1.
Dehradun
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Dehradun or Dehra Dun is the capital city of the state of Uttarakhand in the northern part of India. Dehradun is in the Doon Valley on the foothills of the Himalayas nestled between the river Ganges on the east and the river Yamuna on the west, the city is famous for its picturesque landscape and slightly milder climate and provides a gateway to the surrounding region. It hosts training institutions of importance such as the Indian Military Academy, ITBP Academy & Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy. The city population has significant contribution of government servants, Dehradun Municipal Corporation is locally known as Nagar Nigam Dehradun. Dehradun is also known for its Basmati rice and bakery products, Dehradun is made up of two words, Dehra is derived from the word dera, deriving from griha and meaning home. Doon is a term for the valley lies between the Himalayas and the Shivaliks. When Ram Rai Ji, son of Guru Har Rai Ji, came to region with his followers. Around this time, the city of Dehradun started to develop. This is when the word dehra was linked to doon, in Skanda Purana, Dun is mentioned as a part of the region called Kedar Khand, the abode of Shiva. In ancient India during the Mahabharata epic era, Dronacharya the great teacher of Kauravas and Pandavas, lived here hence the name, some historians believe that the word dehra can be regarded as a term for camping. The history of the city of Uttarakhand, Dehradun is linked to the story of Ramayana and it is believed that after the battle between Ravan and Lord Ram, Lord Ram and his brother Laxman visited this site. Dronacharya, the legendary Royal guru to the Kauravas and Pandavas in the epic Mahabharata, is believed to have been born, evidence such as ancient temples and idols have been found in the areas surrounding Dehradun which have been linked to the mythology of Ramayana and Mahabharata. These relics and ruins are believed to be around 2000 years old, furthermore, the location, the local traditions and the literature reflect this regions links with the events of Mahabharata and Ramayana. Even after the battle of Mahabharata, the Pandavas had influence on this region as the rulers of Hastinapur with the descendants of Subahu ruled the region as subsidiaries. Likewise, Rishikesh is mentioned in the pages of history when Lord Vishnu answered the prayers of the saints, slaughtered the demons, sudhnagar later came to be recognised as the name of Kaalsi. Edicts of Ashoka have been found in the region along the banks of river Yamuna in Kaalsi indicating the wealth, gerards map names the place as Dehra or Gooroodwara. Surrounding this original Sikh temple were many villages that are now the names of parts of the modern city. Dehradun itself derives its name from the fact that Shri Ram Rai
2.
Uttarakhand
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Uttarakhand, officially the State of Uttarakhand, formerly known as Uttaranchal, is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the Devbhumi due to many Hindu temples, Uttarakhand is known for its natural beauty of the Himalayas, the Bhabhar and the Terai. On 9 November 2000, Uttarakhand became the 27th state of the Republic of India, being created from the Himalayan, the state is divided into two divisions, Garhwal and Kumaon, with a total of 13 districts. The interim capital of Uttarakhand is Dehradun, the largest city in the region, the High Court of the state is in Nainital. Archaeological evidence supports the existence of humans in the region since prehistoric times, the region formed a part of the Kuru and the Panchal kingdoms during the Vedic age of Ancient India. Among the first major dynasties of Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century BCE who practised a form of Shaivism. Ashokan edicts at Kalsi show the presence of Buddhism in this region. During the medieval period, the region was consolidated under the Kumaon Kingdom, in 1816, most of modern Uttarakhand was ceded to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli. The natives of the state are generally called Uttarakhandi, or more specifically either Garhwali or Kumaoni by their region of origin, according to the 2011 Census of India, Uttarakhand has a population of 10,116,752, making it the 19th most populous state in India. Uttarakhands name is derived from the Sanskrit words uttara meaning north, the name finds mention in early Hindu scriptures as the combined region of Kedarkhand and Manaskhand. Uttarakhand was also the ancient Puranic term for the stretch of the Indian Himalayas. Chosen for its allegedly less separatist connotations, the name change generated enormous controversy among many activists for a separate state who saw it as a political act, the name Uttarakhand remained popular in the region, even while Uttaranchal was promulgated through official usage. In August 2006, Union Cabinet of India assented to the demands of the Uttaranchal state assembly, legislation to that effect was passed by the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly in October 2006, and the Union Cabinet brought in the bill in the winter session of Parliament. The bill was passed by Parliament and signed into law by then President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam in December 2006, and since January 1,2007 the state has been known as Uttarakhand. Ancient rock paintings, rock shelters, paleolithic stone tools, there are also archaeological remains which show the existence of early Vedic practices in the area. The Pauravas, Kushanas, Kunindas, Guptas, Gurjara-Pratihara, Katyuris, Raikas, Palas, Chands, Parmars or Panwars, at that time, present-day Uttarakhand also served as a habitat for Rishis and Sadhus. It is believed that the sage Vyasa scripted the Hindu epic Mahabharata in the state, among the first major dynasties of Garhwal and Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century BCE who practised an early form of Shaivism and traded salt with Western Tibet. It is evident from the Ashokan edict at Kalsi in Western Garhwal that Buddhism made inroads in this region, folk shamanic practices deviating from Hindu orthodoxy also persisted here
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Indian Army
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The Indian Army is the land-based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and it is commanded by the Chief of Army Staff, two officers have been conferred with the rank of field marshal, a five-star rank, which is a ceremonial position of great honour. It conducts humanitarian rescue operations during calamities and other disturbances, like Operation Surya Hope. It is a component of national power alongside the Indian Navy. The army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan, other major operations undertaken by the army include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot and Operation Cactus. The Indian Army has a system, but is operationally and geographically divided into seven commands. It is a force and comprises more than 80% of the countrys active defence personnel. It is the 2nd largest standing army in the world, with 1,200,255 active troops and 990,960 reserve troops, a Military Department was created within the Government of the East India Company at Kolkata in the year 1776. Its main function was to sift and record orders relating to the Army that were issued by various Departments of the East India Company for the territories under its control. With the Charter Act of 1833, the Secretariat of the Government of the East India Company was reorganised into four Departments, including a Military Department. The army in the Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay & Madras functioned as respective Presidency Army until April 1895, for administrative convenience, it was divided into four commands at that point of time, namely Punjab, Bengal, Madras and Bombay. The British Indian Army was a force for the primacy of the British Empire both in India and across the world. In the 20th century, the Indian Army was an adjunct to the British forces in both the world wars. 1.3 million Indian soldiers served in World War I for the Allies, in 1915 there was a mutiny by Indian soldiers in Singapore. After the United Kingdom made promises of self-governance to the Indian National Congress in return for its support, Britain reneged on its promises after the war, following which the Indian Independence movement gained strength. Indian officers given a Kings commission after passing out were posted to one of the eight selected for Indianisation. In World War II Indian soldiers fought for the Allies, in 1939, British officials had no plan for expansion and training of Indian forces, which comprised about 130,000 men. Their mission was internal security and defence against a possible Soviet threat through Afghanistan, as the war progressed, the size and role of the Indian Army expanded dramatically, and troops were sent to battle fronts as soon as possible
5.
