1.
Inca Empire
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The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
2.
Inca society
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The Inca society was the society of the Inca civilization in South America. The Inca Empire, which was centred in what is now called Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and southern Colombia and lasted from 1438 to 1533 AD, the Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the rulers used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, the last Inca stronghold, the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Population estimates for the Tawantinsuyu society range from as few as 4 million people to more than 37 million, most estimates are between 6 and 14 million people. The reason for these estimates is that, despite that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus. Almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish in the course of their conquest, Incan women were typically married at the age of sixteen, while men married at the age of 20. In Inca society, due to regulations, men of lower rank could only have one wife. The aristocracy, starting with the curaca, were allowed to engage in polygamy, trial marriages were typical within Inca culture. In this type of marriage, the man and woman would agree to try out being married to one another for a few years. At the end of time, the woman could go home to her parents if she wished. However, once the marriage was made final, they could only divorce if the woman was childless, women would almost always marry men in the same social class as themselves. However, while it was rare for them to marry a man with a higher social ranking. The only way for a woman to alter her social ranking would be if a man of higher ranking took notice of her. In the Inca society, a wedding was not a joyous celebration, instead, it was looked at more as a business-like agreement. Therefore, for the Inca, marriage was an agreement between two families. Once a woman was married, she was expected to collect food and cook, watch over the animals, a woman’s household obligations would not change after she became pregnant. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylised animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles, the motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were used with the exception of Huari
3.
Inca education
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Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire was divided into two principal spheres, education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The Amawtakuna constituted a class of wise men similar to the bards of Great Britain. They included illustrious philosophers, poets, and priests who kept the histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their own culture, history, and traditions throughout the kingdom. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, barring the rank, the Amawtakuna did ensure that the general population learned Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe. According to Fray Martín de Murúa, a chronicler of the time, the Amawtakuna used their erudition to teach the young novices of the empire about Inca religion, history and government, and moral norms. In addition, the men were given careful training in physical education. Most Inca novices finished their education at around age 19, after passing their examinations, the young men would receive their wara as proof of their maturity and virility. Some historians and authors have pointed to feminine schools for Inca princesses and it is believed the education given at the Acllahuasi in Cuzco was much different from that given at the other Acllahuasis in the provinces of the empire. The women learned Inca lore and the art of womanhood as well as related to governance. Other skills included spinning, weaving, and chicha brewing, when the Spanish chroniclers and conquistadors arrived they viewed these institutions as the Inca version of the European nunnery. Like the men, women were brought into the Acllahuasis from faraway villages throughout the empire after being chosen by Inca agents. The general population of the Inca Empire did not go to schools like the nobles did. This type of knowledge was passed on by the fathers and eldest family members through the generations
4.
Religion in the Inca Empire
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In the heterogeneous Inca Empire, polytheistic religions were practiced. Some deities, such as Pachamama and Viracocha, were known throughout the empire, Inca deities occupied the three realms, hanan pacha, the celestial realm in the sky. Ukhu pacha, the earth realm. Kay pacha, the earth realm, where humans live. Ukhu pacha was the domain of Pachamama, the Earth mother, kanopa was the God of Pregnancy. Con-Tici Viracocha Pachayachachic, the first god, creator of the three ancient realms and their inhabitants, was also the father of Inti, many ancient Andean peoples traced their origins to ancestral deities. Multiple clans could share similar ancestral origins, the Inca claimed descent from the Sun and the Moon, their Father and Mother. Many clans claimed descent from early proto-humans that emerged from local sites in nature called pacarinas, the earliest ancestors of the Inca were known as Ayar, the first of which was Manco Cápac or Ayar Manco. Inca mythology tells of his travels, in which he and the Ayar shaped and marked the land, religious traditions in the Andes tended to vary among different ayllus. The Inca attempted to combine their deities with conquered ones in ways that raised the status of their own, one example of this is Pachamama, the goddess of Earth, who was worshiped long before the rise of the Inca. In the Inca mythology Pachamama having been integrated was placed below the Moon who the Inca believed ruled over all female gods, a theme in Inca mythology is the duality of the Cosmos. The realms were separated into the upper and lower realms, the hanan pacha, kay pacha, the realm of the outer earth, where humans resided was viewed as an intermediary realm between hanan pacha and ukhu pacha. The realms were represented by the condor, puma and snake, sacred sites or things named waka were spread around the Inca Empire. A waka could also be an object such as pottery which was believed to be a deity-carrying vessel. Spiritual leaders in a community would use prayer and offerings to communicate with a waka for advice or assistance, human sacrifice was part of Incan rituals in which they usually sacrificed a child or a slave. The Incan people thought it was an honor to die as an offering, divination was used to inform people in the city of social events, predict battle outcomes, and ask for metaphysical intervention. Divination was an important part of Inca religion, as reflected in the following quote, apachetas, coca and the sun were major elements in pre-Conquest religion, and divination, the worship of sacred mountains and the bringing retribution against enemies were important ritual practices. The Inca calendar had 12 months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival, the Incan year started in December, and began with Qhapaq Raymi, the magnificent festival
5.
Inca architecture
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Incan architecture is the most significant pre-Columbian architecture in South America. The Incas inherited a legacy from Tiwanaku, founded in the 2nd century BCE in present-day Bolivia. The capital of the Inca empire, Cuzco, still contains many examples of Inca architecture. The famous royal estate of Machu Picchu is an example of Inca architecture. Other significant sites include Saksaywaman and Ollantaytambo, the Incas also developed an extensive road system spanning most of the western length of the continent. Inca buildings were made out of fieldstones or semi-worked stone blocks and dirt set in mortar, adobe walls were quite common. The material used in Inca buildings depended on the region, for instance, the most common shape in Inca architecture was the rectangular building without any internal walls and roofed with wooden beams and thatch. There were several variations of basic design, including gabled roofs. Rectangular buildings were used for different functions in almost all Inca buildings. Even so, there are examples of curved walls on Inca buildings. Two-story buildings were infrequent, when they were built the second floor was accessed from the outside via a stairway or high terrain rather than from the first floor. Wall apertures, including doors, niches and windows, usually had a trapezoidal shape, other kinds of decoration were scarce, some walls were painted or adorned with metal plaques, in rare cases walls were sculpted with small animals or geometric patterns. The most common form in Inca architecture was the kancha. A testimony of the importance of these compounds in Inca architecture is that the part of the Inca capital of Cusco consisted of large kancha, including Qurikancha. The best preserved examples of kancha are found at Ollantaytambo, an Inca settlement located along the Urubamba River, Inca architecture is widely known for its fine masonry, which features precisely cut and shaped stones closely fitted without mortar. However, despite this fame, most Inca buildings were made out of fieldstone. In the 1940s, American archaeologist John H. Rowe classified Inca fine masonry in two types, coursed, which features rectangular shaped stones, and polygonal, which blocks of irregular shape. In addition to references, they also identified some formal similarities between Tiwanaku and Inca architecture including the use of cut and polished stone blocks, as well as of double jambs
6.
