with lands and houses in Cuzco if he would emerge from the isolated Vilcabamba. Sayri Túpac accepted, but during the preparations his relative Paullu Inca suddenly died and this was taken as a bad omen, and Sayri Tupac remained in Vilcabamba
20.
List of countries by population
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This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population. For instance, the United Kingdom is considered as a single entity while the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are considered separately, in addition, this list includes certain states with limited recognition not found in ISO 3166-1. The population figures do not reflect the practice of countries that report significantly different populations of citizens domestically, some countries, notably Thailand, do not report total population, exclusively counting citizens, for total populations an international agency must issue an estimate. Also given in percent is each countrys population compared to the population of the world, figures used in this chart are based on the most up to date estimate or projections by the national census authority where available, and are usually rounded off. Where updated national data are not available, figures are based on the projections for 2016 by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Because the compiled figures are not collected at the time in every country, or at the same level of accuracy. Furthermore, the addition of figures from all countries may not equal the world total, a handful of nations have not conducted a census in over 30 years, providing high error margin estimates only. Areas that form parts of sovereign states, such as the countries of the United Kingdom, are counted as part of the sovereign states concerned. Note, All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of states are shown in italics
21.
Kingdom of Cusco
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The Kingdom of Cusco was a small kingdom based in Cusco on the Andean mountain ranges that began as a small city-state founded by the Incas around the 12th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow and was succeeded by the Inca Empire. The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD, under the leadership of Manco Cápac, they formed the small city-state of Cusco, shown in red on the map below. In 1438 AD, under the command of the Sapa Inca Pachacuti, Pachacuti is thought to have built the citadel of Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a vacation estate. The Sapa Inca of the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco were, in order, Manco Cápac, Sinchi Roca, Lloque Yupanqui, Mayta Cápac, evidence of state organization dates from 1200 AD. Little is known of this population, but in years the meaning of cápac meant warlord. The Inca civilization spread rapidly from their beginnings in the Kingdom of Cuzco located in southern Peru. The following outlines each of the Incan rulers and a few of their accomplishments in greater detail, while in fact, his kingdom was still limited to the valley of Cuzco. His great military feat may have been the subjugation of another tribe in the valley, túpac Amaru was the last legitimate Inca to rule, and, unfortunately, the most unfit. With the death of his elder brother Titu Cosi, he ordered the execution of all Spanish people living in Vilcabamba and this resulted in his death and the end of Incan sovereignty, for Vilcabamba was occupied and the survivors enslaved. The Last Days of the Incas
22.
Governorate of New Castile
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The Governorate of New Castile was the gubernatorial region administered to Francisco Pizarro in 1528 by King Charles I of Spain, of which he was appointed governor. The region roughly consisted of modern Peru and was after the foundation of Lima in 1535 divided, the conquest of the Inca empire in 1531–1533, performed by Pizarro and his brothers set the basis for the territorial boundaries of New Castile. Governorate of New Toledo, forming the southern half of the Inca empire. New Andalusia Governorate, which was not formally conquered by Spain until decades later, Governorate of New Léon, the southernmost part of the continent. This territorial division set the basis for the administration of South America for several decades. It was formally dissolved in 1544, when King Charles I sent his envoy, Blasco Núñez Vela. List of Viceroys of Peru Viceroyalty of Peru Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish Empire Nueva Castilla in the Spanish East Indies Ushistory. org/civ/11c. asp
23.
Governorate of New Toledo
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The Governorate of New Toledo was formed from the previous southern half of the Inca empire, stretching south into present day central Chile, and east into present day central Brazil. Established by King Charles I of Spain in 1528, diego de Almagro was the appointed Spanish colonial governor. It was replaced by the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru in 1542, Governorate of New Toledo, forming the previous southern half of the Inca empire, stretching towards central Chile. New Andalusia Governorate, which was not formally conquered by Spain until decades later, Governorate of New Léon, the southernmost part of the continent. This territorial division set the basis for the administration of South America for several decades. It was formally dissolved in 1544, when King Charles I sent his envoy, Blasco Núñez Vela. Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire History of Chile Viceroyalty of Peru-related topics Spanish Empire
24.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
25.
Bolivia
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Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
26.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
27.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
28.
