1.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
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Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
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A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
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The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
2.
Bolivia
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Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
Bolivia
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Former President, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada
Bolivia
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Flag
Bolivia
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Current President,
Evo Morales
Bolivia
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Evo Morales' inauguration as President.
3.
Ecuador
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Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil, in reflection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned. Ecuador has an economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum. The country is classified as a medium-income country, Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups, even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus, each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations, one region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language, in contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior, as a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers, the Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century
Ecuador
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Ingapirca ruins northeast of Cañar canton,
Cañar Province
Ecuador
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Flag
Ecuador
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Spanish Historical Center in
Quito
Ecuador
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Shipwrights from Francisco de Orellana's expedition building a small
brigantine, the San Pedro.
4.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
Argentina
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The
Cave of the Hands in
Santa Cruz province, with indigenous artwork dating from 13,000–9,000 years ago
Argentina
Argentina
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The surrender of Beresford to
Santiago de Liniers during the
British invasions of the Río de la Plata
Argentina
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Portrait of General
José de San Martin,
Libertador of Argentina,
Chile and
Peru
5.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
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Lady of Elche
Spain
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Flag
Spain
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Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
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Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
6.
Quechua languages
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechua languages
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Quechua
7.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
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A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
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Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
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Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
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Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
8.
Roman Catholicism
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholicism
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Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
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St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
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Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholicism
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Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
9.
Aymara people
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The Aymara or Aimara people are an indigenous nation in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America, about 1 million live in Bolivia, Peru and Chile. Their ancestors lived in the region for centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca in the late 15th or early 16th century. With the Spanish American Wars of Independence, the Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia, after the War of the Pacific, Chile acquired territory occupied by the Aymaras. Archeologists have found evidence that the Aymaras have occupied the Andes, in what is now western Bolivia, southern Peru and northern Chile and their origin is a matter of scientific dispute. The region where Tiwanaku and the modern Aymaras are located, the Altiplano, was conquered by the Incas under Huayna Capac and it is most likely that the Inca had a strong influence over the Aymara region for some time. Though conquered by the Inca, the Aymaras retained some degree of autonomy under the empire, the Spanish later classified a number of ethnic groups as Aymara in their effort to identify the native peoples. These were identified by chieftainties and included the following, the Charqa, Qharaqhara, Quillaca, Asanaqui, Carangas, SivTaroyos, Haracapi, Pacajes, Lupacas, Soras, at the time of Spanish encounter, these groups were living throughout the territory now included in Bolivia. Linguists have learned that Aymara was once spoken much further north, most Andean linguists believe that it is likely that the Aymara originated or coalesced as a people in this area. The Aymaras overran and displaced the Uru, a population from the Lake Titicaca. The Uru lived in area as recently as the 1930s. Most present-day Aymara-speakers live in the Lake Titicaca basin, a territory from Lake Titicaca through the Desaguadero River and they are concentrated south of the lake. The capital of the ancient Aymara civilization is unknown, according to research by Cornell University anthropologist John Murra, there were at least seven different kingdoms. The capital of the Lupaqa Kingdom may be the city of Chucuito, the present urban center of the Aymara region may be El Alto, a 750, 000-person city near the Bolivian capital, La Paz. For most of the 20th century, the center of cosmopolitan Aymara culture mightve been Chuquiago Marka, Bolivias capital mightve had moved from Sucre to La Paz during the government of General Pando and during the Bolivian Civil War. The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala, it consists of seven colors quilted together with diagonal stripes, the native language of the Aymaras is Aymara. Many of Aymaras speak Spanish as a language, when it is the predominant language in the areas where they live. The Aymara language has one surviving relative, spoken by a small and this language, whose two varieties are known as Jaqaru and Kawki, is of the same family as Aymara. Some linguists refer to language as Central Aymara
Aymara people
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Aymara people in
Jujuy Province, c. 1870.
Aymara people
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Aymara
poncho, 17th or 18th century
Aymara people
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traditional Aymara ceremony in Copacabana, on the border of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia.
Aymara people
–
Literacy class in
El Alto
10.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Quechua women in
Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
11.
South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
South America
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A composite relief image of South America.
South America
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South America
South America
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Cuernos del Paine in Chile (left) and
Morro do Chapéu in Brazil (right) serve to illustrate the diversity of landscapes in South America. Click to enlarge.
South America
12.
Chile
–
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
Chile
–
The
Mapuche people were the original inhabitants of southern and central Chile.
Chile
–
Flag
Chile
–
Pedro de Valdivia
Chile
–
Bernardo O'Higgins, The Supreme Director of Chile.
13.
Colombia
–
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
Colombia
–
San Agustín Archaeological Park
Colombia
Colombia
–
Lost City
Colombia
–
Muisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of
El Dorado. The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.
14.
Southern Quechua
–
Southern Quechua, or simply Quechua, is the most widely spoken of the major regional groupings of mutually intelligible dialects within the Quechua language family, with about 6.9 million speakers. It is also the most widely spoken language in the entire New World. The term Southern Quechua refers to the Quechuan varieties spoken in regions of the Andes south of a line roughly east-west between the cities of Huancayo and Huancavelica in central Peru. It includes the Quechua varieties spoken in the regions of Ayacucho, Cusco and Puno in Peru, in much of Bolivia, the most widely spoken varieties are South Bolivian, Cusco, Ayacucho, and Puno. In the traditional classification of the Quechua language family by Alfredo Torero, dialects are Ayacucho Quechua, Cusco Quechua, Puno Quechua, North Bolivian Quechua, and South Bolivian Quechua. Santiagueño Quechua in Argentina is divergent, and appears to derive from a mix of dialects, the most salient distinction between Ayacucho Quechua and the others is that it lacks the aspirated and ejective series of stop consonants. The other varieties of Bolivia and Southern Peru taken together have been called Cusco–Collao Quechua, however, santiagueño also lacks the aspirated and ejective series, but it was a distinct development in Argentina. It also maintains remnants of the Quechua s–š distinction, which has otherwise been lost from Southern Quechua and it is a compromise of conservative features in the pronunciations of the various regions that speak forms of Southern Quechua. It has been accepted by many institutions in Peru and Bolivia and is used on Wikipedia Quechua pages. Here are some examples of regional spellings different from the orthography, In Bolivia, the same standard is used except for j. Instead of sh, s is used, instead of ĉ, ch is used. The following letters are used in loanwords from Spanish and other languages, the letters e and o are not used for native Quechua words because the corresponding sounds are simply allophones of i and u that appear predictably next to q, qh, and q. This rule applies to the official Quechua orthography for all varieties, thus, the spellings ⟨qu⟩ and ⟨qi⟩ are pronounced and. The letters appear, however, in names or words adopted directly from Spanish. Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo, Quechua sureño, diccionario unificado quechua–castellano, castellano–quechua, ministerio de educación del Perú Qayna Kunan Paqarin, Una introducción al quechua chanca. 2011 Electronic book of the course of the grammar of quechua, R. Zariquiey. The only difference in orthography is that Bolivians use a J instead of a H, official Quechua Alphabet for Cusco Quechua Orthography Quechua Spelling and Pronunciation Explanation of some of the key issues in unified Southern Quechua spelling
Southern Quechua
–
Distribution of Quechua sub-groups. Southern Quechua is shown in purple.
15.
Kichwa language
–
Kichwa is a Quechuan language that includes all Quechua varieties of Ecuador and Colombia, as well as extensions into Peru. It has an estimated 1,000,000 speakers, the most widely spoken dialects are Chimborazo Highland and Imbabura Highland Kichwa, with 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 speakers. Cañar Highland Quecha has 100, 000–200,000 speakers, the dialects have from 10,000 to 20,000 speakers each. Kichwa belongs to the Northern Quechua group of Quechua II, according to linguist Alfredo Torero, Kichwa syntax has undergone some grammatical simplification compared to Southern Quechua, perhaps because of partial creolization with the pre-Inca languages of Ecuador. A standardized language, with an orthography, has been developed. It is similar to Chimborazo but lacks some of the peculiarities of that dialect. The earliest grammatical description of Kichwa was written in the 17th century by Jesuit priest Hernando de Alcocer, according to linguist Arturo Muyulema, the first steps to teach Kichwa in public schools dates to the 1940s, when Dolores Cacuango founded several indigenous schools in Cayambe. Later, indigenous organizations initiated self-governed schools to provide education in Kichwa in the 1970s and 1980s, afterward a new alphabet was created by ALKI. In contrast to regional varieties of Quechua, Kichwa does not distinguish between the original /k/ and /q/, which are both pronounced. And, the allophones of the vowels /i/ and /u/ near /q/, kiru can mean both tooth and wood, and killa can mean both moon and lazy. In Kichwa, you do not say suyayki, but kanta shuyani, on the other hand, other particularities of Quechua have been preserved. As in all Quechuan languages, the words for brother and sister differ depending on to whom they refer, there are four different words for siblings, ñaña, turi, pani, and wawki. A woman reading Ñuka wawki Pedromi kan would read aloud Ñuka turi Pedromi kan, the missionary organization FEDEPI lists eight dialects of Quechua in Ecuador, which it illustrates with The men will come in two days. Below are the comparisons, along with Standard Kichwa and Standard Quechua, A band from Ecuador, Los Nin, the band hails from the town of Otavalo, which is known for its traditional music. Hernando de Alcocer y la Breve declaración del Arte de la lengua del Ynga, el más antiguo manuscrito de quichua de Ecuador. Imbabura Quechua Vocabulary List Map of the varieties of Kichwa in Ecuador Yachakukkunapa Shimiyuk Kamu, Runa Shimi - Mishu Shimi
Kichwa language
–
Distribution of Quechua sub-groups. Kichwa is shown in blue.