Indian independence movement
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The Indian independence movement encompassed all activities and ideas aiming to end the East India Company rule and the British Indian Empire in the Indian subcontinent. The movement spanned a total of 190 years, the early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self-rule proposed by leaders such as the Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The last stages of the struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand Gandhis policy of nonviolence and civil resistance. Nationalist like Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh and Vinayak Damodar Sawarkar preached armed revolution to achieve self-rule, feminists such as Sarojini Naidu and Begum Rokeya promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics. Babasaheb Ambedkar championed the cause of the sections of Indian society within the larger self-rule movement. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the campaigns by the Quit India Movement led by Congress, the Indian self-rule movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution, in 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 AD at the port of Calicut, in search of the lucrative spice trade. Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, the decline of the Mughal empire in the first half of the eighteenth century provided the British with the opportunity to establish a firm foothold in Indian politics. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came either under the Companys direct rule, the Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire, after defeating them in a series of wars. The Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First, in 1835, English was made the medium of instruction in Indias schools and many Indians increasingly disliked British rule. With the British now dominating most of the subcontinent, many British increasingly disregarded local customs, Puli Thevan was one of the opponents of the British rule in India. He was in conflict with the Nawab of Arcot who was supported by the British and his prominent exploits were his confrontations with Marudhanayagam, who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Nelkatumseval the present Tirunelveli Dist of Tamil Nadu state of India was the headquarters of Puli Thevan, kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja was one of the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the regent of the princely state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur. He fought a war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground, Rani Velu Nachiyar, was a queen of Indian Sivaganga in 1760–1790. She was the first queen to fight against the British in India, Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam, horse riding and archery
6.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
7.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
8.
Royal Military College, Sandhurst
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The RMC was reorganised at the outbreak of the Second World War, but some of its units remained operational at Sandhurst and Aldershot. In 1947, the Royal Military College was merged with the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, general Sir William Harcourt was appointed as the first Governor of the Royal Military College at Great Marlow and continued in post until 1811. In 1799, a school for officers had been established at High Wycombe. In 1858 this became an institution, the Staff College. In 1942, this moved to Mons Barracks, Aldershot. In 1812, the posts of Lieutenant Governor and Commandant were merged into the role of Commandant, in 1888 the two remaining senior posts, Governor and Commandant, were merged into the single appointment of Governor and Commandant, which in 1902 was retitled as Commandant
9.
Rashtriya Indian Military College
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The Rashtriya Indian Military College is a public school for boys situated in Doon Valley, Dehradun in India. The RIMC is an institution for the National Defence Academy, Indian Naval Academy. Rimcollians, the name by which alumni of the RIMC are usually denoted, have gone on to hold the highest ranks in the Army, Navy and the Air Force of India and Pakistan. RIMC was established in 1922 by the British Empire for training native Indian cadets for an entry into the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst to be trained as officers of the British Indian Army. The Prince Edward, The Prince of Wales, inaugurated the school on 13 March 1922, the name was changed in 1947 when India became independent. It was located on the premises of the Imperial Cadet Corps, RIMC was intended as a feeder institution to Royal Military Academy Sandhurst along the lines of an English public school. The government order appointed a military commandant of the rank of Lt Colonel, the first commandant was Lt Col H. L. Houghton of the Sikh Regiment who took charge of the college on 22 February 1922. JGC Scott was appointed headmaster and the first group of British masters were JM Allen, CA Phillips, the first mess contractors were MS Hazir and Co and the mess staff consisted mostly of Goans. Later the mess was taken over by the Army Service Corps, Hira Lal Atal was the first Cadet Captain and later as Adjutant General of the Indian Union, Major General Hira Lal Atal designed India’s highest award for bravery in combat, the Param Vir Chakra. Among the early cadets were K. S, Thimayya, Asghar Khan and others, who had illustrious military careers. After India gained independence in 1947, the continued to train young men to become a part of the Indian Armed Forces. The major difference is instead of serving as a public school whose boys joined the RMA, RIMC now offers an excellent public school life. To celebrate the 75th anniversary of Rashtriya Indian Military College, Dehra Dun 2.00 Cradle of Excellence stamps were produced, the school is spread over 54 hectares and has an enrollment of 250 cadets. A Hawker Hunter jet aircraft gifted to the college by the Air Chief Marshal N. C, suri is placed in front of the administrative block. RIMC has a 1,12 teacher student ratio, candidates for the school are selected from all over India through a national level competitive exam, the RIMC Entrance Exam that is held twice a year in each state. Successful candidates in the exam have to go through a medical fitness test to be admitted to the school. Every year about 50 students are selected in two intakes from all over India and admitted into Standard VIII at the RIMC, the RIMC in 1922 was run on the lines of an English public school - Wellock College, a feeder to Sandhurst. The 37 cadets forming the first batch were divided into three Houses, called Sections at the RIMC, known as Rawlinson, Roberts and Kitchener after the three Commander-in-Chiefs of India
10.