Ecuador
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Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil, in reflection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned. Ecuador has an economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum. The country is classified as a medium-income country, Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups, even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus, each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations, one region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language, in contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior, as a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers, the Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century
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Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
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Inca society
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The Inca society was the society of the Inca civilization in South America. The Inca Empire, which was centred in what is now called Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and southern Colombia and lasted from 1438 to 1533 AD, the Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the rulers used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, the last Inca stronghold, the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Population estimates for the Tawantinsuyu society range from as few as 4 million people to more than 37 million, most estimates are between 6 and 14 million people. The reason for these estimates is that, despite that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus. Almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish in the course of their conquest, Incan women were typically married at the age of sixteen, while men married at the age of 20. In Inca society, due to regulations, men of lower rank could only have one wife. The aristocracy, starting with the curaca, were allowed to engage in polygamy, trial marriages were typical within Inca culture. In this type of marriage, the man and woman would agree to try out being married to one another for a few years. At the end of time, the woman could go home to her parents if she wished. However, once the marriage was made final, they could only divorce if the woman was childless, women would almost always marry men in the same social class as themselves. However, while it was rare for them to marry a man with a higher social ranking. The only way for a woman to alter her social ranking would be if a man of higher ranking took notice of her. In the Inca society, a wedding was not a joyous celebration, instead, it was looked at more as a business-like agreement. Therefore, for the Inca, marriage was an agreement between two families. Once a woman was married, she was expected to collect food and cook, watch over the animals, a woman’s household obligations would not change after she became pregnant. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylised animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles, the motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were used with the exception of Huari
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Inca education
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Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire was divided into two principal spheres, education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The Amawtakuna constituted a class of wise men similar to the bards of Great Britain. They included illustrious philosophers, poets, and priests who kept the histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their own culture, history, and traditions throughout the kingdom. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, barring the rank, the Amawtakuna did ensure that the general population learned Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe. According to Fray Martín de Murúa, a chronicler of the time, the Amawtakuna used their erudition to teach the young novices of the empire about Inca religion, history and government, and moral norms. In addition, the men were given careful training in physical education. Most Inca novices finished their education at around age 19, after passing their examinations, the young men would receive their wara as proof of their maturity and virility. Some historians and authors have pointed to feminine schools for Inca princesses and it is believed the education given at the Acllahuasi in Cuzco was much different from that given at the other Acllahuasis in the provinces of the empire. The women learned Inca lore and the art of womanhood as well as related to governance. Other skills included spinning, weaving, and chicha brewing, when the Spanish chroniclers and conquistadors arrived they viewed these institutions as the Inca version of the European nunnery. Like the men, women were brought into the Acllahuasis from faraway villages throughout the empire after being chosen by Inca agents. The general population of the Inca Empire did not go to schools like the nobles did. This type of knowledge was passed on by the fathers and eldest family members through the generations
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Religion in the Inca Empire