16.
Huancavelica Region
–
Huancavelica is a region in Peru with an area of 22,131.47 km² and a population of 454,797. The capital is the city Huancavelica, the region is bordered by Lima Region and Ica in the west, Junín in the north, and Ayacucho in the east. The region is divided into seven provinces, Province Acobamba Province Angaraes Province Castrovirreyna Province Churcampa Province Huancavelica Province Huaytará Province Tayacaja Province The main cities are Huancavelica, Pampas and Lircay. There are many little districts like Querco in Huancavelica, Querco is a nice little town. Most of the residents are agricultors and they own cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, mules, llamas, goats, chickens, and donkeys. The region is inhabited by indigenous people of Quechua descent. According to the 2007 Peru Census, the language learnt first by most of the residents was Quechua followed by Spanish, the Quechua variety spoken in Huancavelica is Chanka Quechua. The region has two hospitals located in Huancavelica and Pampas, there are clinics and medical post in most of the towns. The region is connected with the regions by national roads. There are regional and local roads that are serving the towns of the regions, Huancavelica has a train service with the city of Huancayo. Lina Medina, worlds youngest mother Aknuqucha Chunta mountain range Chuqlluqucha Inka Wasi Urququcha Warmiqucha Official regional site Official municipal site
Huancavelica Region
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Landscape near the town Huancavelica
Huancavelica Region
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View of Pampas in the Tayacaja province
Huancavelica Region
–
The cathedral of Huancavelica
Huancavelica Region
–
Scissors Dancers in a regional dance
17.
Ayacucho Region
–
Ayacucho is a region of Peru, located in the south-central Andes of the country. Its capital is the city of Ayacucho, the region was one of the hardest hit by terrorism during the 1980s during the guerrilla war waged by Shining Path known as the internal conflict in Peru. The bill failed and Ayacucho remained an independent region, the region is divided into 11 provinces, which are composed of 111 districts. The Quechua variety spoken in Ayacucho is Chanka Quechua, the following table shows the results concerning the language learnt first in the Ayacucho Region by province, Ayacucho Regional Government official website
Ayacucho Region
–
The
Andes in the Ayacucho Region
Ayacucho Region
–
Statue of
Antonio José de Sucre and obelisk near Kinwa, commemorating the Battle of Ayacucho.
Ayacucho Region
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Hot springs in the region of Ayacucho.
Ayacucho Region
–
Obelisk near Kinwa, commemorating the Battle of Ayacucho.
18.
Inca society
–
The Inca society was the society of the Inca civilization in South America. The Inca Empire, which was centred in what is now called Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and southern Colombia and lasted from 1438 to 1533 AD, the Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the rulers used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, the last Inca stronghold, the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Population estimates for the Tawantinsuyu society range from as few as 4 million people to more than 37 million, most estimates are between 6 and 14 million people. The reason for these estimates is that, despite that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus. Almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish in the course of their conquest, Incan women were typically married at the age of sixteen, while men married at the age of 20. In Inca society, due to regulations, men of lower rank could only have one wife. The aristocracy, starting with the curaca, were allowed to engage in polygamy, trial marriages were typical within Inca culture. In this type of marriage, the man and woman would agree to try out being married to one another for a few years. At the end of time, the woman could go home to her parents if she wished. However, once the marriage was made final, they could only divorce if the woman was childless, women would almost always marry men in the same social class as themselves. However, while it was rare for them to marry a man with a higher social ranking. The only way for a woman to alter her social ranking would be if a man of higher ranking took notice of her. In the Inca society, a wedding was not a joyous celebration, instead, it was looked at more as a business-like agreement. Therefore, for the Inca, marriage was an agreement between two families. Once a woman was married, she was expected to collect food and cook, watch over the animals, a woman’s household obligations would not change after she became pregnant. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylised animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles, the motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were used with the exception of Huari
Inca society
–
Inca Empire
Inca society
–
Chimú -Inca ceramic from the
Late Horizon.
Inca society
–
An
Andean silver bottle made by Chimú artisans from circa 1300 A.D.
Inca society
–
Around 200 varieties of Peruvian potatoes were cultivated by the Incas and their predecessors
19.
Pre-Columbian era
–
For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
Pre-Columbian era
–
Hopewell mounds from the
Mound City Group in Ohio
Pre-Columbian era
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hunter-gatherers
Pre-Columbian era
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Mississippian site in Arkansas,
Parkin Site, circa 1539. Illustration by Herb Roe.
Pre-Columbian era
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One of the pyramids in the upper level of
Yaxchilán
20.
Ica Region
–
It borders the Pacific Ocean on the west, the Lima Region on the north, the Huancavelica and Ayacucho regions on the east, and the Arequipa Region on the south. Its capital is the city of Ica, the Ica Region has a remarkable geography. It is the region of the southern coast formed by plains, also called coast plains. Some geological folds have determined the formation of dunes moving toward the sea, some isolated formations located at the southern part created the Marcona complex, with the biggest deposits of iron in the Pacific coast. Icas configuration is due to the geomorphology of its two big and unique fluvial watersheds, the Pasco and Ica rivers, also, it has a waterway called the Rio Grande, although its waters do not reach the ocean. Some waters are diverted for irrigation and agriculture in the provinces of Pampa, Nazca and Ingenio, there are extensive deserts in Ica, such as the Lancha Pampas. Pozo Santo and Villacuri pampas are extremely hot areas, strong and persistent winds called paracas are present and stir up large sandstorms. The first settlers are from 10,000 years ago, from which the Wari, Chincha, Nazca, Ica and Paracas cultures developed, the Paracas culture developed from the seventh through the 2nd century BC. It is distinguished by its matchless textile skills, trephinations, and this culture expanded from the 2nd century BC through the 7th century AD. They have left us their wonderful aqueducts that made use of underground water, of rivers and rain. In the 15th century, during the Inca empire, Pachacuti incorporated the territories of Ica, Nazca, years later, in 1563, with the arrival of the Spanish, Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera founded the Villa de Valverde del Valle de Ica. Since then, the became an important vineyard and cotton center. During the independence war, General José de San Martín landed in Paracas and fixed his headquarters in Pisco, the region is divided into five provinces, which are composed of 43 districts. The provinces, with their capitals in parentheses, are, Chincha Ica Nazca Palpa Pisco Capital of the Ica Department. A very modern city that has popular Peruvian street markets, many old churches and landmarks, modern malls, hotels, coffee shops, theatres. Located on the west side of the city of Ica, capital of the Ica Department, one of the most popular places to visit in Ica is La Huacachina. The famous desert oasis is located 5 km from Ica and it is a small lake with medicinal water, lying in the middle of a spectacular sand desert. Pisco is the most important port in Ica and a litoral province, the most important attractions within this province are likely Paracas, Paracas Bay and the Paracas National Reserve
Ica Region
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Nazca Lines: "Dog"
Ica Region
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Nazca Lines: figure of the Spider.
Ica Region
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Bay and harbor of San Nicolás in
Marcona.
Ica Region
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Sea Lions on the Ballestas Islands.
21.
Ethnologue
–
Ethnologue, Languages of the World is a web-based publication that contains information about the 7,099 living languages in its 20th edition, which was released in 2017. The publication is well respected and widely used by linguists, Ethnologue is published by SIL International, a Christian linguistic service organization with an international office in Dallas, Texas. Ethnologue follows general linguistic criteria, which are based primarily on mutual intelligibility, shared language intelligibility features are complex, and usually include etymological and grammatical evidence that is agreed upon by experts. These lists of names are not necessarily complete, in 1984, Ethnologue released a three-letter coding system, called an SIL code, to identify each language that it described. This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of other standards, e. g. ISO 639-1, the 14th edition, published in 2000, included 7,148 language codes. In 2002, Ethnologue was asked to work with the International Organization for Standardization to integrate its codes into an international standard. The 15th edition of Ethnologue was the first edition to use this standard and this standard is now administered separately from Ethnologue according to rules established by ISO, and since then Ethnologue relies on the standard to determine what is listed as a language. e. A language with which no-one retains a sense of ethnic identity, in December 2015, Ethnologue launched a soft paywall, users in high-income countries who want to refer to more than seven pages of data per month must buy a paid subscription. Ethnologues 18th edition describes 228 language families and six typological categories, in 1986, William Bright, then editor of the journal Language, wrote of Ethnologue that it is indispensable for any reference shelf on the languages of the world. In 2008 in the journal, Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona said, Ethnologue. has become the standard reference. However, he concluded that, on balance, Ethnologue is a comprehensive catalogue of world languages. Starting with the 17th edition, new editions of Ethnologue are to be published every year, linguasphere Observatory Register Glottolog Lists of languages List of language families Martin Everaert, Simon Musgrave, Alexis Dimitriadis, eds. The Use of Databases in Cross-Linguistic Studies, linguistic Genocide in Education-or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights. Evaluating language statistics, the Ethnologue and beyond
Ethnologue
–
Three-volume 17th edition
22.