Sam Manekshaw
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His distinguished military career spanned four decades and five wars, beginning with service in the British Indian Army in World War II. Though Manekshaw initially thought of pursuing a career as a medical doctor, right from his days at IMA, he proved to be witty and humorous in nature. He was first attached to the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Scots, during action in World War II, he was awarded the Military Cross for gallantry. Following the partition of India in 1947, he was reassigned to the 16th Punjab Regiment, Manekshaw was seconded to a planning role during the 1947 Indo-Pakistani War and the Hyderabad crisis, and as a result he never commanded an infantry battalion. He was promoted to the rank of brigadier while serving at the Military Operations Directorate, Manekshaw rose to become the 8th Chief of Army Staff in 1969, after commanding troops at both division, corps and regional command levels. Under his command, Indian forces conducted victorious campaigns against Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 that led to the creation of Bangladesh in December 1971. For his services, he was awarded the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan, the second and third highest civilian awards of India. Manekshaw was born on 3 April 1914 in Amritsar, Punjab to Parsi parents, Hormusji Manekshaw, a doctor, and his wife Hilla and his father served in the British Indian Army as a captain in the Army Medical Corps and also participated in World War I. His parents had six children, Sam was the fifth, fali, Cilla, Jan, and Sehroo preceded him. He was followed by Jemi, who joined the Royal Indian Air Force as a doctor. He asked his father to him to London to become a gynaecologist. But his father refused, stating that he was not old enough, a three-year course was proposed with an entry age of 18 to 20 years. Candidates would be selected on the basis of an examination conducted by the Public Service Commission, in an act of rebellion against his fathers refusal, Manekshaw took the examination for enrolment in the academy, and was one of the fifteen cadets to be selected through open competition. He stood sixth in the order of merit, Manekshaw was selected as part of the first batch of cadets to attend IMA. Called The Pioneers, his class produced three future chiefs—Manekshaw, Smith Dun and Muhammad Musa, although the academy was formally inaugurated by Chetwode on 10 December 1932, the cadets formal military training commenced on 1 October 1932. Manekshaw proved to be witty during his stay at IMA and achieved many firsts and he was the first of the alumni to join the Gorkha Regiment, and later the first to serve as the Chief of the Army Staff of India and attain the rank of field marshal. Of the 40 cadets inducted, only 22 were able to complete the course and were commissioned as lieutenants on 1 February 1935 with their anté-date seniority fixed as 4 February 1934. On commissioning, as was the practice at time, Manekshaw was first attached to the 2nd Battalion, The Royal Scots
11.
Field marshal (India)
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Field marshal is a five–star general officer rank and the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. Field marshal is ranked immediately above general, but not exercised in the army structure. It is a ceremonial or wartime rank, having been awarded only twice. A field marshals insignia consists of the emblem over a crossed baton. Sam Manekshaw was the first field marshal of India, and was conferred the rank in January 1973, the second was Kodandera M. Cariappa, who was conferred the rank on 14 January 1986. Field marshal is equivalent to an admiral of the fleet in the Indian Navy or a marshal of the air force in the Indian Air Force. In the navy, admiral of the fleet has never been awarded, to date, only two Indian Army officers have been conferred the rank. It was first conferred to Sam Manekshaw in 1973, in recognition of his service, in 1971, after the war, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi decided to promote Manekshaw to field marshal and subsequently to appoint him as the Chief of the Defence Staff. This appointment was dropped after objections from the bureaucracy and the commanders of the navy. On 3 January 1973, after his term as the Chief of the Army Staff Manekshaw was conferred with the rank of marshal at a ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan. As it was the first appointment, several entitlements of the rank, including the badges, a few weeks before Manekshaws appointment, the field marshals badges of rank were made at the Army workshop in Delhi Cantonment. They were inspired by the British field marshal insignia, the second individual to be conferred the rank was Kodandera M. Cariappa, the first Indian to serve as the commander–in–chief of the Indian Army. Field marshal is the rank and highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. Though the rank is placed above general, it is not observed in the regular structure and it is a largely ceremonial or wartime rank, having been awarded only twice. A field marshal receives the full pay of a four–star general and they wear a full uniform on all ceremonial occasions. In addition to this, they run an office in the Army Headquarters with a secretariat. Field marshal is equivalent to an admiral of the fleet in the Indian Navy or a marshal of the Air Force in the Indian Air Force. While Arjan Singh is the holder of the marshal of the air force to date
12.
Philip Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode
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Field Marshal Philip Walhouse Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode, 7th Baronet of Oakley, GCB, OM, GCSI, KCMG, DSO was a senior British Army officer. He saw action during the Second Boer War, during which he was present at the Siege of Ladysmith in December 1899, after the War he held a series of senior military appointments including Adjutant-General to the Forces and then Commander in Chief Aldershot Command. He went on to be Chief of the General Staff in India in 1928 and he then received a regular commission with the 19th Hussars on 20 November 1889. Promoted to lieutenant on 6 August 1890, Chetwode first saw service in the Chin Hills expedition in Burma from 1892 to 1893 and was promoted to captain on 7 February 1897. Promoted to major on 21 December 1901, he stayed in South Africa until the end of hostilities, the war ended with the Peace of Vereeniging in late May 1902, and the following month Chetwode returned home in the SS Tagus, arriving at Southampton in July. He succeeded as 7th Baronet in 1905, in 1906, Chetwode became assistant military secretary to Sir John French and on 3 January 1908 he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on appointment as commanding officer of the 19th Hussars. Having been placed on half-pay list from 3 January 1912, he was promoted to colonel on 1 April 1912, during the Curragh incident in March 1914 Chetwode was offered command of the 3rd Cavalry Brigade when Hubert Gough threatened to resign. He knew that he would be “looked upon by all his officers as a scab”. In the event Gough kept his command and Chetwode remained with the London Mounted Brigade, promoted to temporary brigadier-general on 15 May 1914, he was given command of the 5th Cavalry Brigade in August 1914. In World War I, Chetwode served on the Western Front, his brigade helped cover the retreat from the frontier and he led the corps at Rafa in January 1917 and at the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917. When Edmund Allenby took command of the Allied forces in Palestine in June 1917 and he led his corps to military success at the Battle of Beersheba in October 1917 and at the Battle of Jerusalem in November 1917. During the Sinai and Palestine Campaign he was mentioned in despatches eight times and he was promoted to full general on 1 June 1926. Chetwode became Chief of the General Staff in India in 1928 and Commander-in-Chief and he was promoted to field marshal on 13 February 1933. He was much concerned with the modernisation and Indianisation of the army in India, the main building and its central hall at the Indian Military Academy is named after him. The honour, welfare and comfort of the men you command come next and your own ease, comfort and safety come last, always and every time. This is known as the Chetwode Motto and is the motto of the passing out from the Academy. Chetwode returned from India in May 1934 and he was Constable of the Tower from 1943 to 1948 and also President of the Royal Geographical Society as well as the recipient of an Honorary DCL from Oxford University. He was created Baron Chetwode of Chetwode in the County of Buckingham on 10 July 1945, Chetwode married Hester Alice Camilla Stapleton Cotton and had a son Roger and a daughter Penelope
13.