Inca road system
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The Inca road system was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America. It was about 39,900 kilometres long, the network was based on two north-south roads with numerous branches. The best known portion of the system is the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. Part of the network was built by cultures that precede the Inca Empire. During the Spanish colonial era, parts of the system were given the status of Camino Real. In 2014 the road became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The eastern route ran high in the grasslands and mountain valleys from Quito, Ecuador to Mendoza. The western route followed the coastal plain not including in coastal deserts where it hugged the foothills, more than twenty routes ran over the western mountains, while others traversed the eastern cordillera in the mountains and lowlands. Some of these roads reach heights of over 5,000 metres above sea level, the trails connected the regions of the Inca empire from the northern provincial capital in Quito, Ecuador past the modern city of Santiago, Chile in the south. The Inca road system linked together about 40,000 kilometres of roadway, although the Inca roads varied greatly in scale, construction, and appearance, for the most part they varied between about 1 to 4 metres in width. Much of the system was the result of the Incas claiming exclusive right over numerous traditional routes, many new sections were built or upgraded substantially, through Chiles Atacama desert, and along the western margin of Lake Titicaca, serve as two examples. The Incas developed techniques to overcome the difficult territory of the Andes, on steep slopes they built stone steps resembling giant flights of stairs. In desert areas near the coast they built low walls to keep the sand from drifting over the road, the Qhapaq Ñan constituted the principal north-south highway of the Inca Empire traveling 6,000 kilometres along the spine of the Andes. The Qhapaq Ñan unified this immense and heterogeneous empire through a political system of power. It allowed the Inca to control his Empire and to troops as needed from the capital. The most important Inca road was the Camino Real, as it is known in Spanish and it began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina. The Camino Real traversed the mountain ranges of the Andes, with altitudes of more than 5,000 m. El Camino de la Costa, the trail, with a length of 4,000 kilometres
7.
Inca army
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The Inca Army was a multi-ethnic army charged with defending the sovereignty of try. As the Inca empire grew, the army of peasant warriors was replaced by an army with professional officers, officers were chosen during the Warachikuy festival during which candidates had to undergo various tests of physical skill such as racing, marksmanship, simulated combat and battle drill. There was even a competition to see if they could stay awake for a long period, Inca battalions contained permanent staff and non-permanent personnel composed of drafted hatun runas who would be serving their military mita public service. Once the mita was fulfilled, each hatun runa would return to their respective ayllu, each battalion was made up of a single ethnic group, the whole group being directed by a kuraka who had the same ethnicity. In the event that a kuraka fell in battle a replacement was appointed from within the ethnic group. This concept of duality is widespread in the Andean world, since the government of Tupac Yupanqui, a specialized elite group of soldiers was appointed for the safekeeping of the Sapa Inca during parades, travel or campaigns. These bodyguards originated primarily in Cusco, even though with time outstanding soldiers from other ethnicities were accepted into the group and this imperial guard, all of them belonging to the nobility, reached a size of 10,000. All members of the Inca army were between 25 and 50 years old, all of the empires citizens had to perform either military or community service. One of every 50 men over 25 years old would be chosen for military service, for noblemen, this was an honor and a duty, for common men, it was a means of social promotion. In accordance with the duality concept, one of every 50 young women were selected to serve in the Temple of the Virgins of the Sun, after a certain period of time, the military service was considered to be fulfilled for common men. However, professional officers were permanent soldiers and paid by the state and this military caste enjoyed several privileges as the State paid for their food and housing costs as well as clothing and several other gifts such as coca, jewelry, and wives. Runas from the region, unlike people from the highlands, were not compelled to serve in the army. This is probably explained by their lack of adaptation to the climate conditions of the highlands. It is worth noting that the units would march in the company of a large number of women. Women would take care of cooking and repairing the clothes and after battles would attend the wounded. Inca armies would not fight at night for religious reasons, a group of priests would also be attached to the army units, in order to pray, make sacrifices, and try to weaken the opposing force by casting spells before and during battle. Weapons and other equipment were transported by llamas, during the beginnings of the Incan empire the army was mainly formed of ethnic Inca troops, however, later on only the officers and imperial guards were Incas. The squads were organized according to the ethnicity of the soldiers, they were armed and dressed according to their tribe, with skins, fabric shields, feathers
8.
Incan agriculture
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Incan Agriculture was the culmination of thousands of years of farming and herding in the high-elevation Andes mountains of South America, the coastal deserts, and the rainforests of the Amazon basin. These three radically different environments were all part of the Inca Empire and required different technologies for agriculture, Inca agriculture was also characterized by the variety of crops grown, the lack of a market system and money, and the unique mechanisms by which the Incas organized their society. Andean civilization was pristine -- one of five civilizations worldwide which were indigenous, most Andean crops and domestic animals were likewise pristine -- not known to other civilizations. Potatoes and Quinoa were among the crops and Camelids. The Incan civilization was predominantly agricultural, the Incas had to overcome the adversities of the Andean terrain and weather. The heartland of the Inca Empire was in the plateaus and mountains of the Andes of Peru. This area is almost entirely above 3,000 metres in elevation and is characterized by low or seasonal precipitation, low temperatures, freezing temperatures may occur in every month of the year at these altitudes. Westward from the Andes is the Pacific Ocean, its coast often called the driest desert in the world, Agriculture is only possible with irrigation waters from the many rivers originating in the Andes and crossing the desert to the ocean. Eastward from the Andes are the foothills above the Amazon Basin, an area of abundant rainfall, exuberant vegetation. In the Inca Empire, society was tightly organized, land was divided in roughly equal shares for the emperor, the state religion, and the farmers themselves. Individual farmers were allocated land by the leader of the ayllu, the allocations of land to individual farmers depended upon kinship, social status, and number of family members. The farmers were expected to produce their own sustenance from the land they were allocated, rather than being taxed on their production, farmers were required to work on the lands of the emperor and the state religion for designated periods. The Inca state provided the inputs -- seeds, fertilizer, communities were essentially self-sufficient, growing a variety of crops, pasturing camelids, and weaving cloth. Private property existed in the form of estates, especially in the Sacred Valley near the Inca capital of Cuzco. Emperors customarily confiscated large quantities of land for their own use and exploitation, the famous archaeological site of Machu Picchu was a royal estate. The royal estates made use of labor, but also were staffed by a servant class called yanakunas who were ruled directly by Inca nobles and were outside the ayllu kinship system. In the oasis valleys on the desert coast, the population was more specialized, divided mostly into farmers, in the Andes, altitude, scarcity of flat land, and climatic uncertainty were major factors influencing farmers. The Incas, the leaders of the ayllus and the individual farmers decreased their risk of poor crop years with a variety of measures
9.