Inca people
–
The Andean civilizations made up a loose patchwork of different cultures that developed from the highlands of Colombia to the Atacama Desert. The most advanced civilizations were those of the Inca Empire and the Muisca, there were other cultures in Ancient Peru and earlier cultures in Tiwanaku and the Norte Chico civilization. The Inca Empire was the last sovereign political entity that emerged from the Andean civilizations before the Spanish conquest, the Inca Empire was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated, Spanish rule ended or transformed many elements of the Andean civilizations notably influencing religion and architecture. The Norte Chico civilization was a complex society that included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world and it flourished between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC. The alternative name, Caral-Supe, is derived from the Sacred City of Caral in the Supe Valley, complex society in Norte Chico arose a millennium after Sumer in Mesopotamia, was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids, and predated the Mesoamerican Olmec by nearly two millennia. The Chavín culture in Peru is thought to have been primarily a religious cult, the culture apparently began in the Andes highlands and then spread outward throughout the country. The Chavín culture has very distinctive art styles, particularly in effigy pots, Chavin de Huantar was an important ritual centre for Chavin Culture, dating to around 1,500 BC. The Valdivia Culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas and it emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture and thrived on the Santa Elena peninsula near the modern-day town of Valdivia, Ecuador between 3500 BC and 1800 BC. The Nazca culture was the culture that flourished from 100 to 800 AD beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage. They also built a system of underground aqueducts, known as puquios. The Nazca Province in the Ica Region was named for this people, the Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru from about 100 AD to 800 AD, during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography. They are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions, Tiwanaku is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, South America. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the shore of Lake Titicaca in the La Paz Department, Ingavi Province, Tiwanaku Municipality. The site was first recorded in history by Spanish conquistador
Inca people
–
Inca Empire
Inca people
–
The Caral pyramids in the arid Supe Valley, some 20 km from the Pacific coast.
Inca people
–
The Moche culture is world-renowned for its pottery, in picture a
Condor from about 300 AD.
Inca people
–
Chimú gold adornments. 1300 AD
Larco Museum, Lima-Perú
23.
Inca Empire
–
The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
Inca Empire
–
Inca Empire
Inca Empire
–
Banner of the Tawantinsuyu
Inca Empire
–
The first image of the Inca in Europe,
Pedro Cieza de León, Cronica del Peru, 1553
Inca Empire
–
View of
Machu Picchu
24.
Huancayo Province
–
Huancayo Province is located in Peru. It is one of the 9 provinces composing the Junín Region and it borders to the north with the Concepción Province, the east with the Satipo Province, the south with the Huancavelica Region and the west with the Chupaca Province. The province has an population of 439699 inhabitants. The capital of the province is the city of Huancayo, the Chunta mountain range and the Waytapallana mountain range traverse the province. The province is divided into 28 districts over an area of 4711,15 km² and these districts are, Ankap Wachanan Apu Inka Wari Willka Municipal website
Huancayo Province
–
Turi Turi (Torre Torre) rock formations near the city of Huancayo
25.
Cusco
–
Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
Cusco
–
The first image of Cuzco in Europe.
Pedro Cieza de León. Cronica del Peru, 1553.
Cusco
–
Cristo Blanco in the surrounding mountains of Cusco
Cusco
–
Night view of Plaza Regocijo, Cusco
Cusco
–
Night view of the
Qurikancha and Convent of
St. Dominic
26.
Juan Velasco Alvarado
–
Juan Velasco was born in Castilla, a city near Piura on Perus north coast. He was the son of Manuel José Velasco, an assistant, and Clara Luz Alvarado. Velasco described his youth as one of dignified poverty, working as a boy in Piura. He was married to Consuelo Gonzáles Arriola, and had four children, in 1929, he stowed away on a ship to Lima, Peru, falsified his age, and joined the Peruvian Army as a private on April 5,1929. He then took an exam for entrance into the Escuela Militar de Chorrillos. In 1934, he graduated with honors and at the head of his class. During the Belaúnde administration, political disputes became a norm as he held no majority in Congress, serious arguments between President Belaúnde and Congress, dominated by the APRA-UNO coalition, and even between the President and his own Acción Popular party were common. A dispute with the International Petroleum Company over licenses to the La Brea y Pariñas oil fields in northern Peru sparked a scandal when a key page of a contract was found missing. This provided the catalyst that allowed Armed Forces to seize power and close down Congress. President Belaúnde was sent into exile, initial reaction against the coup evaporated after five days when on October 8,1968 the oil fields in dispute were taken over by the Army. The coup leaders named their administration the Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces, Velascos rule was driven by a desire to give justice to the poor and became known as Peruanismo. The media became more open to left-wing intellectuals and politicos, the education reform of 1972 provided for bilingual education of the indigenous people of the Andes and the Amazon, which consisted nearly half of the population. In 1975 the Velasco government enacted a law making Quechua an official language of Peru equal to Spanish, thus, Peru was the first Latin American country to officialize an indigenous language. A cornerstone of his political and economic strategy was the implementation by dictate of a reform program to expropriate farms. In its first ten years in power General Juan Velasco Alvarados Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces expropriated 15,000 properties, Peru has the lowest amount of arable land per capita in South America. Less than 2% of the Peruvian territory is land, with 98% of the territory composed of arid desert with little rain, harsh mountains with very steep terrain. The deposed Belaúnde administration had attempted to implement an agrarian reform program. Within this framework, the Velasco administration engaged in a program of import substitution industrialization, imposing tight foreign exchange
Juan Velasco Alvarado
–
General EP Juan Velasco Alvarado
27.
HCJB
–
HCJB, The Voice of the Andes, was the first radio station with daily programming in Ecuador and the first Christian missionary radio station in the world. The station was founded in 1931 by Clarence W. Jones, Reuben Larson, Radio station HCJB started as the vision of Clarence Wesley Jones, a musician, graduate of Moody Bible Institute, and the son of a Salvation Army minister. Back in Chicago nearly two years later, Jones met Christian & Missionary Alliance missionaries from Ecuador - Reuben and Grace Larson, John and Ruth Clark and Paul and these missionaries encouraged Jones to consider Ecuador as the place to start his missionary radio station. As the first step in fulfilling his vision, Jones needed to obtain a contract of approval from the Ecuadorian government for setting up the radio station, stuart Clark, along with Ecuadorian lawyer Luís Calisto, worked to procure the initial contract. On August 15,1930, the Ecuadorian Congress approved a bill which granted Jones a 25-year contract to operate a station in the country. Station co-founders Jones and Larson advocated for, and were granted by the government, the result was Heralding Christ Jesus Blessings. In Spanish the call letters represent Hoy Cristo Jesús Bendice, Jones incorporated the World Radio Missionary Fellowship, Inc. on March 9,1931 as a non-profit entity and overseeing organization over HCJB. Jones was also the corporations first president. HCJBs first broadcast on Christmas Day,1931 had the potential of being heard by the six radio receivers capable of receiving the program, the inaugural program was broadcast in English and Spanish from a studio in the Joneses living room and powered by a 200-watt, table-top transmitter. The antenna used was a simple, single wire antenna strung between two telephone poles. Initially, HCJB only broadcast programs in English and Spanish, in 1941, however, live programs were added in Russian, Swedish and Quichua. By 1944, the station had aired programming in 14 languages including live programs in Czech, Dutch, French, programs in languages such as Arabic, Italian and Hebrew were recorded elsewhere and sent to Quito on large acetate coated aluminium transcription discs. By 1967, live programming would be added in Portuguese and Japanese, following the first years of HCJBs broadcasts on 50.26 meters, the shortwave frequencies utilized by HCJB for its broadcasts from Quito were 6050 kHz,9745 kHz,11775 kHz and 15155 kHz. HCJB was heard around the world and received hundreds of letters each week with reception reports from shortwave DXers, in 1974, the Andes DXers International, began. Members would receive a certificate and membership card with the members name and individual member number. ANDEX eventually had a membership in the thousands and continued as a service of HCJB until 1996, dX-Partyline was hosted from its inception by HCJB missionary Clayton Howard and his wife, Helen. The program was heard for more than 40 years, twice a week, dX-Partyline also included shortwave radio listening tips, information on antennas, and equipment reviews. Programs not produced by HCJB were also broadcast from the Quito station, typically of a religious nature, some of the non-HCJB produced programs broadcast from the station were the Pacific Garden Missions Unshackled
HCJB
–
Radio Station HCJB co-founder, Clarence Wesley Jones, c. 1945
HCJB
–
HCJB co-founder Reuben Larson, c. 1940
HCJB
–
The grounds of radio station HCJB in
Quito,
Ecuador
HCJB
–
HCJB radio station staff in 1946, including engineer Clayton Howard (front row left), co-founder Clarence Jones (front row right) and future HCJB president Abe Van Der Puy (front row, fourth from left)
28.