Government of India
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It is located in New Delhi, the capital of India. There is a bicameral Parliament with the Lok Sabha as a lower house, the judicial branch systematically contains an apex Supreme Court,24 high courts, and several district courts, all inferior to the Supreme Court. Similar to the government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative. The legal system as applicable to the federal and individual state governments is based on the English Common, the full name of the country is the Republic of India. No other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name appears on legal banknotes, in treaties. The Union Government, Central Government or Government of India are often used in an official and unofficial capacity to refer to the Government of India, because the seat of government is in New Delhi, New Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the Central Government. Legislative branch in India is exercised by the Parliament and a legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha. The latter is considered the house or the House of the people. The Parliament does not have control and sovereignty, as its laws are subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court of India. However, it does exercise some control over the executive branch, the members of the cabinet, including the prime minister and the Council of Ministers, are either chosen from parliament or elected there to within six months of assuming office. The cabinet as a whole is responsible to the Lok Sabha, the Lok Sabha is a temporary house and can only be dissolved when the party in power loses the support of the majority of the house. Whereas the Rajya Sabha is a permanent house which can never be dissolved though the members of the Rajya Sabha who are elected for a six-year term, the Executive Branch of government is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers. The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India, the President has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per the aforesaid Article 53. The President is to act in accordance with aid and advice tendered by the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers remains in power during the pleasure of the President. However, in practice, the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha, if a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it holds the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha, the President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. His/Her work is to facilitate smooth transaction of business in Ministries/ Departments of the Government, the President is de jure the Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces
14.
Indian Railways
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Indian Railways is a state-owned railway company, responsible for rail transport in India. It is owned and operated by the Government of India through the Ministry of Railways. It is fourth largest railway network in the world comprising 119,630 kilometres of track and 92,081 km of running track over a route of 68,525 km with 7,216 stations at the end of 2015-16. In 2015-16, IR carried 8.107 billion passengers annually or more than 22 million passengers a day and 1.101 billion tons of freight annually, Railways were first introduced to India in the year 1853 from Bombay to Thane. In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, the Indian Railways, IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities at places in India, with assigned codes identifying their gauge, kind of power. Its operations cover twenty six states and three union territories across India, and also has connectivity to Bangladesh and Pakistan. Indian Railways is the eighth biggest employer and had 1.331 million employees at the end of 2015-16. In 2015–2016 Indian Railways had revenues of ₹1.683 trillion which consists of ₹1.069 trillion freight earnings and it had operating ratio of 90. 5% in 2015-16. As on the end of 2015-16, IRs rolling stock comprises over 251,256 Freight Wagons,70,241 Passenger Coaches and 11,122 Locomotives, Indian Railways run on average 13,313 passenger trains daily in 2015-16. Mail or Express trains, most common type, run at speed of 50.9 km/hr on Broad Gauge and 34.2 km/hr on Meter Gauge. The trains have a 5 digit numbering system, as of at the end of 2015-16, of the total 68,525 km route length,28,327 km was electrified and 28,371 km was Double or Multiple line route. Since 1960, almost all electrified sections on IR use 25,000 volts AC traction through overhead catenary delivery, the history of railway transport in India began in the mid-nineteenth century. The core of the pressure for building railways In India came from London, in 1848, there was not a single kilometre of railway line in India. The countrys first railway, built by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, opened in 1853, the East Indian Railway Company was established 1 June 1845 in London by a deed of settlement with a capital of £4,000,000, largely raised in London. The Great Southern India Railway Co. was founded in Britain in 1853, Construction of track in Madras Presidency began in 1859 and the 80-mile link from Trichinopoly to Negapatam was opened in 1861. The Carnatic Railway founded in 1864, opened a Madras-Arakkonam-Kancheepuram line in 1865, the Great Southern India Railway Company was subsequently merged with the Carnatic Railway Company in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway Company. A British engineer, Robert Maitland Brereton, was responsible for the expansion of the railways from 1857 onwards, the Allahabad-Jabalpur branch line of the East Indian Railway had been opened in June 1867
15.
Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon
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Freeman-Thomas was born in England and educated at Eton College and then the University of Cambridge before serving for 15 years in the Sussex Artillery. He then entered the diplomatic and political fields, acting as aide-de-camp to his father-in-law when the latter was Governor of Victoria, and in 1900 was elected to the British House of Commons. He thereafter occupied a variety of government posts, including secretary to the British prime minister and, after being raised to the peerage as Lord Willingdon, as Lord-in-Waiting to King George V. After the end of his tenure, Willingdon was installed as the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and was elevated in the peerage as the Marquess of Willingdon. After representing Britain at a number of organisations and celebrations, Willingdon died in 1941 at his home in London, and his ashes were interred in Westminster Abbey. Freeman Thomas was born the son of Freeman Frederick Thomas, an officer in the rifle brigade of Ratton and Yapton, and his wife, Mabel. By the age of two, Thomas father had died and he was raised thereafter by his mother, who sent him to Eton College. There, he acted as President of the Eton Society and was for three years a member of the cricket team, serving as captain of the playing eleven during his final year. His father had played for Sussex. Upon his general admission from university, Freeman-Thomas then volunteered for fifteen years for the Sussex Artillery, in 1892, Freeman-Thomas assumed the additional surname of Freeman by deed poll and married Lady Marie Brassey, the daughter of the 1st Earl Brassey. Freeman-Thomas often cited her as a source of support, stating once, My wife has been a constant inspiration, the couple had two sons, Gerard, born 3 May 1893, and Inigo, born 25 July 1899. Gerard was killed in World War I on 14 September 1914, Freeman-Thomas political career began in 1897 with his appointment as aide-de-camp to his father-in-law, who was then the Governor of Victoria, Australia. Upon his return to the United Kingdom, Freeman-Thomas joined the Liberal Party and he then served as a junior lord of the Treasury in the Liberal Cabinet that sat from 1905 to 1906. Within a year, however, the First World War had erupted, Lord Willingdon strove to serve the Allied cause, taking responsibility for treating the wounded from the Mesopotamian campaign. This was the first meeting Willingdon had with Gandhi and he described the Indian spiritual leader as honest. Still, the government insisted that tax not only be paid, the people under Gandhis influence then rallied together and sent a petition to Willingdon, asking that he cancel the taxes for that year. For his actions there, in relation to governance and the war effort, Willingdon returned to the United Kingdom from Bombay only briefly before he was appointed on 10 April 1919 as the Governor of Madras. This posting came shortly after the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1918 were formalised by the Government of India Act, Willingdon appointed A. Subbarayalu Reddiar as his premier and Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn opened the first meeting of the Legislative Assembly
16.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
17.