Inca cuisine
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Inca cuisine originated in pre-Columbian times within the Inca civilization from the 13th to the 16th century. The Inca civilization stretched across many regions, and so there was a diversity of plants and animals used for food. The most important staples were various tubers, roots, and grains, maize was of high prestige, but could not be grown as extensively as it was further north. The most common sources of meat were guinea pigs and llamas, there were also several types of edible clay, like pasa, which was used as sauce for potatoes and other tubers, and chaco, something used by the poor or religiously devout. As in the rest of Central and South America, chili peppers were an important, the Inca realm stretched north-south, encompassing a great variety of climate zones. In Peru in particular, the mountain ranges provide highly varied types of growing zones at different altitudes, the staples of the Incas included various plants with edible tubers and roots like potato and sweet potato, in hundreds of varieties. Slightly over 4,000 types are known to Peru, there was also oca, which came in two varieties, sweet and bitter. The sweet variety could be eaten raw or preserved and was used as a sweetener before the arrival of sugar, the insipid, starchy root ullucu, and arracacha, something like a cross between carrot and celery were, like potatoes, used in stews and soups. Achira, a species of Canna, was a sweet, starchy root that was baked in earth ovens, since it had to be transported up to the power center of Cuzco, it is considered to have been food eaten as part of a tradition. Although the roots and tubers provided the staples of the Inca, several species of seaweed were part of the Inca diet and could be eaten fresh or dried. Some freshwater algae and blue algae of the genus Nostoc were eaten raw or processed for storage, in post-colonial times it has been used to make a dessert by boiling it in sugar. Pepino, a refreshing and thirst-quenching fruit, was eaten by common folk, peoples of the Altiplano had two large domesticated animals, llamas and alpacas. They were kept for their wool and used as pack animals that were used in large caravans. The llama in particular was highly valued, and a white llama adorned in red cloth with gold earrings would often go before the Inca ruler as a royal symbol. Animals were believed to represent various gods depending on what color they had and were sacrificed in great number, the control over the sacred animals was very rigorous. Shepherds had to every last part of any animal that died. Among the food made from the Peruvian camelids was sharqui, strips of freeze-dried meat. The meat of the folk was the cuy, guinea pig
10.
Kingdom of Cusco
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The Kingdom of Cusco was a small kingdom based in Cusco on the Andean mountain ranges that began as a small city-state founded by the Incas around the 12th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow and was succeeded by the Inca Empire. The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD, under the leadership of Manco Cápac, they formed the small city-state of Cusco, shown in red on the map below. In 1438 AD, under the command of the Sapa Inca Pachacuti, Pachacuti is thought to have built the citadel of Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a vacation estate. The Sapa Inca of the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco were, in order, Manco Cápac, Sinchi Roca, Lloque Yupanqui, Mayta Cápac, evidence of state organization dates from 1200 AD. Little is known of this population, but in years the meaning of cápac meant warlord. The Inca civilization spread rapidly from their beginnings in the Kingdom of Cuzco located in southern Peru. The following outlines each of the Incan rulers and a few of their accomplishments in greater detail, while in fact, his kingdom was still limited to the valley of Cuzco. His great military feat may have been the subjugation of another tribe in the valley, túpac Amaru was the last legitimate Inca to rule, and, unfortunately, the most unfit. With the death of his elder brother Titu Cosi, he ordered the execution of all Spanish people living in Vilcabamba and this resulted in his death and the end of Incan sovereignty, for Vilcabamba was occupied and the survivors enslaved. The Last Days of the Incas
11.
Inca Civil War
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The war followed Huayna Capacs death in 1527, although it did not begin until 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war because he saw himself as the heir to the kingdom of all the Incas. Accounts from sources all vary in the exact details, in 1524-1526, the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro explored South America. There were 62 horsemen and 106 foot soldiers, smallpox was taken to the continent, causing disaster for the Incas. Sapa Inca Huayna Capac travelled north to investigate the strangers, although he never met any Spaniards, he contracted smallpox and died in 1524. His eldest son and heir, Ninan Cuyochi, died soon after him, thus it became uncertain as to who should be the next Inca king. There were no rules of succession. The choice stood between two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar, and Atahualpa, born of different mothers and he was the eldest pure Inca, because his parents, Huayna Capac and Chincha Ocllo, were siblings. Huascar was ill tempered, suspicious and disrespectful of the laws, Atahualpas mother, Paccha, was born outside the royal family and was merely the daughter of Cacha Shyri Duchicela, the former leader against the Incan conquest in the north. He was much liked in the North, as he was good tempered and carried himself with royal dignity and he allegedly had cunning and early wisdom. Nobles considered Atahualpa illegitimate and Huáscar felt it an insult that a bastard was even considered for Sapa Inca, Huáscar eventually became king, but he felt that Atahualpa should not have any more land and that he should pay homage to him. Soon after Huascar claimed the throne, he expected all subjects to swear him allegiance, to announce his loyalty, Atahualpa sent his most trusted captains to Cuzco, along with generous gifts of gold and silver. Accusing him of rebellion, he ordered some of his messengers killed, Atahualpa declared war against his brother. Just before the Spaniards arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa had sent troops to Cusco to capture Huáscar, Huáscar gathered his soldiers in preparation for attack. After getting stunned by his brother, Huascar proclaimed him a traitor, people loyal to Atahualpa created a new capital in Quito, so they could follow their preferred ruler and gain favor within the government. Atahualpa agreed to take the role of Sapa Inca in this new capital. At this news, Huáscar and his army moved north in an attack at Tumebamba. The local Cañari supported the attack, in order to expel the nearest source of power, while the army celebrated, they got drunk and allowed a woman in to meet Atahualpa
12.