Andes
–
The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
Andes
–
Aerial photo of a portion of the Andes between
Argentina and
Chile
Andes
Andes
–
"
Cono de Arita " in the
Puna de Atacama,
Salta (
Argentina).
Andes
–
Aerial view of Aconcagua.
29.
Puna (ecoregion)
–
The Puna grassland ecoregion, of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome, is found in the central Andes Mountains of South America. It is considered one of the eight Natural Regions in Peru, the term puna encompasses diverse ecosystems of the high Central Andes above 3200–3400 m. The puna is found above the treeline at 3200–3500 m elevation and it extends from central Peru in the north, across the Altiplano plateau of Peru and Bolivia, and south along the spine of the Andes into northern Argentina and Chile. Other sources claim that it goes on Suni and from 4000 m to the line of Puna grassland. The puna is an ecosystem that comprises varied ecoregions labeled wet/moist puna, dry puna. This ecoregion is an elevation, wet, montane grassland in the southern high Andes. The wet puna shares its border on the west with the Sechura desert, the characteristically mountainous landscape contains high lakes, mountain valleys, snow-covered mountains, and plateaux. The high elevation of the wet puna causes the area to have temperature differences between night and day. The average annual temperature is low, ranging from 5 to 7 °C, temperatures shift from characteristic summer highs in the day and drop to winter lows at night. This extreme temperature shift has caused selective adaptation to occur and many plants such as the Culcitium, Perezia. The ecoregion contains snow-capped peaks, glacial lakes, and several rivers originate in the Cordilleras. The biggest lake in the ecoregion is Lake Titicaca, which is the highest navigable lake in the world, the Suches and Tiwanacu rivers in Bolivia are the lakes tributaries. The areas in the north surrounding Lake Titicaca have eight wet months, the average precipitation in this region ranges from 400 to 2000 mm. This ecoregion is a dry, high elevation montane grassland of the southern high Andes. It extends into northern Chile and Argentina and east into western Bolivia occurring above 3500 m between the tree and permanent snow lines, the vegetation of the dry puna consists of tropical alpine herbs with dwarf shrubs. Within the dry puna are salt flats, high plateaus, snow-covered peaks, dry puna is distinguished from the other types of puna by its diminished annual rainfall. The dry puna has an 8-month long dry season and receives less than 400 mm of each year. The region lies at an elevation of 3500–5000 m above sea level, the dry puna is oligothermic as well
Puna (ecoregion)
–
Puna grassland in the Chilean
altiplano
Puna (ecoregion)
–
Puna grassland
Puna (ecoregion)
–
Cono de Arita in
Salar de Arizaro,
Salta province (
Argentina)
Puna (ecoregion)
–
Plateaus in the Puna Region, Ayacucho, Peru
30.
Ayllu
–
Ayllu is the traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras. They are a local government model across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia. Ayllus functioned prior to Inca conquest, during the Inca and Spanish colonial period, Ayllus were essentially extended family groups but they could adopt non-related members, giving individual families more variation and security of the land that they farmed. The head of an ayllu is called a mallku which means, literally, condor and they would often have their own waka, or minor god, usually embodied in a physical object such as a mountain or rock. Their primary function was to solve issues, and issues of how to get along in family. Each ayllu owned a parcel of land, and the members had reciprocal obligations to each other. In marriages, the woman would join the class and ayllu of her partner as would her children. This is how most movements of people between ayllu occurred, but a person could also join an ayllu by assuming the responsibility of membership. This included minka, communal work for common purposes, ayni, or work in kind for other members of the ayllu, and mita, “Ayllu solidarity is a combination of kinship and territorial ties, as well as symbolism. These studies, however, do not explain how the ayllu is a whole, which includes social principles, verticality. Ayllu also refers to people who live in the same territory, Ayllus are distinguished by comparative self-sufficiency, commonly held territory, and relations of reciprocity. Members engage in shared collective labor and in reciprocal exchanges of assistance, in Bolivia, representatives from the ayllus are sent to the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu. This body chooses an Apu Mallku as its head, the Fiscal Role of the Andean Ayllu. Inca model Alessandro Vigiani, Storia e attualità dellayllu nel contesto boliviano, Achab
Ayllu
–
Inca Empire
31.
Communal work
–
Communal work is a gathering to accomplish a task or to hold a competition. A number of cultures have such gatherings, often for the purpose of holding a competition, such as a bee, or for providing manual labour, such as in a barn raising. Especially in the past major jobs, such as clearing a field of timber or raising a barn and it was often both a social and utilitarian event. Jobs like corn husking or sewing could be done as a group to allow socializing during an otherwise tedious chore, such gatherings often included refreshments and entertainment. Different words have been used to such gatherings. This use of the bee is common in literature describing colonial North America. It was, and continues to be, commonly used in Australia also, uses in literature include, There was a bee to-day for making a road up to the church. — Anne Langton The cellar … was dug by a bee in a single day, sometimes the women would have spinning bees. They would put rolls among their neighbors and on a day they would all bring in their yarn. He never took a salary, had a farm of 80 acres and the church helped him get his wood, — James Slocum I am in a regular quandary, said the mistress of the house, when the meal was about half over. Mr. Van Brunt looked up for an instant, and asked, why, how I am ever going to do to get those apples and sausage-meat done. If I go to doing em myself I shall about get through by spring, why dont you make a bee. said Mr. Van Brunt. Because the word describes people working together in a social group, harambee literally means all pull together in Swahili, and is also the official motto of Kenya and appears on its coat of arms. Naffīr is an Arabic word used in parts of Sudan to describe types of communal work undertakings. Naffīr has been described as including a group recruited through networks, in-laws and village neighbors for some particular purpose. The word may be related to the standard Arabic word nafr which describes a band, party, group or troop, in standard Arabic, a naffīr āmm refers to a general call to arms. Naffīr has also used in a military context in Sudan. For example, the term was used to refer to the an-Naffīr ash-Shaabī or Peoples Militias that operated in the central Nuba Mountains region in the early 1990s, gotong-royong is a conception of sociality familiar to large parts of Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia
Communal work
–
A tent is being raised on talkoot for midsummer in
Ylimuonio 2005.
Communal work
–
Members of the community volunteering to move the house to new location.
32.
Llama
–
The llama is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since the Pre-Columbian era. The height of a full-grown, full-size llama is 1.7 to 1.8 m tall at the top of the head, at birth, a baby llama can weigh between 9 and 14 kg. Llamas typically live for 15 to 25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more and they are very social animals and live with other llamas as a herd. The wool produced by a llama is very soft and lanolin-free, llamas are intelligent and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25 to 30% of their weight for 8 to 13 km. The name llama was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians, llamas appear to have originated from the central plains of North America about 40 million years ago. They migrated to South America about three years ago. By the end of the last ice age, camelids were extinct in North America, lamoids, or llamas, consist of the vicuña, guanaco, Suri alpaca, and Huacaya alpaca, and the domestic llama. Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while alpacas – as well as llamas – exist only as domesticated animals, although early writers compared llamas to sheep, their similarity to the camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus and they were, however, separated by Cuvier in 1800 under the name of lama along with the guanaco. Alpacas and vicuñas are in genus Vicugna, the Tylopoda consist of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina, the Tragulina, the Pecora, and the Whippomorpha. Llamas were not always confined to South America, abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in the Rocky Mountains, some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages, North American llamas are categorized as a single extinct genus, Hemiauchenia. Llama-like animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago, in modern-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri, the camelid lineage has a good fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated, modern species back through early Miocene forms and their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids, hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls. No fossils of these forms have been found in the Old World, indicating that North America was the original home of camelids. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange, meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene. The following characteristics apply especially to llamas, dentition of adults, -incisors 1/3 canines 1/1, premolars 2/2, molars 3/2, total 32
Llama
–
Llama
Llama
–
A llama in
Kenosha, Wisconsin
Llama
–
A traditionally dressed
Quechua girl with a llama in
Cuzco,
Peru
Llama
–
A domestic llama
33.