Muhammad Musa
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He served to command the combat brigades in war with India over Kashmir in 1947 and eventually ascended as the Commander in Chief after the military martial law enforced in 1958. He earned notability and public fame when he commanded the Pakistan Army after the war with India in 1965. Musa Khan shortly retired after the war and embarked his career in politics when he was appointed to serve as Governor of West-Pakistan from 1966 until 1969. In 1985, he was appointed as Governor of Balochistan and remained in office until he died in 1991, Muhammad Musa Khan was born on 20 October 1908 in Quetta, Baluchistan, British India into a tribal Hazara family. He was of the Persian-speaking Mongol descent who belonged to a Hazara tribal tradition and his family roots have been said to be descendants of Genghis Khan. His family was Sardar of Hazara Tribe and was the eldest son of Sardar Yazdan Khan who the local Tribal chief and he was selected to join the Indian Military Academy at Dehra Dun as a cadet in October 1932. In 1935, he graduated from the Indian Military Academy and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in 1935 and he was said to be an excellent sportsman and had played Hockey as a Defender. In 1936, he was posted to the 6th Royal Battalion of the 13th Frontier Force Rifles as a Platoon Commander and saw actions in the violent Waziristan campaign in 1936 till 1938. He participated well in the World War II on the side of the United Kingdom and served well in the Burma Campaign and North African theatre as part of the Norfolk Regiment of the British Indian Army. In 1942, his action for valor won him the praise and was appointed as Member of the Order of the British Empire for gallant. In 1945, he was promoted as captain and major in 1946 and was serving with the Machine Gun battalion. After the partition of British India that followed the establishment of Pakistan in 1947, he opted for Pakistan and joined the Pakistan Army as a staff officer. In 1947, he, as Brigadier, commanded the 103rd Infantry Brigade based in Sialkot brigade in Kashmir, in 1948, he went on to command the 52nd Infantry Brigade positioned in Quetta. After the war in 1948, General Musa studied and graduated from the Command and Staff College in Quetta, in 1950s, Musa Khan earned reputation as being respected in the officer corps for professional competence, commanding the military formations throughout the country as officer commanding. His commanding assignments included his role as the Chief of Staff of the East-Pakistan Army, in 1952, he last field assignment included his role as commander of 8th Infantry Division positioned in Quetta before stationed at the GHQ. In 1957, he served as the Deputy Chief of Staff and his career progressed well in the army and was ascended as Commander-in-Chief by President Ayub Khan in 1958 when the latter disposed President Iskander Mirza who imposed martial law in 1958. Major-General Musa Khan never achieved the three-star appointment nor promotion as Lieutenant-General was approved at the time of his nomination towards appointed as the chief of staff. His promotion to the appointment came with controversy in the country as many saw that his appointment was based on dependability rather than merit
18.
Smith Dun
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General Smith Dun was the commander-in-chief of the Burmese Army from 4 January 1948 to 1 February 1949. He was commissioned a Viceroys Commissioned Officer on 10 January 1931 and he was commissioned on 1 February 1935, his senority later being antedated to 4 February 1934. For a year after commissioning he was attached to the 2nd battalion the Kings Own Yorkshire Light Infantry at Agra, on 24 February 1936 he was admitted to the Indian Army and appointed to the 2nd battalion the 1st Punjab Regiment on 9 March 1936. He was promoted Lieutenant on 4 May 1936 and his battalion was involved in fighting on the North West Frontier during 1936-37. He was serving attached to the Burma Military Police when the Japanese invaded in 1941, for his services on the retreat from Burma he was Mentioned in Despatches. However, in 1949 when the Karen began their war for independence from Burma, Dun was a loyal leader of the Burmese Army while maintaining a strong sense of his Karen ethnicity. Known as the “four-foot colonel” for his stature, he kept his Karen soldiers disciplined although suspicion of his ethnic roots lingered even after his dismissal. Indian Army Military of Myanmar Dun, Smith, ithica, NY, Cornell Southeast Asia Program,1980
19.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
20.
Myanmar
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Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in South East Asia bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. About one third of Myanmars total perimeter of 5,876 km, forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km along the Bay of Bengal, the countrys 2014 census revealed a much lower population than expected, with 51 million people recorded. Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometres in size and its capital city is Naypyidaw and its largest city and former capital city is Yangon. Early civilizations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma, the Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur. The British invaded Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the became a British colony. Myanmar became an independent nation in 1948, initially as a nation and then, following a coup détat in 1962. For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife, during this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election. While former military leaders still wield enormous power in the country, there is, however, continuing criticism of the governments treatment of the Muslim Rohingya minority and its poor response to the religious clashes. In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyis party won a majority in both houses, Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP stood at US$56.7 billion, the income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. As of 2016, according to the Human Development Index, Myanmar had a level of human development. The renaming remains a contested issue, many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country. The countrys official name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form Union of Burma instead, in English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/. Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group, Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the groups name
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
23.
Brigadier
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Brigadier /brɪɡəˈdɪər/ is a military rank, the seniority of which depends on the country. In some countries, it is a rank above colonel, equivalent to a brigadier general. In other countries, it is a non-commissioned rank, in many countries, especially those formerly part of the British Empire, a brigadier is either the highest field rank or most junior general appointment, nominally commanding a brigade. It ranks above colonel and below major general, the rank is used by the British Army, the Royal Marines, the Australian Army, the Indian Army, the Sri Lankan Army, the New Zealand Army, the Pakistan Army and several others. Although it is not always considered an officer rank, it is always considered equivalent to the brigadier general. In NATO forces, brigadier is OF-6 on the rank scale, the grade of brigadier-general, also called, almost interchangeably, brigadier, first appeared in the British army during the reign of King James II. A warrant of 1705 placed the grade directly below major-general, but the appointment was considered temporary. The British were ambiguous over whether the holder was considered an officer or a senior field grade office. The title is derived from the equivalent British rank of brigadier-general, used until 1922, Brigadier was already in use as a generic term for a commander of a brigade irrespective of specific rank. Until the rank was dissolved in 1922, brigadier-generals wore a crossed sword, colonel-commandant was only ever used for officers commanding brigades, depots or training establishments. Officers holding equivalent rank in administrative appointments were known as colonels on the staff, colonel-commandants and colonels on the staff wore the same rank badge later adopted by brigadiers. Until shortly after World War II, brigadier was an appointment conferred on colonels rather than a substantive rank, in Commonwealth countries, and most Arabic-speaking countries, the rank insignia comprises a crown with three stars, which are often arranged in a triangle. A brigadiers uniform may also have red gorget patches and it is otherwise similar to that of a colonel The Canadian Army used the rank of brigadier until the unification of the Canadian Forces in 1968. The rank then became brigadier-general with the insignia of St. Edwards Crown surmounting a crossed sword, until 1788, a rank of brigadier des armées, which could be described as a senior colonel or junior brigade commander, was used in the French Army. The normal brigade command rank was field marshal, during the French Revolution, the ranks of brigadier des armées and maréchal de camp were replaced by brigade general. In common with countries, France now uses the officer rank of brigade general instead of a brigadier rank. The brigadier des armées held a one-star insignia, while the général de brigade inherited the maréchal de camp two-stars insignia, the disparition of the brigadier rank is the reason that there is no one-star insignia in the French Army. The rank of a brigadier was established by Felipe V in 1702 as a rank between colonel and true generals
24.