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572. The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin-off campaigns into present-day Chile and Colombia, when the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area, by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations. In less than a century, the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km² in 1448, to 1,800,000 km² in 1528 and this vast area of land varied greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the control of. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire numbered more than 16,000,000, in 1528, Emperor Huayna Capac ruled the Inca Empire. He could trace his lineage back to a king named Manco Cápac, the mythical founder of the Inca clan. On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by conquest, while he had to put down a number of rebellions during his reign, by the time of his death, his legitimacy was as unquestioned as was the primacy of Inca power. However, expansion had resulted in its own problems, many parts of the empire maintained distinctive cultures and these were at best resistive participants in the imperial project. Huayna Capac relied on his sons to support his reign, while he had many legitimate and illegitimate children, two sons are historically important. Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa, also known as Huáscar, was the son of Coya Mama Rahua Occllo of the royal line and these two sons would play pivotal roles in the final years of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquistador Pizarro and his men were greatly aided in their enterprise by invading when the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador, Atahualpa was thus closer to, and had better relations with the army and its leading generals. Huayna had died before he could nominate the new heir, at the time of Huayna Capacs death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the main body of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself proclaimed Sapa Inca in Cuzco, but the army declared loyalty to Atahualpa, the resulting dispute led to the Inca Civil War. The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Atahualpa appeared to be popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army
13.
Neo-Inca State
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The Neo-Inca State, also known as the Neo-Inca state of Vilcabamba, was the Inca state established by Inca emperor Huayna Capacs son Manco Inca Yupanqui in Vilcabamba in 1537. It is considered the remnants of the Inca Empire after the Spanish conquest and it lasted until 1572, when the last Inca stronghold was conquered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Mancos son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the authority of the Inca state. During the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, Túpac Huallpa was a puppet ruler crowned by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, after his death, Manco Inca Yupanqui joined Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. When Pizarros force arrived in Cusco, he had the caciques acknowledge Manco as their Inca, Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz. The Pizarro brothers so mistreated Manco Inca that he tried to escape in 1535. He failed, was captured and imprisoned, Hernando Pizarro released him to recover a golden statue of his father Huayana Capac. Only accompanied by two Spaniards, he escaped a second time. Manco then gathered an army of 100,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to Cusco in early 1536, after ten months, Manco retreated to the nearby fortress of Ollantaytambo in 1537. Here Manco repelled attacks by the Spaniards in the Battle of Ollantaytambo, Manco coordinated his siege of Cusco with one on Lima, led by one of his captains, Quiso Yupanqui. The Incans were able to defeat four relief expeditions sent by Francisco Pizarro from Lima and this resulted in the death of nearly 500 Spanish soldiers. Some Spaniards were captured and sent to Ollantaytambo, however, with the Spaniards position consolidated by Almagros reinforcements, Manco Inca decided that Ollantaytambo was too close to Cusco to be tenable so he withdrew further west. Abandoning Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca retreated to Vitcos and finally to the jungles of Vilcabamba. At Vilcabamba the state known as the Neo-Inca State was established by Manco, from there, he continued his attacks against the Wankas, having some success after fierce battles, and to the highlands of present-day Bolivia, where after many battles his army was defeated. They in turn were all killed by Mancos soldiers, Manco was succeeded by his son Sayri Tupaq. He was five years old at the time and he became Inca in Vilcabamba, reigning for ten years with the aid of regents. This was a time of peace with the Spanish, viceroy Pedro de la Gasca offered to provide Sayri Túpac with lands and houses in Cuzco if he would emerge from the isolated Vilcabamba. Sayri Túpac accepted, but during the preparations his relative Paullu Inca suddenly died and this was taken as a bad omen, and Sayri Tupac remained in Vilcabamba
14.
Milky Way
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The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive milky is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy – a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610, until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies, the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 light-years and 180,000 light-years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars, there are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light-years from the Galactic Center, on the edge of one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of gas. The stars in the inner ≈10,000 light-years form a bulge, the very center is marked by an intense radio source, named Sagittarius A*, which is likely to be a supermassive black hole. Stars and gases at a range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed dark matter, the rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself, the Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster. The Milky Way can be seen as a band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift, the area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance. The Milky Way has a low surface brightness. Its visibility can be reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen and it should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately +5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at +6.1
15.
Cosmology
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Cosmology is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. The term cosmology was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blounts Glossographia, religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions of creation and eschatology. Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers and physicists, as well as philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and philosophers of space and time. Because of this scope with philosophy, theories in physical cosmology may include both scientific and non-scientific propositions, and may depend upon assumptions that can not be tested. Cosmology differs from astronomy in that the former is concerned with the Universe as a whole while the latter deals with individual celestial objects. Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a science because when we look out in space. Physics and astrophysics have played a role in shaping the understanding of the universe through scientific observation. Physical cosmology was shaped through both mathematics and observation in an analysis of the whole universe, cosmogony studies the origin of the Universe, and cosmography maps the features of the Universe. In Diderots Encyclopédie, cosmology is broken down into uranology, aerology, geology, metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing of man in the universe in relationship to all other entities. Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the physical origins and it also includes the study of the nature of the Universe on a large scale. In its earliest form, it was what is now known as celestial mechanics, greek philosophers Aristarchus of Samos, Aristotle, and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. The geocentric Ptolemaic system was the theory until the 16th century when Nicolaus Copernicus. This is one of the most famous examples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology, when Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica in 1687, he finally figured out how the heavens moved. A fundamental difference between Newtons cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle—that the bodies on earth obey the same laws as all the celestial bodies. This was a crucial advance in physical cosmology. Physicists began changing the assumption that the Universe was static and unchanging, in 1922 Alexander Friedmann introduced the idea of an expanding universe that contained moving matter. In parallel to this approach to cosmology, one long-standing debate about the structure of the cosmos was coming to a climax. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the Great Debate on 26 April 1920 at the meeting of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D. C
16.
Francisco Pizarro
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Francisco Pizarro González was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire. He captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa and claimed the lands for Spain, Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain in modern-day Extremadura, Spain. He was the son of infantry colonel Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González. His date of birth is uncertain, but it is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, little attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. His father was a colonel of infantry who served in Navarre and his mother married late in life and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, who was at the conquest of Peru with his half-brother from its inception. Through his father, Francisco was a cousin, once removed. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Gulf of Urabá in Tierra Firme, Pizarro became a participant in Ojedas failed colony, commanding the remnants until he abandoned it with the survivors. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso in 1513, in 1513, Pizarro accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his crossing of the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific coast. The following year, Pedrarias Dávila became the appointed governor of Castilla de Oro. During the next five years, Pizarro became an associate of Dávila. When Dávila decided to get rid of Balboa out of distrust, he instructed Pizarro to personally arrest him, Balboa was beheaded in January 1519. For his loyalty to Dávila, Pizarro was rewarded with the positions of mayor, on 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabá. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso and, in 1513, reports of Perus riches and Cortéss success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro. He undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526, both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, in April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan an expedition to conquer the area. He returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project, Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition and he was joined by family and friends and the expedition left Panama in 1530
17.