Alpaca
–
An alpaca is a domesticated species of South American camelid. It resembles a small llama in appearance, there are two breeds of alpaca, the Suri alpaca and the Huacaya alpaca. Alpacas are considerably smaller than llamas, and unlike llamas, they were not bred to be beasts of burden, Alpaca fiber is used for making knitted and woven items, similar to wool. These items include blankets, sweaters, hats, gloves, scarves, a variety of textiles and ponchos in South America. The fiber comes in more than 52 natural colors as classified in Peru,12 as classified in Australia and 16 as classified in the United States, in trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and the several styles of mohair and luster. An adult alpaca generally is between 81–99 centimetres in height at the shoulders, alpacas have been domesticated for thousands of years. The Moche people of northern Peru often used images in their art. There are no known wild alpacas, and its closest living relative, the alpaca is larger than the vicuña, but smaller than the other camelid species. Along with camels and llamas, alpacas are classified as camelids, alpacas are too small to be used as pack animals. Instead, they are bred exclusively for their fiber and meat, Alpaca meat was once considered a delicacy by Andean inhabitants. Because of the high price commanded by alpaca on the growing North American alpaca market, in 2014, a company was formed claiming to be the first to export US-derived alpaca products to China. Alpacas and llamas can successfully cross-breed, the resulting offspring are called huarizo, which are valued for their unique fleece and gentle dispositions. Alpacas are social animals that live in family groups consisting of a territorial alpha male, females. Alpacas warn the herd about intruders by making sharp, noisy inhalations that sound like a high-pitched bray, the herd may attack smaller predators with their front feet, and can spit and kick. Their aggression towards members of the family is exploited when alpacas are used as guard llamas for guarding sheep. Not all alpacas spit, but all are capable of doing so, spit is somewhat euphemistic, occasionally the projectile contains only air and a little saliva, although alpacas commonly bring up acidic stomach contents and project it onto their chosen targets. Spitting is mostly reserved for other alpacas, but an alpaca will occasionally spit at a human, for alpacas, spitting results in what is called sour mouth. Sour mouth is characterized by a lower lip and a gaping mouth
Alpaca
–
Alpaca
Alpaca
Alpaca
–
Guanacos (wild parent species of llamas) near
Torres del Paine,
Chile
Alpaca
–
Closeup of an alpaca's face
34.
Guanaco
–
The guanaco, a camelid native to South America, stands between 1.0 and 1.2 m at the shoulder and weighs 90 to 140 kg. Its color varies very little, ranging from a brown to dark cinnamon. Guanacos have grey faces and small, straight ears, the name guanaco comes from the South American Quechua word huanaco. The guanaco is a native to the mountainous regions of South America. They are found in the altiplano of Peru, Bolivia and Chile, in Argentina and Chile, they are more numerous in Patagonian regions, as well as in places such as the Torres del Paine National Park, and Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego. In these areas, they have more robust populations, since grazing competition from livestock is limited, estimates, as of 2011, place their numbers at 400,000 to 600,000. A small introduced population exists on Staats Island in the Falkland Islands, guanacos live in herds composed of females, their young, and a dominant male. While reproductive groups tend to remain small, often containing no more than 10 adults, when they feel threatened, guanacos alert the herd to flee with a high-pitched, bleating call. The male usually runs behind the herd to defend them and they can run at 56 km per hour, often over steep and rocky terrain. A guanacos typical lifespan is 20 to 25 years, guanacos are one of the largest wild mammal species found in South America. Natural predators include cougars, jaguars, and foxes, the guanaco has thicker skin on its neck, a trait also found in its domestic counterpart, the llama and in its relatives, the wild vicuña and domesticated alpaca. This protects its neck from predator attacks, bolivians use the neck-skin of these animals to make shoes, flattening and pounding the skin to be used for the soles. In Chile, hunting is allowed only in Tierra del Fuego, between 2007 and 2012,13,200 guanacos were legally hunted in Tierra del Fuego. Mating season occurs between November and February, during which males often fight violently to establish dominance and breeding rights, eleven-and-a-half months later, a single chulengo is born. Chulengos are able to immediately after birth. Male chulengos are chased off from the herd by the dominant male around one year of age, although the species is still considered wild, around 300 guanacos are in US zoos and around 200 are registered in private herds. Guanacos are the parent species of the domesticated llama, guanacos are often found at high altitudes, up to 4,000 meters above sea level, except in Patagonia, where the southerly latitude means ice covers the vegetation at these altitudes. For guanacos to survive in the low oxygen levels found at high altitudes
Guanaco
–
Guanaco
Guanaco
–
Herd of guanacos
Guanaco
–
Guanacos in
Torres del Paine National Park in
Patagonia
Guanaco
–
The remains of a guanaco scattered in the Atacama Desert, southwest of
Cerro Paranal: The only intact section of skin is the thicker skin around the neck
35.
Natural dye
–
Natural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants, invertebrates, or minerals. The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources—roots, berries, bark, leaves, archaeologists have found evidence of textile dyeing dating back to the Neolithic period. In China, dyeing with plants, barks and insects has been traced more than 5,000 years. The essential process of dyeing changed little over time, typically, the dye material is put in a pot of water and then the textiles to be dyed are added to the pot, which is heated and stirred until the color is transferred. Textile fibre may be dyed before spinning, but most textiles are yarn-dyed or piece-dyed after weaving, many mordants, and some dyes themselves, produce strong odors, and large-scale dyeworks were often isolated in their own districts. Plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron, and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia, across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth. Dyes such as cochineal and logwood were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, the discovery of man-made synthetic dyes in the mid-19th century triggered a long decline in the large-scale market for natural dyes. Natural dyeing techniques are preserved by artisans in traditional cultures around the world. In the early 21st century, the market for natural dyes in the industry is experiencing a resurgence. Western consumers have become concerned about the health and environmental impact of synthetic dyes in manufacturing. The European Union, for example, has encouraged Indonesian batik cloth producers to switch to natural dyes to improve their market in Europe. Protein fibres require vat, acid, or indirect/mordant dyes, that require a bonding agent, each synthetic fibre requires its own dyeing method, for example, nylon requires acid, disperse and pigment dyes, rayon acetate requires disperse dyes, and so on. The earliest surviving evidence of textile dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia, polychrome or multicolored fabrics seem to have been developed in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE. Textiles with a warp and an ochre-yellow weft were discovered in Egyptian pyramids of the Sixth Dynasty. His contributions to refining the process and his theories on colour brought much praise by the well known poet. Some dyestuffs, such as indigo and lichens, will give good color when used alone, the majority of plant dyes, however, also require the use of a mordant, a chemical used to fix the color in the textile fibres. These dyes are called adjective dyes, by using different mordants, dyers can often obtain a variety of colors and shades from the same dye. Fibres or cloth may be pretreated with mordants, or the mordant may be incorporated in the dyebath, salt helps to fix or increase fastness of colors, vinegar improves reds and purples, and the ammonia in stale urine assists in the fermentation of indigo dyes
Natural dye
–
Naturally dyed skeins made with
madder root, Colonial Williamsburg, VA
Natural dye
–
Oaxaca artisan Fidel Cruz Lazo dying yarn for rug making
Natural dye
–
Dyeing wool cloth, 1482, from British Library Royal MS 15.E.iii, f. 269.
Natural dye
–
A dye-works with baskets of dyestuffs, skeins of dyed yarn, and heated vats for dyeing.
36.
Wattle and daub
–
Wattle and daub has been used for at least 6,000 years and is still an important construction material in many parts of the world. Many historic buildings include wattle and daub construction, and the technique is becoming popular again in developed areas as a low-impact sustainable building technique. The wattle is made by weaving thin branches or slats between upright stakes, the wattle may be made as loose panels, slotted between timber framing to make infill panels, or it may be made in place to form the whole of a wall. Daub is usually created from a mixture of ingredients from three categories, binders, aggregates and reinforcement. Binders hold the mix together and can include clay, lime, chalk dust, aggregates give the mix its bulk and dimensional stability through materials such as earth, sand, crushed chalk and crushed stone. Reinforcement is provided by straw, hair, hay or other fibrous materials, the daub may be mixed by hand, or by treading – either by humans or livestock. It is then applied to the wattle and allowed to dry, in some regions this building method has itself been overtaken by drywall construction using plasterboard sheets. The wattle and daub technique was used already in the Neolithic period and it was common for houses of a Linear pottery and Rössen cultures of Central Europe, but is also found in Western Asia as well as in North America and South America. In Africa it is common in the architecture of houses such as those of the Ashanti people. Its usage dates back at least 6000 years, there are suggestions that construction techniques such as lath and plaster and even cob may have evolved from wattle and daub. Fragments from prehistoric wattle and daub buildings have found in Africa, Europe, Mesoamerica. A review of English architecture especially reveals that the sophistication of this craft is dependent on the styles of timber frame housing. As discussed earlier, there were two choices for wattle and daub paneling, square paneling and close-studded paneling. Close-studding panels create a more narrow space between the timbers, anywhere from 7 to 16 inches. For this style of panel, weaving is too difficult, so the wattles run horizontally and are known as ledgers, the ledgers are sprung into each upright timber through a system of augered holes on one side and short chiseled grooves along the other. The holes are drilled at an angle towards the outer face of each stud. This allows room for upright hazels to be tied to ledgers from the inside of the building, the horizontal ledgers are placed every two to three feet with whole hazel rods positioned upright top to bottom and lashed to the ledgers. These hazel rods are generally tied a finger widths apart with 6-8 rods each with a 16-inch width, gaps allow key formation for drying
Wattle and daub
–
Wattle and daub in wooden frames
Wattle and daub
–
Wattle in construction
Wattle and daub
–
A wattle and daub house as used by American Indians during the Mississippian period
Wattle and daub
–
A woven wattle gate keeps animals out of the 15th century cabbage patch (
Tacuinum Sanitatis, Rouen)
37.