Indian Armed Forces
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The Indian Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of India. It consists of three professional uniformed services, the Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force, the President of India is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The Indian Armed Forces are under the management of the Ministry of Defence of the Government of India, with strength of over 1.4 million active personnel, it is worlds 3rd largest military force and has the worlds largest volunteer army. India honours its armed forces and military personnel annually on Armed Forces Flag Day,7 December, Armed with nuclear triad, the Indian armed forces are steadily undergoing modernisation, with investments in areas such as futuristic soldier systems and missile defence system. The Department of Defence Production of the Ministry of Defence is responsible for the production of equipment used by the Indian Armed Forces. It comprises the 41 Indian Ordnance Factories under control of the Ordnance Factories Board and 8 Defence PSUs namely, HAL, BEL, BEML, BDL, MDL, GSL, GRSE and Midhani. India was the largest importer of defence equipment in 2014 with Russia, Israel, France, the Government of India has launched Make in India initiative to indigenise manufacturing and reduce dependence on imports, including defence imports and procurement. India has one of the longest military histories, dating back several millennia, the first reference of armies is found in the Vedas as well as the epics Ramayana and Mahabaratha. Classical Indian texts on archery in particular, and martial arts in general are known as Dhanurveda, Indian maritime history dates back 5,000 years. The first tidal dock is believed to have built at Lothal around 2300 BC during the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Rig Veda written around 1500 BC, credits Varuna with knowledge of the routes and describes naval expeditions. There is reference to the wings of a vessel called Plava. A compass, Matsya yantra was used for navigation in the fourth and fifth century AD, the earliest known reference to an organisation devoted to ships in ancient India is to the Mauryan Empire from the 4th century BC. Powerful militaries included those of the Maurya, Satavahana, Chola, Vijayanagara, Mughal, emperor Chandragupta Mauryas mentor and advisor Chanakyas Arthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under navadhyaksha. The term, nava dvipantaragamanam appears in book in addition to appearing in the Buddhist text, Baudhayana Dharmasastra as the interpretation of the term. Sea lanes between India and neighbouring lands were the form of trade for many centuries, and are responsible for the widespread influence of Indian Culture on other societies. The Cholas excelled in trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Maratha and Kerala fleets were expanded, the fleet review of the Maratha navy took place at the Ratnagiri fort in which the ships Pal and Qalbat participated
25.
Claude Auchinleck
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Field Marshal Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck GCB, GCIE, CSI, DSO, OBE was a British Army commander during the Second World War. He was a soldier who spent much of his military career in India. He served as Commander-in-Chief India until Partition in 1947, when he assumed the role of Supreme Commander of all British forces in India and Pakistan until late 1948. Born at 89 Victoria Road in Aldershot, the son of Colonel John Auchinleck and Mary Auchinleck, Auchinleck attended Eagle House School at Crowthorne and then Wellington College on scholarships. He was promoted to lieutenant on 21 April 1905 and then spent the two years in Tibet and Sikkim before moving to Benares in 1907 where he caught diphtheria. After briefly serving with the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers at Aldershot he returned Benares in 1909, Auchinleck saw active service in the First World War and was deployed with his regiment to defend the Suez Canal, in February 1915 he was in action against the Turks at Ismaïlia. His regiment moved into Aden to counter the Turkish threat there in July 1915, the 6th Indian Division, of which the 62nd Punjabis were a part, was landed at Basra on 31 December 1915 for the Mesopotamian campaign. In July 1916 Auchinleck was promoted acting major and made second in command of the regiment. He took part in a series of attacks on the Turks at the Battle of Hanna in January 1916 and was one of the few British officers in his regiment to survive these actions. He became acting commanding officer of his regiment in February 1917 and led his regiment at the Second Battle of Kut in February 1917, Auchinleck attended the Staff College, Quetta between 1920 and 1921. He married Jessie Stewart in 1921, Jessie had been born in 1900 in Tacoma, Washington, to Alexander Stewart, head of the Blue Funnel Line that plied the west coast of the United States. When he died about 1919, their mother took her, her twin brother Alan and her younger brother Hepburne back to Bun Rannoch, holidaying at Grasse on the French Riviera, Auchinleck, who was on leave from India at the time, met Jessie on the tennis courts. She was a high-spirited, blue-eyed beauty, things moved quickly, and they were married within five months. Sixteen years younger than Auchinleck, Jessie became known as the little American girl in India and he attended the Imperial Defence College in 1927 and, having been promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 21 January 1929 he was appointed to command his regiment. Promoted to full colonel on 1 February 1930 with seniority from 15 November 1923, he became an instructor at the Staff College, Quetta in February 1930 where he remained until April 1933. On leaving his command in April 1936 Auchinleck was on the unemployed list until September 1936 when he was appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff. He was then appointed to command the Meerut District in India in July 1938 and he received promotion to acting lieutenant-general on 1 February 1940 and to the substantive rank of lieutenant-general on 16 March 1940. In May 1940 Auchinleck took over command of the Anglo-French ground forces in Norway, Montgomery later wrote, In the 5th Corps I first served under Auchinleck
26.