Quipu
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Quipus, sometimes known as khipus or talking knots, were recording devices historically used in a number of cultures and particularly in the region of Andean South America. A quipu usually consisted of colored, spun, and plied thread or strings made from cotton or camelid fiber. For the Inca, the system aided in collecting data and keeping records, ranging from monitoring tax obligations, properly collecting census records, calendrical information, the cords contained numeric and other values encoded by knots in a base ten positional system. A quipu could have only a few or up to 2,000 cords, the configuration of the quipus have also been compared to string mops. Archaeological evidence has shown a use of finely carved wood as a supplemental. A relatively small number have survived, objects that can be identified unambiguously as quipus first appear in the archaeological record in the first millennium AD. As the region was subsumed under the invading Spanish Empire, the use of the quipu faded from use, however, in several villages, quipu continued to be important items for the local community, albeit for ritual rather than recording use. It is unclear as to where and how many intact quipus still exist, as many have been stored away in mausoleums, quipu is the Spanish spelling and the most common spelling in English. Khipu is the word for knot in Cusco Quechua, the kh is an aspirated k, in most Quechua varieties, the term is kipu. The word khipu, meaning knot or to knot, comes from the Quechua language word, quipu,1704, most information recorded on the quipus consists of numbers in a decimal system. In the early years of the Spanish conquest of Peru, Spanish officials often relied on the quipus to settle disputes over local tribute payments or goods production, Spanish chroniclers also concluded that quipus were used primarily as mnemonic devices to communicate and record numerical information. Quipucamayocs could be summoned to court, where their bookkeeping was recognised as valid documentation of past payments, some of the knots, as well as other features, such as color, are thought to represent non-numeric information, which has not been deciphered. It is generally thought that the system did not include phonetic symbols analogous to letters of the alphabet, however Gary Urton has suggested that the quipus used a binary system which could record phonological or logographic data. To date, no link has yet been found between a quipu and Quechua, the language of the Peruvian Andes. This suggests that quipus are not a writing system and have no phonetic referent. If this conjecture is correct, quipus are the known example of a complex language recorded in a 3-D system. Marcia and Robert Ascher, after having analyzed several hundred quipus, have shown that most information on quipus is numeric, and these numbers can be read. Each cluster of knots is a digit, and there are three types of knots, simple overhand knots, long knots, consisting of an overhand knot with one or more additional turns
18.
Binary number
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
19.
Phonology
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Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages, the word phonology can also refer to the phonological system of a given language. This is one of the systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax. Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics, note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. The word phonology comes from Ancient Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, voice, sound, according to Clark et al. it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, Baudouin de Courtenays work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of alternations, and may have had an influence on the work of Saussure according to E. F. K. Koerner. An influential school of phonology in the period was the Prague school. One of its members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century, in 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English, the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features and these features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a fixed set. There are at least two levels of representation, underlying representation and surface phonetic representation, ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation. An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable, furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems. Natural phonology is a based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969. In this view, phonology is based on a set of phonological processes that interact with one another, which ones are active. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups, prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance
20.
Logogram
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In written language, a logogram or logograph is a written character that represents a word or phrase. Chinese characters and Japanese kanji are logograms, some Egyptian hieroglyphs, the use of logograms in writing is called logography. A writing system that is based on logograms is called a logographic system, in alphabets and syllabaries, individual written characters represent sounds rather than concepts. Unlike logograms, phonograms do not necessarily have meaning by themselves, Writing language in this way is called phonemic orthography. Logographic systems include the earliest writing systems, the first historical civilizations of the Near East, Africa, China, a more recent attempt is Zlango, intended for use in text messaging, currently including around 300 icons. The term logosyllabary is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the domain is the syllable. For example, Egyptian was used to write both sȝ duck and sȝ son, though it is likely that these words were not pronounced the same apart from their consonants and this can be illustrated with Chinese. Not all Chinese characters represent morphemes, some morphemes are composed of more than one character, for example, the Chinese word for spider, 蜘蛛 zhīzhū, was created by fusing the rebus 知朱 zhīzhū with the bug determinative 虫. Neither *蜘 zhī nor *蛛 zhū can be used separately, in Archaic Chinese, one can find the reverse, a single character representing more than one morpheme. An example is Archaic Chinese 王 hjwangs, a combination of a morpheme hjwang meaning king, in modern Mandarin, bimorphemic syllables are always written with two characters, for example 花儿 huār flower. These logograms, called hozwārishn, were dispensed with altogether after the Arab conquest of Persia, logograms are used in modern shorthand to represent common words. In addition, the numerals and mathematical symbols used in systems are logograms—1 one,2 two, + plus, = equals, and so on. In English, the ampersand & is used for and and et, % for percent, # for number, § for section, $ for dollar, € for euro, £ for pound, ° for degree, @ for at, etc. All historical logographic systems include a dimension, as it is impractical to have a separate basic character for every word or morpheme in a language. In some cases, such as cuneiform as it was used for Akkadian, many logographic systems also have a semantic/ideographic component, called determinatives in the case of Egyptian and radicals in the case of Chinese. In the case of Chinese, the vast majority of characters are a combination of a radical that indicates its nominal category. The Mayan system used logograms with phonetic complements like the Egyptian, Chinese scholars have traditionally classified the Chinese characters hanzi into six types by etymology. The first two types are single-body, meaning that the character was created independently of other characters, single-body pictograms and ideograms make up only a small proportion of Chinese logograms
21.
Iconography
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The word iconography comes from the Greek εἰκών and γράφειν. A secondary meaning is the production of images, called icons, in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. In art history, an iconography may also mean a depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing. Sometimes distinctions have been made between iconology and iconography, although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies, when referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition. Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessings study of the classical figure Amor with a torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, mâles lArt religieux du XIIIe siècle en France translated into English as The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century has remained continuously in print. In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, the period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. These are now being digitised and made online, usually on a restricted basis. For example, the Iconclass code 71H7131 is for the subject of Bathsheba with Davids letter, whereas 71 is the whole Old Testament and 71H the story of David. A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. These are available, usually on-line or on DVD, the system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr. Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings, the symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates. The art of Indian Religions esp, for example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, after the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, the Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism
22.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
23.