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In the heterogeneous Inca Empire, polytheistic religions were practiced. Some deities, such as Pachamama and Viracocha, were known throughout the empire, Inca deities occupied the three realms, hanan pacha, the celestial realm in the sky. Ukhu pacha, the earth realm. Kay pacha, the earth realm, where humans live. Ukhu pacha was the domain of Pachamama, the Earth mother, kanopa was the God of Pregnancy. Con-Tici Viracocha Pachayachachic, the first god, creator of the three ancient realms and their inhabitants, was also the father of Inti, many ancient Andean peoples traced their origins to ancestral deities. Multiple clans could share similar ancestral origins, the Inca claimed descent from the Sun and the Moon, their Father and Mother. Many clans claimed descent from early proto-humans that emerged from local sites in nature called pacarinas, the earliest ancestors of the Inca were known as Ayar, the first of which was Manco Cápac or Ayar Manco. Inca mythology tells of his travels, in which he and the Ayar shaped and marked the land, religious traditions in the Andes tended to vary among different ayllus. The Inca attempted to combine their deities with conquered ones in ways that raised the status of their own, one example of this is Pachamama, the goddess of Earth, who was worshiped long before the rise of the Inca. In the Inca mythology Pachamama having been integrated was placed below the Moon who the Inca believed ruled over all female gods, a theme in Inca mythology is the duality of the Cosmos. The realms were separated into the upper and lower realms, the hanan pacha, kay pacha, the realm of the outer earth, where humans resided was viewed as an intermediary realm between hanan pacha and ukhu pacha. The realms were represented by the condor, puma and snake, sacred sites or things named waka were spread around the Inca Empire. A waka could also be an object such as pottery which was believed to be a deity-carrying vessel. Spiritual leaders in a community would use prayer and offerings to communicate with a waka for advice or assistance, human sacrifice was part of Incan rituals in which they usually sacrificed a child or a slave. The Incan people thought it was an honor to die as an offering, divination was used to inform people in the city of social events, predict battle outcomes, and ask for metaphysical intervention. Divination was an important part of Inca religion, as reflected in the following quote, apachetas, coca and the sun were major elements in pre-Conquest religion, and divination, the worship of sacred mountains and the bringing retribution against enemies were important ritual practices. The Inca calendar had 12 months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival, the Incan year started in December, and began with Qhapaq Raymi, the magnificent festival
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Inca mythology
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Inca mythology includes many stories and legends that attempt to explain or symbolize Inca beliefs. Ethnographic and anthropological studies such as Prof and this was the main tool to ensure cultural transmission of key information, in spite of regime change or social catastrophes. The Inca myths have been interpreted from a Eurocentric perspectives, this is detached from cosmology and agriculture, depriving of its richness, all those that followed the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro burned the records kept by the Inca culture. There is currently a theory put forward by Gary Urton that the Quipus could have represented a system capable of recording phonological or logographic data. Manco Cápac the legendary founder of the Inca Dynasty in Peru, the legends and history surrounding this mythical figure are very jumbled, especially those concerning his rule at Cuzco and his birth or his origins respectively. In one legend, he was the son of Tici Viracocha, in another, he was brought up from the depths of Lake Titicaca by the sun god Inti. However, commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Inca Viracocha, there were also many myths about Manco Cápac and his coming to power. In one myth, Manco Cápac and his brother Pacha Kamaq were sons of the sun god Inti, Manco Cápac, himself, was worshiped as a fire and sun god. In another myth, Manco Cápac was sent with Mama Ocllo to Lake Titicaca where they resurfaced and settled in Isla Del Sol, Bolivia. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth to honor the sun god Inti, their father. In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, since this was a later origin myth than that of Pacaritambo it may have been created as a ploy to bring the powerful Aymara tribes into the fold of the Tawantinsuyo. In the Inca Virachocha legend, Manco Cápac was the son of Inca Viracocha of Paqariq Tampu which is 25 km south of Cuzco. He and his brothers, and sisters lived near Cusco at Paqariq Tampu, and uniting their people and this legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Cápac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them. Like the Romans, the Incas permitted the cultures they integrated into their empire to keep their individual religions, below are some of the various gods worshiped by the peoples of the Incan empire, many of which have overlapping responsibilities and domains. Unless otherwise noted, it can safely be assumed these were worshipped by different ayllus or worshipped in particular former states, Apu was a god or spirit of mountains. All of the important mountains have their own Apu, and some of them receive sacrifices to bring out aspects of their being. Some rocks and caves also are credited as having their own apu, apocatequil or Illapa was the god of lightning
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Inca architecture