National Defence Academy (India)
–
The NDA is located at Khadakwasla near Pune, Maharashtra. It is the first tri-service academy in the world, NDA alumni have led and fought in every major conflict in which the Indian Armed Forces has been called to action since the academy was established. The alumni include 3 Param Vir Chakra recipients and 9 Ashoka Chakra recipients, National Defence Academy has produced 27 service Chiefs Of Staff till date. Current Chiefs Of Staff of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force are all NDA alumni, the committee recommended the establishment of a Joint Services Military Academy, with training modelled on the United States Military Academy at West Point. After the independence of India in Aug.1947, the Chiefs of Staff Committee immediately implemented the recommendations of the Auchinleck report, the committee initiated an action plan in late 1947 to commission a permanent defence academy and began the search for a suitable site. It also decided to set up a training academy, known as the Joint Services Wing. Following partition, Indias share of the gift received from Sudan. The Indian Army decided to use funds to partly cover the cost of construction of the NDA. The foundation stone for the academy was laid by then Prime Minister of India, the National Defence Academy was formally commissioned on 7 Dec.1954, with an inauguration ceremony held on 16 Jan.1955. The JSW program was transferred from the IMA to the NDA, the NDA campus is located about 17 km south-west of Pune city, north-west of Khadakwasla Lake. It spans 7,015 acres of the 8,022 acres donated by the Government of the former Bombay State, aptly, NDA is also located in the hunting grounds of the legendary Shivaji, with the Sinhagad Fort as a panoramic backdrop. The administrative headquarters of the NDA was named the Sudan Block and it was inaugurated by then Ambassador of Sudan to India, Rahmatullah Abdulla, on 30 May 1959. The building is a 3-storey basalt and granite structure constructed with Jodhpur red sandstone and its architecture features an exterior design comprising a blend of arches, pillars and verandahs, topped by a dome. The foyer has white Italian marble flooring and panelling on the interior walls, on the walls of the foyer hang the portraits of NDA graduates who have been honored with the highest gallantry awards, the Param Vir Chakra or the Ashoka Chakra. A number of war relics adorn the NDA campus, including legendary captured tanks, incoming classes are accepted twice a year for semesters starting in July and January. About 4,50,000 applicants sit for each written exam, typically, about 6,300 of these are invited to interview. Only unmarried male candidates are eligible for NDA & NA Examination, the minimum age should be 16 and half years and maximum age should be 19 and half years. Applicants to join the Air Force also go through a Pilot Aptitude Battery Test, about 320 cadets are accepted to the academy each semester
27.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
28.
Khadakwasla Dam
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Khadakwasla Dam is a dam on the Mutha River 20 km from the city of Pune in Maharashtra, India. This dam across the river Mutha created a lake, now known as Khadakwasla Lake. This lake is the source of water for Pune and its suburbs. The largest lake in the area is Mulshi lake, some 50 km northwest of Khadakwasla, though there is a water supply set-up near Holkar Bridge, next to Bombay Engineering Group and Centre, there is very little water in the hyacinth-choked Mula River, except during the monsoons. A few kilometres up the road lie Sinhagad Fort and the dams of Panshet. Khadakwasla Dam burst at 0730 hrs on 12 July 1961, causing the greatest ever natural disaster to strike Pune, the Khadakwasla Dam is 1.6 km long. The length of the Khadakwasla backwaters is nearly 22 km and the width varies from 250 to 1,000 m, the maximum depth in the lake is 36 m. The dam has 11 radial type sluice gates and six irrigation outlets, of the three feeder lakes, Varasgaon is the largest, followed by Panshet and Temgarh, in that order. The source of Panshet is close to the base of both Raigadh and Torna Forts and Panshet is the highest of the three, some 30 m higher than Khadakwasla. Varasgaon Lake is at the level as Khadakvasla, and only water released deliberately moves into the Mutha. Fort Raigadh does not reach the height of Sinhagadh Fort. The Panshet reservoir has a capacity of 2.70 million cubic meters, with Varasgaon reservoir, the Khadkawasla Dam was founded on hard rock. It had a height of 31.25 m above the river bed and its crest length was 1.47 m and has a free board of 2.74 m. The dam had a capacity of 2,775 m3/s. The plan envisaged control of three dams to benefit the rapidly expanding city of Pune. The original dam, built in 1879 as a gravity dam founded on hard rock was the first of its kind in the world. This dam was designed by Sir M. Visvesvaraya, many people come here on weekends and during the monsoon season. Scenic places around the dam include Peacock Bay, Kudje village, the Sinhagad road, bordering the dam, has become a favorite picnic spot
29.
Pune
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Pune is the second largest city in the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ninth most populous city in the country. In the 18th century, Pune was the centre of the Indian subcontinent. Considered to be the capital of Maharashtra, Pune is known as Oxford of the East due to the presence of several well-known educational institutions in the city. The city has emerged as an educational hub in recent decades. Since the 1950s and 1960s, Pune has had a traditional old-economic base as most of the old industries continue to grow, a few college in the Europe have also actively engaged in Student-exchange programs with several colleges in Pune. Pune is also one of the fastest growing cities in the Asia-Pacific region, the ‘Mercer 2015 Quality of Living rankings’ evaluated local living conditions in more than 440 cities around the world where Pune ranked at 145, second in India after Hyderabad. It also highlights Pune among evolving business centres and emerging nine cities around the world with citation Hosts IT, the oldest reference to the place is found inscribed on a Rashtrakuta Dynasty copper plate dated AD937, which refers to the town as Punya-Vishaya meaning Sacred News. By the 13th century, it had come to be known as Punawadi, copper plates dated 858 AD and 868 AD show that by the 8th century an agricultural settlement known as Punnaka existed where Pune is today. The plates indicate that this region was ruled by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, the Pataleshwar rock-cut temple complex was built during this era. Pune was part of the territory ruled by Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri from the 9th century to 1327, in 1595, Maloji Raje Bhosale was granted the jagirdari of Pune by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. Pune was ruled by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate until it was annexed by the Mughals in the 17th century, Pune was part of the Jagir granted to Maloji Bhosale in 1599 for his services to the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar. His grandson, Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Empire, was born in Shivneri fort not far from Pune, Shivaji was brought up by his mother in Pune. Pune changed hands several times between the Mughals and the Marathas in the period between 1660 and 1705 and he stabilised the revenue collection and administrative systems of areas around Pune and in neighbouring area of the Maval region. In addition, he developed methods to manage disputes and to enforce law. Construction on the Lal Mahal began in 1631 AD, the Lal Mahal was completed in 1640 AD. Jijabai is said to have commissioned the building of the Kasba Ganapati temple, the Ganesha idol consecrated at this temple has been regarded as the presiding deity of the city. Shivaji encouraged the development of dams in the Parvati and Kondhwa regions of Pune for agricultural purposes, Pune and its surrounding villages were the major recruitment areas for Shivajis army between 1645 AD and 1680 AD. Between 1660 AD and 1670 AD the town was captured by Mughal General Shahista Khan, Shivaji often used Pune as his transit base during his major campaigns such as Varhad-Karanja, AhemadaNagar District, Karnataka, and Jalna
30.