Viracocha
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Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, Viracocha was one of the most important deities in the Inca pantheon and seen as the creator of all things, or the substance from which all things are created, and intimately associated with the sea. Viracocha created the universe, sun, moon, and stars, time, Viracocha was worshipped as god of the sun and of storms. He was represented as wearing the sun for a crown, with thunderbolts in his hands, according to a myth recorded by Juan de Betanzos, Viracocha rose from Lake Titicaca during the time of darkness to bring forth light. He made the sun, moon, and the stars and he made mankind by breathing into stones, but his first creation were brainless giants that displeased him. So he destroyed it with a flood and made a new, Viracocha eventually disappeared across the Pacific Ocean, and never returned. He wandered the earth disguised as a beggar, teaching his new creations the basics of civilization and he wept when he saw the plight of the creatures he had created. It was thought that Viracocha would re-appear in times of trouble, in one legend he had one son, Inti, and two daughters, Mama Killa and Pachamama. These two founded the Inca civilization carrying a staff, called tapac-yauri. In another legend, he fathered the first eight civilized human beings, in some stories, he has a wife called Mama Qucha. In another legend, Viracocha had two sons, Imahmana Viracocha and Tocapo Viracocha, after the Great Flood and the Creation, Viracocha sent his sons to visit the tribes to the northeast and northwest to determine if they still obeyed his commandments. During their journey, Imaymana and Tocapo gave names to all the trees, flowers, fruits and they also taught the tribes which of these were edible, which had medicinal properties, and which were poisonous. Eventually, Viracocha, Tocapo and Imahmana arrived at Cusco and the Pacific seacoast where they walked across the water until they disappeared, the word Viracocha literally means Sea Foam. Tiqsi Huiracocha may have several meanings, in the Quechuan languages, tiqsi means foundation or base, wira means fat, and qucha means lake, sea, or reservoir. Viracochas many epithets include great, all knowing, powerful, etc, some people state that Wiraqucha could mean Fat of the sea. This story was first reported by Pedro Cieza de León and later by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, similar accounts by Spanish chroniclers describe Viracocha as a white god, often with a beard. The Anales de Cuauhtitlan is an important early source which is particularly valuable for having been originally written in Nahuatl. In this quote the beard is represented as a dressing of feathers, a representation of the messenger of Viracocha named Wiracochan or Tunupa is shown in the small village of Ollantaytambo, southern Peru
24.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
25.
Lake Titicaca
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Lake Titicaca is a large, deep lake in the Andes on the border of Bolivia and Peru. By volume of water and by area, it is the largest lake in South America. Lake Maracaibo has a surface area, but it is a tidal bay. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world, although this refers to navigation by large boats, it is generally considered to mean commercial craft. For many years the largest vessel afloat on the lake was the 2, 200-ton, today the largest vessel is most likely the similarly sized, but broader, train barge/float Manco Capac, operated by PeruRail. Numerous smaller bodies of water around the world are at higher elevations, the lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lies within the Puno Region of Peru. The lake is composed of two nearly separate sub-basins connected by the Strait of Tiquina, which is 800 m across at the narrowest point, the larger sub-basin, Lago Grande, has a mean depth of 135 m and a maximum depth of 284 m. The smaller sub-basin, Wiñaymarka, has a depth of 9 m. The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m, five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca. In order of their flow volumes these are Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané. More than twenty other smaller streams empty into Titicaca, the lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated. This only accounts for about 10% of the water balance. Evapotranspiration, caused by winds and intense sunlight at high altitude. It is nearly a closed lake, since 2000 Lake Titicaca has experienced constantly receding water levels. Between April and November 2009 alone the water level dropped by 81 cm and this drop is caused by shortened rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers feeding the tributaries of the lake. Water pollution is also a concern because cities in the Titicaca watershed grow, sometimes outpacing solid waste. According to the Global Nature Fund, Titicacas biodiversity is threatened by water pollution, already in 2012, the GNF nominated the lake Threatened Lake of the Year
26.
Inti
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Inti is the ancient Incan sun god. He is revered as the patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more viewed as a cluster of solar aspects. Worshiped as a deity of the Inca Empire, he is of unknown mythological origin. The most common story says that he is the son of Viracocha, Inti and his sister, Mama Killa, the Moon goddess were generally considered benevolent deities. According to an ancient myth, Inti taught his son Manco Cápac and his daughter Mama Ocllo the arts of civilization, another legend, however, states Manco Cápac was the son of Viracocha. Inti ordered his children to build the Inca capital where a golden wedge they carried with them would penetrate the earth. Incas believed that this happened in the city of Cusco, the Inca ruler was considered to be the living representative of Inti. Pachacuti is often linked to the origin and expansion of the Inca Sun Cult, the Willaq Umu was the high priest of the Sun. His position placed him as the second most powerful person in the kingdom and he was directly underneath the Sapa Inca, and they were often brothers. The emperor and his family were believed to be descended from Inti, a great golden disk representing Inti was captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1571 and was sent to the pope via Spain. The Inca dedicated many ceremonies to the Sun in order to ensure the Sapa Incas welfare, the sun was also important to the Incas, particularly the people of the highlands, because it was necessary for the production of crops like maize and other grains. The suns heat was thought to cause rain. During the rainy season the sun was hotter and brighter, while during the dry season it was weaker, the Incas would set aside large quantities of natural and human resources throughout the empire for Inti. Each conquered province was supposed to dedicate a third of their lands and herds to Inti as mandated by the Inca, each major province would also have a Sun Temple in which male and female priests would serve. The female priests were the mamakuna, who were chosen from the aqllakuna, additionally, the chief temple of the Inca state religion was the Qurikancha in Cusco. Within this temple were wall niches in which the bodies of previous emperors and rulers were exhibited along with statues of Inti in certain festivals. Some figures of Inti also depicted him in form with a hollowed out midsection that was filled with a concoction made of gold dust
27.