Proletarian
–
The proletariat is a term for the class of wage-earners, in a capitalist society, whose only possession of significant material value is their labor-power, a member of such a class is a proletarian. The proletarii constituted a class of Roman citizens owning little or no property. This assembly, which met on the Campus Martius to discuss public policy issues, was also used as a means of designating military duties demanded of Roman citizens. The top infantry class assembled with full arms and armor, the two classes brought arms and armor, but less and lesser, the fourth class only spears. In voting, the cavalry and top class were enough to decide an issue, as voting started at the top. As a result of the Marian reforms initiated in 107 B. C. by the Roman general Gaius Marius, proletarians are wage-workers, while some refer to those who receive salaries as the salariat. For Marx, however, wage labor may involve getting a salary rather than a wage per se, intermediate positions are possible, where some wage-labor for an employer combines with self-employment. Socialist parties have often struggled over the question of whether they should seek to organize and represent all the lower classes, according to Marxism, capitalism is a system based on the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie. Instead of hiring those means of production, they themselves get hired by capitalists and work for them and these goods or services become the property of the capitalist, who sells them at the market. Surplus value is the difference between the wealth that the proletariat produces through its work, and the wealth it consumes to survive and to provide labor to the capitalist companies. A part of the value is used to renew or increase the means of production, either in quantity or quality. What remains is consumed by the capitalist class, the commodities that proletarians produce and capitalists sell are valued for the amount of labor embodied in them. The same goes for the labor power itself, it is valued, not for the amount of wealth it produces. Marxists argue that new wealth is created through labor applied to natural resources, prole drift, short for proletarian drift, is a term that suggests the tendency in advanced industrialized societies for everything inexorably to become proletarianized, or to become commonplace. This trend is attributed to mass production, mass selling, mass communication, examples include best-seller lists, films and music that must appeal to the masses and shopping malls. Why workers can change the world, hal Draper, Karl Marxs Theory of Revolution, Vol.2, The Politics of Social Classes
Proletarian
–
A
manual labourer at work in
Venezuela. Manual labourers are generally considered to be part of the proletariat.
Proletarian
–
A 1911
Industrial Worker publication advocating industrial unionism based on a critique of capitalism. The proletariat "work for all" and "feed all".
38.
Lima
–
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
–
Collage of Lima
Lima
–
Flag
Lima
–
Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
–
Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
39.
Acculturation
–
Acculturation is the process of cultural change and psychological change that results following meeting between cultures. The effects of acculturation can be seen at levels in both interacting cultures. Acculturation is a change of ones culture through dominance over anothers culture through either military or political conquest. At the group level, acculturation results in changes to culture, customs. Noticeable group level effects of acculturation often include changes in food, clothing, as enculturation is used to describe the process of first-culture learning, acculturation can be thought of as second-culture learning. The concept of acculturation has been studied scientifically since 1918, contemporary research has primarily focused on different strategies of acculturation and how variations in acculturation affect how well individuals adapt to their society. The earliest recorded thoughts towards acculturation can be found in Sumerian inscriptions from 2370 B. C and these inscriptions laid out rules for commerce and interaction with foreigners designed to limit acculturation and protect traditional cultural practices. Plato also said that acculturation should be avoided, as he thought it would lead to social disorder, nevertheless, the history of Western civilization, and in particular the histories of Europe and the United States, are largely defined by patterns of acculturation. One of the most notable form of acculturation is imperialism, the most common predecessor of direct change, although these cultural changes may seem simple, the results are more complex. The process varies and the results are more complex because it interferes with the system by members of another. J. W. Powell is credited with coining the word acculturation in 1880, the first psychological theory of acculturation was proposed in W. I. Thomas and Florian Znanieckis 1918 study, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Before efforts at racial and cultural integration in the United States, the theory focuses on the unitary nature of psychological and social processes and the reciprocal functional personal environment interdependence. This view takes into account micro-psychological and macro-social factors into a theoretical fusion vertical integration of theory, while cross-cultural adaptation theory itself is a fusion of previous ideas, it is not about racial or ethnic integration but instead assimilation. And as such it is unlike the works of Bateson, Ruesch and Bateson, Watzlawick Beavin, and Jackson, the sojourner must conform to the majority group culture in order to be communicatively competent. In biological science adaptation means the random mutation of new forms of life, according to Gudykunst and Kim the way of upward-forward evolution toward functional fitness and psychological health is for the newcomer to willfully unlearn and deculturize herself. This is not ecological integration but simple disintegration of the newcomer until their identity is erased, according to Gudykunst and Kim the more the newcomer is disintegrated the better, even if it leads to extreme distress for the immigrant. As Gudykunst and Kim put it, Even extreme mental illness can be viewed as a process of a potentially positive disintegration that will be reintegrated with new material at a higher level. Evolutionary progress for the individual requires the individual to abandon identification with the patterns that have constituted who one is
Acculturation
–
Portrait of
Native Americans from the Cherokee, Cheyenne, Choctaw, Comanche, Iroquois, and Muscogee tribes in European attire. Photos date from 1868 to 1924.
40.
Hilaria Supa
–
Hilaria Supa Huamán is a Peruvian politician, human rights activist, and an active member of several Indigenous women organizations in Peru and the world and a Peruvian politician. She is currently a Congresswoman representing the Cusco for the period 2006-2011, Hilaria Supa was raised by her grandparents on her mother Helena Huamáns side, who were peasants in a hacienda or a big farm owned by rich families. During her childhood she saw the hacendado or farm owner mistreat her grandfather and rape the local women and her grandfather, who fought for farmers rights, was murdered in 1965. Afterward Hilaria Supa worked as a maid in Cusco, Arequipa. She was raped at 14 when she was working for rich families in Lima and her partner and father of her children, died in an accident when she was 22. As a result of abuse and forced labor as a child. She has written a book about her life titled Threads of My Life -available in Spanish, English and German, in the 1980s she became involved with other Indigenous women in organizing a community program that provided with free meals for poor children. She was also leader of the Federación Departamental de Campesinos del Cusco, Hilaria Supa has taken part in numerous international women rights meetings, where she has actively used and promoted her Native Quechua language. In 1995 she led a protest and lobbying against forced sterilization of women and men and this racist health policy resulted in enforced sterilization of 363,000 Indigenous women and over 22,000 men. Hilaria Supa was elected to the Peruvian Congress in 2006, taking the oath in Quechua and she is working now to rescue Machu Picchu and other Native sites, and return them under the management of the Indigenous peoples of Cusco. In August 2010 Hilaria was elected president of the Education Commission of the Peruvian Congress, while congressmen of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance and the Fujimori parties were criticizing this, she received support by Peruvian education experts. In April 2011 Hilaria was elected as candidate of Gana Perú into the Andean Parliament, hilos de mi vida – el testimonio de Hilaria Supa Huamán, una campesina Quechua. Threads of My Life - The Story of Hilaria Supa Huaman, Hilaria Supa Huamán - cv Congresswoman Hilaria Supa Huamán Entrevista a Hilaria Supa. Peru, Sé que va a haber discriminación
Hilaria Supa
–
Hilaria Supa
41.