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Incan architecture is the most significant pre-Columbian architecture in South America. The Incas inherited a legacy from Tiwanaku, founded in the 2nd century BCE in present-day Bolivia. The capital of the Inca empire, Cuzco, still contains many examples of Inca architecture. The famous royal estate of Machu Picchu is an example of Inca architecture. Other significant sites include Saksaywaman and Ollantaytambo, the Incas also developed an extensive road system spanning most of the western length of the continent. Inca buildings were made out of fieldstones or semi-worked stone blocks and dirt set in mortar, adobe walls were quite common. The material used in Inca buildings depended on the region, for instance, the most common shape in Inca architecture was the rectangular building without any internal walls and roofed with wooden beams and thatch. There were several variations of basic design, including gabled roofs. Rectangular buildings were used for different functions in almost all Inca buildings. Even so, there are examples of curved walls on Inca buildings. Two-story buildings were infrequent, when they were built the second floor was accessed from the outside via a stairway or high terrain rather than from the first floor. Wall apertures, including doors, niches and windows, usually had a trapezoidal shape, other kinds of decoration were scarce, some walls were painted or adorned with metal plaques, in rare cases walls were sculpted with small animals or geometric patterns. The most common form in Inca architecture was the kancha. A testimony of the importance of these compounds in Inca architecture is that the part of the Inca capital of Cusco consisted of large kancha, including Qurikancha. The best preserved examples of kancha are found at Ollantaytambo, an Inca settlement located along the Urubamba River, Inca architecture is widely known for its fine masonry, which features precisely cut and shaped stones closely fitted without mortar. However, despite this fame, most Inca buildings were made out of fieldstone. In the 1940s, American archaeologist John H. Rowe classified Inca fine masonry in two types, coursed, which features rectangular shaped stones, and polygonal, which blocks of irregular shape. In addition to references, they also identified some formal similarities between Tiwanaku and Inca architecture including the use of cut and polished stone blocks, as well as of double jambs
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Incan engineers
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The builders of Incan planned and built impressive waterworks in their city centers, including canals, fountains, drainage systems and expansive irrigation. Incas infrastructure and water system have been hailed as “the pinnacle of the architectural. Major Incan centers were chosen by experts who decided the site, its apportionment, in 1450 the best example of Incan civil engineering, Machu Picchu, was constructed. The famous lost Inca city is a remnant of a society whose understanding of civil. At 8,000 feet in the Andes Mountains, the city planners had to consider the steep slopes of the site as well as the 2,000 mm of rainfall per year. Making models out of clay before beginning to build, the city planners remained consistent with Inca architecture and laid out a city separated the agriculture. Before construction began the engineers had to assess the spring and whether it could provide for all of the city’s anticipated citizens, after evaluating the water supply, the civil engineers designed a 2, 457-foot -long canal to what would become the city’s center. The canal descends the slope, enters the city walls, passes through the agricultural sector, then crosses the inner wall into the urban sector. At the head of each fountain, a cut stone conduit carries the water to a rectangular spout, the water collects in a stone basin in the floor of the fountain, then enters a circular drain that delivers it to the approach channel for the next fountain. The Incans built the canals on steady grades, using cut stones as the water channels, most citizens worked on the construction and maintenance of the canal and irrigation systems, bronze and stone tools to complete the water-tight stone canals. The water then traveled through the channels into sixteen fountains known as the stairway of fountains and this incredible feat supplied the population of Machu Picchu, which varied between 300 and 1000 people when the emperor was present, and also helped irrigate water to the farming steppes. The fountains and canal system were built so well that they would, after a few minor repairs, to go along with the Incans advanced water supply system, an equally impressive drainage system was built as well. Machu Picchu contains nearly 130 outlets in the center moved the water out of the city through walls. These channels carried the runoff into the drain, avoiding the main water supply. This carefully planned system, which was more advanced than European cities, shows the Incans concern. “Inka Hydraulic Engineering” University of Colorado at Denver. “Water Supply and Drainage Systems at Machu Picchu”19 September 2006 Wright, Kenneth R. “Machu Picchu, Prehistoric Public Works. ”American Public Works Association APWA Reporter,17 November 2003 D’Altroy, Terence N. new York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,2001. Wright, Kenneth, Jonathan M. Kelly, Alfredo Valencia Zegarra, journal of Hydraulic Engineering, October 1997
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Inca road system