Pacha Kamaq
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Pacha Kamaq was the deity worshipped in the city of Pachacamac by the Ichma. Pacha Kamaq was believed to have created the first man and woman, but forgot to give them food, the woman cursed Pacha Kamaq, accusing him of neglect, and Pacha Kamaq made her fertile. Later Pacha Kamaq killed her son and cut the corpse into pieces, the womans second son, Wichama, escaped, so Pacha Kamaq killed the woman. Wichama sought revenge and drove Pacha Kamaq into the ocean, tahuantinsuyu adopted Pacha Kamaq when they incorporated the Ichma into their empire. In late Inca mythology he was the father of Inti and Mama Quilla, Inca mythology Pachacamac Lanning, Edward P. Peru before the Incas
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Paqariq Tampu
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In Inca mythology, one of the main Inca creation myths was that of the Ayar Brothers who emerged from a cave called Paqariq Tampu. This house of production was located on the hill called Tampu Tuqu, according to the myth, the tribe of Maras emerged from one of the niches, called Maras Tuqu by spontaneous generation. The tribe of Tampus emerged from the suti tuqu window, manco Capac, his three Ayar brothers, and his four Mama sisters, emerged from the chief window in the middle, the qhapaq tuqu. Those eight brothers and sisters out of Pacari Tanbo and they went to their idol huaca of Uana Cauri
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Inca mythology
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Inca mythology includes many stories and legends that attempt to explain or symbolize Inca beliefs. Ethnographic and anthropological studies such as Prof and this was the main tool to ensure cultural transmission of key information, in spite of regime change or social catastrophes. The Inca myths have been interpreted from a Eurocentric perspectives, this is detached from cosmology and agriculture, depriving of its richness, all those that followed the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro burned the records kept by the Inca culture. There is currently a theory put forward by Gary Urton that the Quipus could have represented a system capable of recording phonological or logographic data. Manco Cápac the legendary founder of the Inca Dynasty in Peru, the legends and history surrounding this mythical figure are very jumbled, especially those concerning his rule at Cuzco and his birth or his origins respectively. In one legend, he was the son of Tici Viracocha, in another, he was brought up from the depths of Lake Titicaca by the sun god Inti. However, commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Inca Viracocha, there were also many myths about Manco Cápac and his coming to power. In one myth, Manco Cápac and his brother Pacha Kamaq were sons of the sun god Inti, Manco Cápac, himself, was worshiped as a fire and sun god. In another myth, Manco Cápac was sent with Mama Ocllo to Lake Titicaca where they resurfaced and settled in Isla Del Sol, Bolivia. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth to honor the sun god Inti, their father. In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, since this was a later origin myth than that of Pacaritambo it may have been created as a ploy to bring the powerful Aymara tribes into the fold of the Tawantinsuyo. In the Inca Virachocha legend, Manco Cápac was the son of Inca Viracocha of Paqariq Tampu which is 25 km south of Cuzco. He and his brothers, and sisters lived near Cusco at Paqariq Tampu, and uniting their people and this legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Cápac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them. Like the Romans, the Incas permitted the cultures they integrated into their empire to keep their individual religions, below are some of the various gods worshiped by the peoples of the Incan empire, many of which have overlapping responsibilities and domains. Unless otherwise noted, it can safely be assumed these were worshipped by different ayllus or worshipped in particular former states, Apu was a god or spirit of mountains. All of the important mountains have their own Apu, and some of them receive sacrifices to bring out aspects of their being. Some rocks and caves also are credited as having their own apu, apocatequil or Illapa was the god of lightning
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Ayllu
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Ayllu is the traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras. They are a local government model across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia. Ayllus functioned prior to Inca conquest, during the Inca and Spanish colonial period, Ayllus were essentially extended family groups but they could adopt non-related members, giving individual families more variation and security of the land that they farmed. The head of an ayllu is called a mallku which means, literally, condor and they would often have their own waka, or minor god, usually embodied in a physical object such as a mountain or rock. Their primary function was to solve issues, and issues of how to get along in family. Each ayllu owned a parcel of land, and the members had reciprocal obligations to each other. In marriages, the woman would join the class and ayllu of her partner as would her children. This is how most movements of people between ayllu occurred, but a person could also join an ayllu by assuming the responsibility of membership. This included minka, communal work for common purposes, ayni, or work in kind for other members of the ayllu, and mita, “Ayllu solidarity is a combination of kinship and territorial ties, as well as symbolism. These studies, however, do not explain how the ayllu is a whole, which includes social principles, verticality. Ayllu also refers to people who live in the same territory, Ayllus are distinguished by comparative self-sufficiency, commonly held territory, and relations of reciprocity. Members engage in shared collective labor and in reciprocal exchanges of assistance, in Bolivia, representatives from the ayllus are sent to the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu. This body chooses an Apu Mallku as its head, the Fiscal Role of the Andean Ayllu. Inca model Alessandro Vigiani, Storia e attualità dellayllu nel contesto boliviano, Achab
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Supay
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In the Quechua, Aymara and Inca mythologies, Supay was both the god of death and ruler of the Ukhu Pacha, the Incan underworld, as well as a race of demons. Supay is associated with miners rituals, with the Spanish colonization of the Americas, Christian priests used the name Supay to refer to the Christian Devil. However, unlike Europeans in relation to the Christian Devil, the people did not repudiate Supay but, being scared of him, they invoked him. Supay acquired a syncretic symbolism, becoming a character of the diabladas of Bolivia, Peru. The name Supay is now translated into diablo in most Southern American countries. In some of them, for example the region of Argentina. However, the dance of the Supay may be performed for tourists on other occasions not necessarily related to Mamacha Candicha
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Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
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Creation myth
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A creation myth is a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it. While in popular usage the term often refers to false or fanciful stories, formally. Cultures generally regard their creation myths as true, in the society in which it is told, a creation myth is usually regarded as conveying profound truths, metaphorically, symbolically and sometimes in a historical or literal sense. They are commonly, although not always, considered cosmogonical myths – that is, Creation myths often share a number of features. They often are considered sacred accounts and can be found in all known religious traditions. They are all stories with a plot and characters who are either deities, human-like figures, or animals and they are often set in a dim and nonspecific past that historian of religion Mircea Eliade termed in illo tempore. Creation myths develop in oral traditions and therefore typically have multiple versions, found throughout human culture, Creation myth definitions from modern references, A symbolic narrative of the beginning of the world as understood in a particular tradition and community. Creation myths are of importance for the valuation of the world, for the orientation of humans in the universe. Creation myths tell us how things began, all cultures have creation myths, they are our primary myths, the first stage in what might be called the psychic life of the species. As cultures, we identify ourselves through the collective dreams we call creation myths, … Creation myths explain in metaphorical terms our sense of who we are in the context of the world, and in so doing they reveal our real priorities, as well as our real prejudices. Our images of creation say a deal about who we are. A philosophical and theological elaboration of the myth of creation within a religious community. Religion professor Mircea Eliade defined the word myth in terms of creation, Myth narrates a history, it relates an event that took place in primordial Time. All creation myths are in one sense etiological because they attempt to explain how the world was formed, in the past historians of religion and other students of myth thought of them as forms of primitive or early-stage science or religion and analyzed them in a literal or logical sense. However they are seen as symbolic narratives which must be understood in terms of their own cultural context. Charles Long writes, The beings referred to in the myth – gods, animals, the myths should not be understood as attempts to work out a rational explanation of deity. While creation myths are not literal explications they do serve to define an orientation of humanity in the world in terms of a birth story. They are the basis of a worldview that reaffirms and guides how people relate to the world, to any assumed spiritual world