Peruvian civil war
–
It has been estimated that nearly 70,000 people have died due to internal conflict in Peru, in violence that started in 1980, in an ongoing conflict which many say wound down by 2000. However, violence erupted in 2014 between the Peruvian Army and guerrilla fighters in Peru proper. A great amount of the victims of the conflict were ordinary civilians and it is the second longest internal conflict in Latin America with the Colombian armed conflict being the first. Despite its long historical stability, Peru has had a succession of authoritarian, general Juan Velasco Alvarado staged a military coup in 1968 and led a left-leaning government until 1975. Francisco Morales Bermúdez was installed as the new President of Peru in 1975, during the governments of Velasco and Morales, Shining Path had organized as a Maoist political group based at the San Cristóbal of Huamanga University in the Ayacucho Region. The group was led by Abimael Guzmán, a communist professor of philosophy at the San Cristóbal of Huamanga University, Guzmán had been inspired by the Cultural Revolution, which he had witnessed firsthand during a trip to China. Shining Path members engaged in fights with members of other political groups. On May 17,1980, the eve of the elections, it burned ballot boxes in the town of Chuschi. It was the first act of terrorism by Shining Path, Shining Path opted to fight their war in the style taught by Mao Zedong. Shining Path also adhered to Maos teaching that guerrilla war should be primarily in the countryside. On December 3,1982, the Shining Path officially formed Peoples Guerrilla Army, in 1982, the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement launched its own guerrilla war against the Peruvian state. The group had formed by remnants of the Movement of the Revolutionary Left in Peru. The MRTA used techniques that were traditional to Latin American leftist organizations than those used by Shining Path. During the terrorism, the MRTA and Shining Path engaged in combat each other. The MRTA played a part in the overall terrorism, being declared by the Truth. At its height the MRTA was believed to consist of only a few hundred members, gradually the Shining Path committed more and more violent attacks on the National Police of Peru, and the Lima-based government could no longer ignore the growing crisis in the Andes. In 1981, Fernando Belaúnde Terry declared a State of Emergency, Constitutional rights were suspended for 60 days in Huamanga Province, Huanta Province, Cangallo Province, La Mar Province and Víctor Fajardo Province. Later, the Armed Forces created the Ayacucho Emergency Zone, in military power was superior to civilian power
Peruvian civil war
–
Comrade Artemio makes demands of the Peruvian government
Peruvian civil war
–
Areas where Shining Path was/is active in Peru
42.
Sendero Luminoso
–
The Communist Party of Peru, more commonly known as the Shining Path, is a communist militant group in Peru. When it first launched the internal conflict in Peru in 1980, the Shining Path believed that by establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat, inducing cultural revolution, and eventually sparking world revolution, they could arrive at pure communism. Their representatives said that existing socialist countries were revisionist, and they claimed to be the vanguard of the world communist movement. S, the European Union, and Canada as a terrorist organization. Leader of the organization Abimael Guzmán stated that the triumph of the revolution will cost a million lives - at a time when Perus population was only 19 million. To that end, the Shining Path attempted to eradicate elements of the political and social order, attacking community leaders, teachers and professors, the first case of popular justice was the assassination in December 1980 of Benigno Medina, a landowner. In January 1982, two teachers were executed in front of their students, several months later,67 traitors were subjected to public execution. In addition, they set about demolishing all government installations and infrastructure, in August 1982, they destroyed the Center for Agricultural Research and Experimentation in Allpahaca and killed the animals. Since the capture of its leader Abimael Guzmán in 1992, the Shining Path has declined in activity, the common name of this group, Shining Path, distinguishes it from several other Peruvian communist parties with similar names. The name is derived from a maxim of José Carlos Mariátegui, founder of the original Peruvian Communist Party in the 1920s and this maxim was featured in the masthead of the newspaper of a Shining Path front group. Peruvian communist groups are distinguished by the names of their publications. The followers of this group are generally called senderistas, all documents, periodicals and other materials produced by the organization are signed by the Communist Party of Peru. Academics often refer to them as PCP-SL, the Shining Path was founded in the late 1960s by Abimael Guzmán, a former university philosophy professor. His teachings created the foundation of its militant Maoist doctrine, the Shining Path first established a foothold at San Cristóbal of Huamanga University, in Ayacucho, where Guzmán taught philosophy. The university had recently reopened after being closed for half a century. Sometime later, it lost many student elections in the universities and it decided to abandon recruiting at the universities and reconsolidate. Beginning on March 17,1980, the Shining Path held a series of meetings in Ayacucho. The group also held its First Military School where members were instructed in military tactics, during the existence of the First Military School, members of the Central Committee came under heavy criticism. Guzmán did not, and he emerged from the First Military School as the leader of the Shining Path
Sendero Luminoso
–
Shining Path poster supporting an electoral boycott
Sendero Luminoso
–
Flag of the Communist Party of Peru
Sendero Luminoso
–
Indigenous peasants were the main victims of the Shining Path during Peru's internal conflict.
Sendero Luminoso
–
Poster of Abimael Guzmán celebrating five years of war
43.
Alberto Fujimori
–
Alberto Kenya Fujimori Fujimori is a former Peruvian politician who served as the 62nd President of Peru from 28 July 1990 to 22 November 2000. A controversial figure, Fujimori ended his presidency by fleeing Peru for Japan amid a scandal involving corruption. His government is credited with the creation of Fujimorism, defeating the Shining Path insurgency, even amid his prosecution in 2008 for crimes against humanity relating to his presidency, two-thirds of Peruvians polled voiced approval for his leadership in that period. A Peruvian of Japanese descent, Fujimori took refuge in Japan when faced with charges of corruption in 2000, wanted in Peru on charges of corruption and human rights abuses, Fujimori maintained a self-imposed exile until his arrest while visiting Chile in November 2005. He was extradited to face charges in Peru in September 2007. In December 2007, Fujimori was convicted of ordering a search and seizure. The Supreme Court upheld the decision upon his appeal, the verdict, delivered by a three-judge panel, marked the first time that an elected head of state has been extradited to his home country, tried, and convicted of human rights violations. Fujimori was specifically found guilty of murder, bodily harm, two months later he pled guilty in a fourth trial to bribery and received an additional six-year term. Under Peruvian law all the sentences must run concurrently, with a length of imprisonment of 25 years. Fujimori is the father of Keiko Fujimori, who is active in Peruvian politics, according to government records, Fujimori was born on 28 July 1938, in Miraflores, a district of Lima. His parents, Naoichi Fujimori and Mutsue Inomoto Fujimori, were natives of Kumamoto, Japan and he holds dual Peruvian and Japanese citizenship, his parents having secured the latter through the Japanese Consulate. In July 1997, the news magazine Caretas charged that Fujimori had actually been born in Japan, in his fathers hometown of Kawachi, because Perus constitution requires the president to have been born in Peru, this would have made Fujimori ineligible to be president. The magazine, which had sued for libel by Vladimiro Montesinos seven years earlier, reported that Fujimoris birth. Caretas also alleged that Fujimoris mother declared having two children when she entered Peru, Fujimori is the second of four children, Caretas contentions were hotly contested in the Peruvian media, the magazine Sí, for instance, described the allegations as pathetic and a dark page for journalism. Fujimori obtained his education at the Colegio Nuestra Señora de la Merced. Fujimoris parents were Buddhists, but he was baptised and raised as a Roman Catholic, while he spoke mainly Japanese at home, Fujimori also learned to become a proficient Spanish speaker during his years at school. In 1956, Fujimori graduated from La gran unidad escolar Alfonso Ugarte in Lima and he went on to undergraduate studies at the Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina in 1957, graduating in 1961 first in his class as an agricultural engineer. The following year he lectured on mathematics at the university, in 1964 he went to study physics at the University of Strasbourg in France
Alberto Fujimori
–
Fujimori at
Andrews Air Force Base in 1998.
Alberto Fujimori
–
Fujimori in September 2008.
44.
Yawar Mallku
–
Blood of the Condor is a 1969 Bolivian drama film co-written and directed by Jorge Sanjinés. The film tells the story of an indigenous Bolivian community receiving medical care from the Peace Corps-like American agency Cuerpo del Progreso which is secretly sterilising local women, an indigenous Bolivian community receiving medical care from the Peace Corps-like American agency Cuerpo del Progreso which is secretly sterilising local women. The Bolivians attack the foreigners, and the attackers are rounded up, the brother of the shot protagonist desperately seeks medical care for his brother, but due to lack of money for proper care his brother dies. Sanjinés Yawar Mallku is thought to have led to the expulsion of the Peace Corps from Bolivia in an act of anti-imperialist cultural nationalism by the indigenous people and he took this into account when making his next film, called El coraje del pueblo, in 1971. Revolutionary Cinema, The Bolivian Experience, Jorge Sanjinés, Cinema and Social Change in Latin America, Conversations with Filmmakers. ISBN0292724543,9780292724549 Blood of the Condor at the Internet Movie Database
Yawar Mallku
–
Blood of the Condor Yawar Mallku
45.