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The Inca road system was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America. It was about 39,900 kilometres long, the network was based on two north-south roads with numerous branches. The best known portion of the system is the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. Part of the network was built by cultures that precede the Inca Empire. During the Spanish colonial era, parts of the system were given the status of Camino Real. In 2014 the road became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The eastern route ran high in the grasslands and mountain valleys from Quito, Ecuador to Mendoza. The western route followed the coastal plain not including in coastal deserts where it hugged the foothills, more than twenty routes ran over the western mountains, while others traversed the eastern cordillera in the mountains and lowlands. Some of these roads reach heights of over 5,000 metres above sea level, the trails connected the regions of the Inca empire from the northern provincial capital in Quito, Ecuador past the modern city of Santiago, Chile in the south. The Inca road system linked together about 40,000 kilometres of roadway, although the Inca roads varied greatly in scale, construction, and appearance, for the most part they varied between about 1 to 4 metres in width. Much of the system was the result of the Incas claiming exclusive right over numerous traditional routes, many new sections were built or upgraded substantially, through Chiles Atacama desert, and along the western margin of Lake Titicaca, serve as two examples. The Incas developed techniques to overcome the difficult territory of the Andes, on steep slopes they built stone steps resembling giant flights of stairs. In desert areas near the coast they built low walls to keep the sand from drifting over the road, the Qhapaq Ñan constituted the principal north-south highway of the Inca Empire traveling 6,000 kilometres along the spine of the Andes. The Qhapaq Ñan unified this immense and heterogeneous empire through a political system of power. It allowed the Inca to control his Empire and to troops as needed from the capital. The most important Inca road was the Camino Real, as it is known in Spanish and it began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina. The Camino Real traversed the mountain ranges of the Andes, with altitudes of more than 5,000 m. El Camino de la Costa, the trail, with a length of 4,000 kilometres
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Inca army
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The Inca Army was a multi-ethnic army charged with defending the sovereignty of try. As the Inca empire grew, the army of peasant warriors was replaced by an army with professional officers, officers were chosen during the Warachikuy festival during which candidates had to undergo various tests of physical skill such as racing, marksmanship, simulated combat and battle drill. There was even a competition to see if they could stay awake for a long period, Inca battalions contained permanent staff and non-permanent personnel composed of drafted hatun runas who would be serving their military mita public service. Once the mita was fulfilled, each hatun runa would return to their respective ayllu, each battalion was made up of a single ethnic group, the whole group being directed by a kuraka who had the same ethnicity. In the event that a kuraka fell in battle a replacement was appointed from within the ethnic group. This concept of duality is widespread in the Andean world, since the government of Tupac Yupanqui, a specialized elite group of soldiers was appointed for the safekeeping of the Sapa Inca during parades, travel or campaigns. These bodyguards originated primarily in Cusco, even though with time outstanding soldiers from other ethnicities were accepted into the group and this imperial guard, all of them belonging to the nobility, reached a size of 10,000. All members of the Inca army were between 25 and 50 years old, all of the empires citizens had to perform either military or community service. One of every 50 men over 25 years old would be chosen for military service, for noblemen, this was an honor and a duty, for common men, it was a means of social promotion. In accordance with the duality concept, one of every 50 young women were selected to serve in the Temple of the Virgins of the Sun, after a certain period of time, the military service was considered to be fulfilled for common men. However, professional officers were permanent soldiers and paid by the state and this military caste enjoyed several privileges as the State paid for their food and housing costs as well as clothing and several other gifts such as coca, jewelry, and wives. Runas from the region, unlike people from the highlands, were not compelled to serve in the army. This is probably explained by their lack of adaptation to the climate conditions of the highlands. It is worth noting that the units would march in the company of a large number of women. Women would take care of cooking and repairing the clothes and after battles would attend the wounded. Inca armies would not fight at night for religious reasons, a group of priests would also be attached to the army units, in order to pray, make sacrifices, and try to weaken the opposing force by casting spells before and during battle. Weapons and other equipment were transported by llamas, during the beginnings of the Incan empire the army was mainly formed of ethnic Inca troops, however, later on only the officers and imperial guards were Incas. The squads were organized according to the ethnicity of the soldiers, they were armed and dressed according to their tribe, with skins, fabric shields, feathers