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Ekeko
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The Ekeko is a traditional god of luck and prosperity, popular in Bolivia, Cochabamba, and neighboring regions, like northern Argentina and northern Chile. The name Ekeko comes from the alteration of the original term Ekhako or Eqaqo, popularized as Ekhekho which was the ancient god of fortune, the Ekhako was often invoked when a disgrace disturbed their homes. Cavour considers that these figures were made using basalt—extracted from the mines in the shores of the Lake Poopó—and andesite from the Copacabana peninsula. The historian Antonio Paredes Candia considers that these figures would be the remains of ancient sacred festivities during the solstice in the southern hemisphere. Latest tradition has the Ekeko smoke a lit cigarette once a year to ensure a full year of prosperity, Ekeko should be placed in a place of honor at home. Some versions can be carried in necklaces or key chains, Ekeko brings monetary wealth to its worshippers. An offering is generally required before he provides his services, banknotes are often clipped to the Ekeko as offerings, but some statuettes allow for a cigarette to be lighted as an offering. The figurines which allow for cigarette offerings have mouth openings large enough for cigarettes to be inserted, Ekeko additionally provides good harvests when offered grain. The legend of the Ekeko, as narrated by Antonio Díaz Villamil, dates around 1781 in La Paz, at this time, the city of La Paz was under siege by indigenous people, who were still at war with Spanish forces. The story of the origin of the Ekeko starts with Paulita Tintaya, the girl was in love with Isidoro Choquewanca. Years before, she had left the hacienda where they both had grown up, before her departure, Isidoro gave her a small statue to protect her. This small statue was the Ekeko, which was known to Andean people to be a god of fortune, at the time of the siege, people were starving to death. Isidoro was enrolled in the army, and he manage to reach Paulinas house. Every week, he left her food near the statue, which was placed outside the house, both Paulina and her boss, Doña Josefa, were able to survive the siege because of the food left near the statue by Isidoro. That is the origin of the beliefs of Ekekos powers in providing abundance, the Alasitas festival is held for, and hosted by, the Ekeko, each January 24 in La Paz. Throughout other regions the festival for the Ekeko is held in October, in 2009 Bolivia asked the United Nations to recognize the Bolivian cultural roots of the Alasitas festival, celebrating the figure of the Ekeko, something Peru also claims. However, the Bolivian ambassador in Peru, Franz Solano, acknowledged that the doll was present in both countries
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Qullasuyu
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Qullasuyu was the southeastern provincial region of the Inca Empire. Qullasuyu is the region of the Qulla and related specifically to the native Qulla Quechuas who primarily resided in areas such as Cochabamba, recently, there have been movements to form a Greater Qullasuyu which would incorporate a territory similar to the former Tawantinsuyu in extent. This ideal has been proposed by the office of the Apu Mallku, Qullasuyu was the largest of the four suyu in terms of area. This suyu encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, running down into Argentina and as far south as the Maule river near modern Santiago, along with Kuntisuyu, it was part of the Hurin Suyukuna or Lower Quarters of the empire. Each suyu was divided into wamani, or provinces
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Coricancha
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Coricancha, Korikancha, Qurikancha, or Quri Kancha was the most important temple in the Inca Empire. Originally named Inti Kancha or Inti Wasi, it was dedicated to Inti, mostly destroyed after the 16th century war with the Spanish conquistadors much of its stonework forms the foundation of the Santo Domingo church and convent. Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui rebuilt Cusco and the House of the Sun, enriching it with more oracles and edifices and he provided vases of gold and silver for the Mama-cunas, nuns, to use in the veneration services. Finally, he took the bodies of the seven deceased Incas, the walls were once covered in sheets of solid gold, and its adjacent courtyard was filled with golden statues. Spanish reports tell of its opulence that was fabulous beyond belief, when the Spanish required the Inca to raise a ransom in gold for the life of the leader Atahualpa, most of the gold was collected from Coricancha. The Spanish colonists built the Church of Santo Domingo on the site, demolishing the temple, construction took most of a century. This is one of sites where the Spanish incorporated Inca stonework into the structure of a colonial building. Major earthquakes severely damaged the church, but the Inca stone walls, built out of huge, tightly-interlocking blocks of stone, nearby is an underground archaeological museum, which contains numerous interesting pieces, including mummies, textiles, and sacred idols from the site. The site now includes the Church and Convent of Santo Domingo. Iperu, tourist information and assistance Tourism in Peru Media related to Qurikancha at Wikimedia Commons
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Pachamama
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Pachamama is a goddess revered by the indigenous people of the Andes. She is also known as the earth/time mother, in Inca mythology, Pachamama is a fertility goddess who presides over planting and harvesting, embodies the mountains, and causes earthquakes. She is also an ever-present and independent deity who has her own self-sufficient and her shrines are hallowed rocks, or the boles of legendary trees, and her artists envision her as an adult female bearing harvests of potatoes and coca leaves. Pachamama is the wife of Pacha Kamaq and her children are Inti, the sun god, and Killa, the moon goddess. After the conquest by Spain, which forced conversion to Roman Catholicism, in pre-Hispanic culture, Pachamama is often a cruel goddess eager to collect her sacrifices. As Andes cultures form modern nations, Pachamama remains benevolent, giving, thus, many in South America believe that problems arise when people take too much from nature because they are taking too much from Pachamama. Pachamama is usually translated as Mother Earth, but a literal translation would be World Mother (in Aymara. The Inca goddess can be referred to in ways, the primary way being Pachamama. Other names for her are, Mama Pacha, La Pachamama, La Pachamama differs from Pachamama because the La signifies the interwoven connection that the goddess has with nature, whereas Pachamama—without the La—refers to only the goddess. Pachamama is known to Andean people as a good mother, therefore, people usually toast to her honor before every meeting or festivity, in some regions by spilling a small amount of chicha on the floor, before drinking the rest. This toast is called challa and it is made almost every day, Pachamama has a special worship day called Martes de challa, when people bury food, throw candies, and burn incense. There have been many circulating stories of people being lured to building sites, given alcohol until unconscious. The festival coincides with Shrove Tuesday, also celebrated as Carnevale or Mardi Gras, the central ritual to Pachamama is the Challa or Pago. It is carried out during all of August, and in places also on the first Friday of each month. Other ceremonies are carried out in times, as upon leaving for a trip or upon passing an apacheta. According to Mario Rabey and Rodolfo Merlino, Argentine anthropologists who studied the Andean culture from the 1970s to the 1990s, challaco is a deformation of the Quechua words challay and challakuy, that refer to the action to insistently sprinkle. In the current language of the campesinos of the southern Central Andes, the challaco covers a complex series of ritual steps that begin in the family dwellings the night before. They cook a special food, the tijtincha, the ceremony culminates at a pond or stream, where the people offer a series of tributes to Pachamama, including food, beverage, leaves of coca and cigars