Martha Hildebrandt
–
Martha Luz Hildebrandt Pérez-Treviño is a Peruvian linguist and politician. Martha Hildebrandt was the woman to occupy the Presidency of the Congress of the Republic of Peru in 1999. Since 1995 she has exercised her charge in the Congress of Peru and she is also the sister of César Hildebrandt, a Peruvian journalist. In 1942 she studied education in National University of San Marcos, in 1952 she studied Descriptive Linguistics in Oklahoma, United States and subsequently Structural Linguistics in Illinois, also in the United States. From 1947 to 1953, she worked at the National University of San Marcos as a teacher, then she traveled to Venezuela, where she worked in the area of linguistics at the Department of Justice of Venezuela. In 1962 she returned to the National University of San Marcos as professor, from 1972 until 1976 she was also the General Director of the Institute of Culture. From 1974 to 1978 she held important positions in the Organization of American States and in UNESCO, martha Hildebrandt may be the local linguist best known to the broad Peruvian public, though she speaks neither Quechua nor Aymara. She was Perpetual Secretary of the Academia Peruana de la Lengua from 1993 to the 2005 and her numerous books on subjects related to the Spanish Language are extensively quoted. Her political life began in 1994 with her relationship with Alberto Fujimori, in the general elections of 1995 she was chosen by Cambio 90-Nueva Mayoría as the Congressperson of the Republic, initiating her first period in the Legislature. In 1999 she was chosen as President of the Congress and in 2000 she was reaffirmed in the position, when the state of Alberto Fujimori began to collapse, Hildebrandt was removed from the position, to avoid to be closely tied to the regime. In the general elections of the 2001, she was not elected, in August 2006, she criticized two congresswomen from Cusco, Hilaria Supa and María Sumire, for being sworn in before Congress in their native language Quechua on July 25,2006. She demanded that Spanish should be used as the language in Congress. However, the Congress decided that translations from Quechua and other languages should be taken into account for all sessions. Martha Hidebrandt prompted the creation of a preschool for the children of Congresspersons, since 1995 she has been involved in the Junta prep School of the Congress. In this meeting they gather upon more voting, that of under age and that of greater age, for the Meeting of 2006, they will accompany the most voted member and that of smaller age. It is also curious that since Hildebrandt worked in the Junta, only women have occupied that role
Martha Hildebrandt
–
Martha Hildebrandt
46.
Roman Catholic
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholic
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholic
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
47.
Pishtaco
–
A pishtaco is a mythological boogeyman figure in the Andes region of South America, particularly in Peru and Bolivia. Some parts of the Andes refer to the pishtaco as kharisiri, according to folklore, a pishtaco is an evil monster-like man — often a stranger and often a white man — who seeks out unsuspecting Indians to kill them and abuse them in many ways. The legend dates back to the spanish conquest of South America, primarily, this has been stealing their body fat for various cannibalistic purposes, or cutting them up and selling their flesh as fried chicharrones. Pishtaco derives from the local Quechua-language word pishtay which means to behead, cut the throat, the preoccupation with body fat has a long tradition in the Andes region. Pre-Hispanic natives prized fat so much that a deity, Viracocha and it is also natural for the peasant rural poor to view fleshiness and excess body fat as the very sign of life, good health, strength and beauty. Many illnesses are thought to have their roots in the loss of body fats, with this, the conquistadores practice of treating their wounds with their enemies corpse fats horrified the Indians. Spaniards, are said to have killed Indians and boiled their corpses to produce fat to grease their metal muskets and cannons. Andean Aboriginals feared Spanish missionaries as pishtacos, believing the missionaries were killing people for fat, in modern times, similar beliefs held that sugar mill machinery needed human fat as grease, or that jet aircraft engines could not start without a squirt of human fat. Natives have attacked survey geologists working on the Peruvian and Bolivian altiplano who believed that the geologists were pishtacos, the work of anthropologists has been stymied because measurements of fat folds were rumoured to be part of a plot to select the fattest individuals later to be targeted by pishtacos. In 2009, the legend was cited as a possible contributory factor in the apparent fabrication of a story by Peruvian police of a gang murdering up to 60 people to harvest their fat. The pishtaco is prominently referenced in the novel Death in the Andes by Mario Vargas Llosa. In the book, two members of the Peruvian Civil Guard investigate the disappearance of three men, trying to determine if they were killed by the Shining Path guerilla group or by mythical monsters. A minor running gag was the near homophony of the word pishtaco with the phrase fish taco, likichiri Blood libel Weismantel, Mary J. Cholas and pishtacos, stories of race and sex in the Andes. An Amazonian myth and its history, pishtacos, Myth, Rumor, Resistance and Structural Inequalities in Colonial and Modern Peru. New York, Columbia University-Mailman School of Public Health, aztecs and Spaniards, Cortés and the conquest of Mexico. Melted fat taken from the body of a dead Indian was then used to soothe the raw wound, fat, An Appreciation of a Misunderstood Ingredient, with Recipes. Franco, Jean, Mary Louise Pratt, Kathleen Elizabeth Newman, an Amazonian myth and its history. Temptation of the Word, The Novels of Mario Vargas Llosa, nordstrom, Carolyn, Antonius C. G. M. Robben
Pishtaco
–
Pistaku,
Peruvian Retablo, Ayacucho.
48.
Cinchona
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Cinchona is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae containing at least 23 species of trees and shrubs. They are native to the tropical Andean forests of western South America, a few species are reportedly naturalized in Central America, Jamaica, French Polynesia, Sulawesi, Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, and São Tomé and Príncipe off the coast of tropical Africa. A few species are used as medicinal plants, known as sources for quinine, carl Linnaeus named the genus in 1742 after Ana de Osorio, the 4th Countess of Chinchón and wife of a viceroy of Peru. According to some accounts, she suffered from malaria and was cured by a botanical remedy made of the bark of a native tree. The veracity of the story is uncertain, but the tree still carries her name, the national tree of Peru is in the genus Cinchona. Cinchona plants are shrubs or small trees with evergreen foliage. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate and 10–40 cm long, the flowers are white, pink or red, produced in terminal panicles. The fruit is a capsule containing numerous seeds. After a few days, she was cured, Linnaeus later named the tree in her honor. The use of the tree bark was introduced into European medicine by Jesuit missionaries. Jesuit Bernabé Cobo, who explored Mexico and Peru, is credited with taking cinchona bark to Europe and he took the bark from Lima to Spain, and afterwards to Rome and other parts of Italy, in 1632. To maintain their monopoly on cinchona bark, Peru and surrounding countries began outlawing the export of cinchona seeds, during World War II, the Japanese conquered Java and the United States lost access to the cinchona plantations that supplied war-critical quinine medication. As a medicinal herb, cinchona bark is known as Jesuits bark or Peruvian bark. The bark is stripped from the tree, dried, and powdered for medicinal uses, the bark is medicinally active, containing a variety of alkaloids including the antimalarial compound quinine and the antiarrhythmic quinidine. South America The cinchona trees medicinal use in the treatment of fevers were first discovered by the Quechua people of Peru, the namesake Chinchón is a small town in central Spain. In the Viceroyalty of Peru, the physician was summoned and urged to save the countess from the waves of fever and chill threatening her life. At last, the physician administered some medicine he had obtained from the local Indians, the countess survived the malarial attack and reportedly brought the cinchona bark back with her when she returned to Europe in the 1640s. Europe The Italian botanist Pietro Castelli wrote a pamphlet noteworthy as being the first Italian publication to mention the cinchona, by the 1630s, the bark was being exported to Europe
Cinchona
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Cinchona
Cinchona
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Cinchona officinalis, the harvested bark
Cinchona
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Peru offers a branch of cinchona to
Science (from a 17th-century
engraving): Cinchona, the source of
Peruvian bark, is an early remedy against
malaria.
Cinchona
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A 19th-century illustration of Cinchona calisaya
49.
Coca
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Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. The plant is grown as a crop in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador. There are some reports that the plant is being cultivated in the south of Mexico as a cash crop and it also plays a role in many traditional Andean cultures as well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Coca is known throughout the world for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine, the alkaloid content of coca leaves is low, between 0. 25% and 0. 77%. This means that chewing the leaves or drinking coca tea does not produce the high people experience with cocaine, Coca leaf extract had been used in Coca-Cola products since 1885, with cocaine being completely eliminated from the products in or around 1929. Extraction of cocaine from coca requires several solvents and a process known as an acid / base extraction. The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 2 to 3 metres, the branches are straight, and the leaves are thin, opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the leaf is an areolated portion bounded by two curved lines, one line on each side of the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf. The flowers mature into red berries, the leaves are sometimes eaten by the larvae of the moth Eloria noyesi. Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu – cultivated in the lowland Amazon Basin in Peru, Erythroxylum novogranatense Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense – a highland variety that is utilized in lowland areas. It is cultivated in drier regions found in Colombia, however, E. novogranatense is very adaptable to varying ecological conditions. The leaves have parallel lines on side of the central vein. Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense – grown primarily in Peru and Colombia, the leaves of E. novogranatense var. truxillense does not have parallel lines on either side of the central vein like all other varieties. All four of the cultivated cocas were domesticated in pre-Columbian times and are closely related to each other than to any other species. There are two theories relating to the evolution of the cultivated cocas. Recent research based on genetic evidence does not support this linear evolution, there may be a common, but undiscovered ancestor. Wild populations of Erythroxylum coca var. coca are found in the eastern Andes, the two subspecies of Erythroxylum coca are almost indistinguishable phenotypically. Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense are phenotypically similar, under the older Cronquist system of classifying flowering plants, this was placed in an order Linales, more modern systems place it in the order Malpighiales
Coca
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Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense leaves and berries
Coca
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Coca tree in Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
Ecuador
Argentina
Spain
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