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Incan agriculture
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Incan Agriculture was the culmination of thousands of years of farming and herding in the high-elevation Andes mountains of South America, the coastal deserts, and the rainforests of the Amazon basin. These three radically different environments were all part of the Inca Empire and required different technologies for agriculture, Inca agriculture was also characterized by the variety of crops grown, the lack of a market system and money, and the unique mechanisms by which the Incas organized their society. Andean civilization was pristine -- one of five civilizations worldwide which were indigenous, most Andean crops and domestic animals were likewise pristine -- not known to other civilizations. Potatoes and Quinoa were among the crops and Camelids. The Incan civilization was predominantly agricultural, the Incas had to overcome the adversities of the Andean terrain and weather. The heartland of the Inca Empire was in the plateaus and mountains of the Andes of Peru. This area is almost entirely above 3,000 metres in elevation and is characterized by low or seasonal precipitation, low temperatures, freezing temperatures may occur in every month of the year at these altitudes. Westward from the Andes is the Pacific Ocean, its coast often called the driest desert in the world, Agriculture is only possible with irrigation waters from the many rivers originating in the Andes and crossing the desert to the ocean. Eastward from the Andes are the foothills above the Amazon Basin, an area of abundant rainfall, exuberant vegetation. In the Inca Empire, society was tightly organized, land was divided in roughly equal shares for the emperor, the state religion, and the farmers themselves. Individual farmers were allocated land by the leader of the ayllu, the allocations of land to individual farmers depended upon kinship, social status, and number of family members. The farmers were expected to produce their own sustenance from the land they were allocated, rather than being taxed on their production, farmers were required to work on the lands of the emperor and the state religion for designated periods. The Inca state provided the inputs -- seeds, fertilizer, communities were essentially self-sufficient, growing a variety of crops, pasturing camelids, and weaving cloth. Private property existed in the form of estates, especially in the Sacred Valley near the Inca capital of Cuzco. Emperors customarily confiscated large quantities of land for their own use and exploitation, the famous archaeological site of Machu Picchu was a royal estate. The royal estates made use of labor, but also were staffed by a servant class called yanakunas who were ruled directly by Inca nobles and were outside the ayllu kinship system. In the oasis valleys on the desert coast, the population was more specialized, divided mostly into farmers, in the Andes, altitude, scarcity of flat land, and climatic uncertainty were major factors influencing farmers. The Incas, the leaders of the ayllus and the individual farmers decreased their risk of poor crop years with a variety of measures
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Inca cuisine
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Inca cuisine originated in pre-Columbian times within the Inca civilization from the 13th to the 16th century. The Inca civilization stretched across many regions, and so there was a diversity of plants and animals used for food. The most important staples were various tubers, roots, and grains, maize was of high prestige, but could not be grown as extensively as it was further north. The most common sources of meat were guinea pigs and llamas, there were also several types of edible clay, like pasa, which was used as sauce for potatoes and other tubers, and chaco, something used by the poor or religiously devout. As in the rest of Central and South America, chili peppers were an important, the Inca realm stretched north-south, encompassing a great variety of climate zones. In Peru in particular, the mountain ranges provide highly varied types of growing zones at different altitudes, the staples of the Incas included various plants with edible tubers and roots like potato and sweet potato, in hundreds of varieties. Slightly over 4,000 types are known to Peru, there was also oca, which came in two varieties, sweet and bitter. The sweet variety could be eaten raw or preserved and was used as a sweetener before the arrival of sugar, the insipid, starchy root ullucu, and arracacha, something like a cross between carrot and celery were, like potatoes, used in stews and soups. Achira, a species of Canna, was a sweet, starchy root that was baked in earth ovens, since it had to be transported up to the power center of Cuzco, it is considered to have been food eaten as part of a tradition. Although the roots and tubers provided the staples of the Inca, several species of seaweed were part of the Inca diet and could be eaten fresh or dried. Some freshwater algae and blue algae of the genus Nostoc were eaten raw or processed for storage, in post-colonial times it has been used to make a dessert by boiling it in sugar. Pepino, a refreshing and thirst-quenching fruit, was eaten by common folk, peoples of the Altiplano had two large domesticated animals, llamas and alpacas. They were kept for their wool and used as pack animals that were used in large caravans. The llama in particular was highly valued, and a white llama adorned in red cloth with gold earrings would often go before the Inca ruler as a royal symbol. Animals were believed to represent various gods depending on what color they had and were sacrificed in great number, the control over the sacred animals was very rigorous. Shepherds had to every last part of any animal that died. Among the food made from the Peruvian camelids was sharqui, strips of freeze-dried meat. The meat of the folk was the cuy, guinea pig
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History of the Incas
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The Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the Andean mountain ranges. However, shortly after the Inca Civil War, the last Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire was captured and killed on the orders of the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, marking the beginning of Spanish rule. The remnants of the empire retreated to the jungles of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State. The Quechua name was Tawantin Suyu which can be translated The Four Regions or The Four United Regions, before the Quechua spelling reform it was written in Spanish as Tahuantinsuyo. Tawantin is a group of four things, suyu means region or province, the empire was divided into four suyus, whose corners met at the capital, Cuzco, in modern-day Peru. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although over seven hundred local languages were spoken, the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their gods, the foremost of which was Inti, the sun god. The Inca had four types of origin myths, in one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in Paqariq Tampu sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, Sinchi Roca was born to Manco and Ocllo, there Manco became their leader and became known as Manco Cápac. In another origin myth the sun god Inti ordered Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo to emerge from the depths of Lake Titicaca and they traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established Hurin Cuzco, or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco. In the third origin myth, an Inca sun god told his wife that he was lonely and she proposed that he create a civilization to worship him and keep him company. He saw this as a plan and carried it out. The Inca were born from Lake Cusco and populated the Andes and worshiped their sun god. In the last origin myth, Manco Cápac, who was the son of the sun, and his sister Mama Occlo and they were to tell when they were at the right place by carrying a special rod with them at all times. Wherever the rod sank into the ground, this was where they were to create a new city, the rod sank into the ground in Cuzco. The knowledge of myths is due to oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. Manco Cápac, who became the leader of his tribe, probably did exist, the Inca people began as a tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century AD. Under the leadership of Manco Cápac they formed the small city-state of Cusco Quechua Qosqo, in 1438 AD, under the command of Sapa Inca Pachacuti, whose name meant world-shaker, they began a far-reaching expansion
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Pre-Columbian America
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
42.
Inca civilization
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The Inca society was the society of the Inca civilization in South America. The Inca Empire, which was centred in what is now called Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and southern Colombia and lasted from 1438 to 1533 AD, the Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the rulers used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, the last Inca stronghold, the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Population estimates for the Tawantinsuyu society range from as few as 4 million people to more than 37 million, most estimates are between 6 and 14 million people. The reason for these estimates is that, despite that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus. Almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish in the course of their conquest, Incan women were typically married at the age of sixteen, while men married at the age of 20. In Inca society, due to regulations, men of lower rank could only have one wife. The aristocracy, starting with the curaca, were allowed to engage in polygamy, trial marriages were typical within Inca culture. In this type of marriage, the man and woman would agree to try out being married to one another for a few years. At the end of time, the woman could go home to her parents if she wished. However, once the marriage was made final, they could only divorce if the woman was childless, women would almost always marry men in the same social class as themselves. However, while it was rare for them to marry a man with a higher social ranking. The only way for a woman to alter her social ranking would be if a man of higher ranking took notice of her. In the Inca society, a wedding was not a joyous celebration, instead, it was looked at more as a business-like agreement. Therefore, for the Inca, marriage was an agreement between two families. Once a woman was married, she was expected to collect food and cook, watch over the animals, a woman’s household obligations would not change after she became pregnant. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylised animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles, the motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were used with the exception of Huari
43.
Andes
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The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
44.
Incas in Central Chile
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Inca rule in Chile was brief, it lasted from the 1470s to the 1530s when the Inca Empire collapsed. The main settlements of the Inca Empire in Chile lay along the Aconcagua, Mapocho, quillota in Aconcagua Valley was likely their foremost settlement. The bulk of the people conquered by the Incas in Central Chile were Diaguitas, the exact date of the conquest of Central Chile by the Inca Empire is not known. It is generally accepted that Central Chile was conquered during the reign of Topa Inca Yupanqui, beginning with 19th century historians Diego Barros Arana and José Toribio Medina various scholars have pointed out that the incorporation of Central Chile to the Inca Empire was a gradual process. Nevertheless, it is accepted that incorporation into the empire was through warfare which caused a severe depopulation in the Transverse Valleys of Norte Chico. One theory claims Central Chile was conquered by the Inca Empire from the east after Inca troops crossed the Andes at Valle Hermoso and this attack from the east would have been done in order to avoid the more direct but inhospitable routes crossing the Atacama Desert. José Toribio Medina claimed in 1882 that the Incas entered Central Chile from both north and east, troops of the Inca Empire are reported to have reached Maule River and had a battle with Mapuches from Maule River and Itata River there. This defiance gave them their name of Purumaucas from the quechua puruma auca meaning those not under the rule of the Inca. The Spanish later corrupted the name into Promaucaes, the Incas crossed the Maule River, and keeping their old custom, they sent messengers to require these Purumaucas to submit to the rule of the Inca or resort to arms. The Purumaucas had determined to die before losing their freedom, and responded that the victors would be masters of the defeated and that the Incas would quickly see how the Purumaucas obeyed. Three or four days after this answer, the Purumaucas and their allies arrived and camped in front of the Incas camp with 18,000 -20,000 warriors. The Incas tried diplomacy, offering peace and friendship, claiming they were not going to take their land and property, the Purumaucas responded saying that they came not to waste time in vain words and reasoning, but to fight until they won or died. The Incas promised battle the next day, the following day both armies left their camps and fought all day without either gaining an advantage, and both suffering many wounded and dead. At night they both retired to their positions, on the second and third day they fought with the same results. At the end of the day of battle both factions saw that they had lost more than half their number in dead, and the living were almost all wounded. On the fourth day, neither side left their own camp, the fifth and sixth days were passed in the same manner but by the seventh the Purumaucas and their allies retired and returned home claiming victory. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to be situated between Santiago and Maipo River or somewhere between Santiago and Maule River. Spanish chroniclers Miguel de Olavarría and Diego de Rosales claimed the Inca frontier lay much more to the south at the Bío Bío River, regardless of these differing claims on the frontier of the Inca Empire, Inca troops appear to have never crossed Bío Bío River
45.
Sun worship
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A solar deity is a sky deity who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it, usually by its perceived power and strength. Solar deities and sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms, the Sun is sometimes referred to by its Latin name Sol or by its Greek name Helios. The English word sun stems from Proto-Germanic *sunnǭ, the Neolithic concept of a solar barge is found in the later myths of ancient Egypt, with Ra and Horus. Predynasty Egyptian beliefs attribute Atum as the sun-god and Horus as a god of the sky, as the Old Kingdom theocracy gained power, early beliefs were incorporated with the expanding popularity of Ra and the Osiris-Horus mythology. Atum became Ra-Atum, the rays of the setting sun, Osiris became the divine heir to Atums power on Earth and passes his divine authority to his son Horus. Early Egyptian myths imply the sun is within the lioness, Sekhmet, at night and is reflected in her eyes, or that it is within the cow, Hathor, during the night, being reborn each morning as her son. Mesopotamian Shamash plays an important role during the Bronze Age, similarly, South American cultures have a tradition of Sun worship, as with the Incan Inti. Proto-Indo-European religion has a chariot, the sun as traversing the sky in a chariot. In Germanic mythology this is Sol, in Vedic Surya, and in Greek Helios, svarog is the Slavic solar deity, represented as a spirit of fire. During the Roman Empire, a festival of the birth of the Unconquered Sun was celebrated on the winter solstice—the rebirth of the sun—which occurred on December 25 of the Julian calendar. In late antiquity, the centrality of the sun in some Imperial religious systems suggest a form of a solar monotheism. The religious commemorations on December 25 were replaced under Christian domination of the Empire with the birthday of Christ, the Tiv people consider the Sun to be the son of the supreme being Awondo and the Moon Awondos daughter. The Barotse tribe believes that the Sun is inhabited by the sky god Nyambi, some Sara people also worship the sun. Even where the sun god is equated with the supreme being, the Ancient Egyptian god of creation, Amun is also believed to reside inside the sun. So is the Akan creator deity, Nyame and the Dogon deity of creation, also in Egypt, there was a religion that worshiped the sun directly, and was among the first monotheistic religions, Atenism. Sun worship was prevalent in ancient Egyptian religion, the earliest deities associated with the sun are all goddesses, Wadjet, Sekhmet, Hathor, Nut, Bast, Bat, and Menhit. First Hathor, and then Isis, give birth to and nurse Horus, Hathor the horned-cow is one of the 12 daughters of Ra, gifted with joy and is a wet-nurse to Horus. From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the sun was worshipped as the deity Re, and portrayed as a falcon headed god surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent
Argentina
Bolivia
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
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