Maha Vir Chakra
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It replaced the British Distinguished Service Order. The medal may be awarded posthumously, the medal is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed star with circular center-piece bearing the gilded state emblem of India in the center. The words Mahavira Chakra are embossed in Devanagari and English on the reverse with two flowers in the middle. The decoration is worn on the left chest with a half-white and half-orange riband about 3.2 cm in width, more than 155 acts of bravery and selfless courage have been recognized since the inception of the medal. The most MVCs awarded in a conflict was in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Provision was made for the award of a bar for an award of the Maha Vir Chakra. To date, there are six awards of a first bar. Award of the decoration carries with it the right to use M. V. C. as a postnominal abbreviation
31.
President of India
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The President of the Republic of India is the Head of State of India and the Commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The oath of the President is taken in the presence of the Chief Justice of India, the President resides in an estate known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan situated in Raisina Hill in New Delhi. The presidential retreats are The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam in Hyderabad, the 13th and current President is Pranab Mukherjee, who was elected on 22 July 2012, and sworn in on 25 July 2012. He is also the first Bengali to be elected as President, India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor-general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, the constitution of the Republic of India gave the President the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after Presidents assent, the president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution, the primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath. The President is the head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations and supervisory powers over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution, there is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law. Legislative power is vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head. The President of the Republic summons both the Houses of the Parliament and prorogues them and he can dissolve the Lok Sabha. The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections, the Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government. All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President per Article 111, after a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is not a money bill, when, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the President, with or without amendments, the President cannot withhold his assent from it. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the Supreme Court about the validity of any issue. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval, ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Re-promulgation of ordinances after failing to get approval within stipulated time of the houses of parliament is unconstitutional act by the President
32.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
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Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan listen was an Indian philosopher and statesman who was the first Vice President of India and the second President of India from 1962 to 1967. His philosophy was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, reinterpreting this tradition for a contemporary understanding and he defended Hinduism against uninformed Western criticism, contributing to the formation of contemporary Hindu identity. He has been influential in shaping the understanding of Hinduism, in both India and the west, and earned a reputation as a bridge-builder between India and the West, Radhakrishnan believed that teachers should be the best minds in the country. Since 1962, his birthday is celebrated in India as Teachers Day on 5 September, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was born into a Telugu Brahmin family in a village near Thiruttani India, in the erstwhile Madras Presidency near the border of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states. His fathers name was Sarvepalli Veeraswami and his mothers was Sitamma and his early years were spent in Thiruttani and Tirupati. His father was a revenue official in the service of a local zamindar. His primary education was at K. V High School at Thiruttani, in 1896 he moved to the Hermansburg Evangelical Lutheran Mission School in Tirupati and Government Higher Secondary School, Walajapet. Radhakrishnan was awarded scholarships throughout his academic life and he joined Voorhees College in Vellore but switched to the Madras Christian College at the age of 17. He graduated from there in 1906 with a degree in Philosophy. Radhakrishnan studied philosophy by chance rather than choice, being a financially constrained student, when a cousin who graduated from the same college passed on his philosophy textbooks in to Radhakrishnan, it automatically decided his academic course. Radhakrishnan wrote his thesis for the M. A. degree on The Ethics of the Vedanta and it was intended to be a reply to the charge that the Vedanta system had no room for ethics. He was afraid that this M. A. thesis would offend his philosophy professor, Instead, Hogg commended Radhakrishnan on having done most excellent work. Radhakrishnans thesis was published when he was only twenty, according to Radhakrishnan himself, the criticism of Hogg and other Christian teachers of Indian culture disturbed my faith and shook the traditional props on which I leaned. Radhakrishnan himself describes how, as a student, The challenge of Christian critics impelled me to make a study of Hinduism and find out what is living and what is dead in it. My pride as a Hindu, roused by the enterprise and eloquence of Swami Vivekananda, was hurt by the treatment accorded to Hinduism in missionary institutions. This led him to his study of Indian philosophy and religion. Radhakrishnan was married to Sivakamu, a distant cousin, at the age of 16, as per tradition the marriage was arranged by the family. The couple had five daughters and a son, Sarvepalli Gopal, Sarvepalli Gopal went on to a notable career as a historian
33.
Sino-Indian War
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The Sino-Indian War, also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict, was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the pretext for war. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theatres, capturing Rezang la in Chushul in the western theatre, as well as Tawang in the eastern theatre. The war ended when China declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962, Indian posts and patrols were removed from Aksai Chin, which came under direct Chinese control after the end of the conflict. It was the 3rd major loss of land for India after losing Gilgit-Baltistan, the Sino-Indian War is notable for the harsh mountain conditions under which much of the fighting took place, entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,000 metres. The Sino-Indian War was also noted for the non-deployment of the navy or air force by either the Chinese or Indian side. China and India shared a border, sectioned into three stretches by Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan, which follows the Himalayas between Burma and what was then West Pakistan. A number of disputed regions lie along this border, at its western end is the Aksai Chin region, an area the size of Switzerland, that sits between the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang and Tibet. The eastern border, between Burma and Bhutan, comprises the present Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, both of these regions were overrun by China in the 1962 conflict. Most combat took place at high altitudes, the Aksai Chin region is a desert of salt flats around 5,000 metres above sea level, and Arunachal Pradesh is mountainous with a number of peaks exceeding 7,000 metres. The Chinese Army had possession of one of the highest ridges in the regions, the high altitude and freezing conditions also cause logistical and welfare difficulties, in past similar conflicts harsh conditions have caused more casualties than have enemy action. The Sino-Indian War was no different, with troops on both sides dying in the freezing cold. The cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely separated Aksai Chin, Aksai Chin, claimed by India to belong to Kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. Chinas construction of road was one of the triggers of the conflict. The western portion of the Sino-Indian boundary originated in 1834, with the Sikh Confederacys conquest of Ladakh, in 1842, the Sikh Confederacy, which at the time ruled over much of Northern India, signed a treaty which guaranteed the integrity of its existing borders with its neighbours. The boundaries at its two extremities, Pangong Lake and Karakoram Pass, were defined, but the Aksai Chin area in between lay undefined. W. H. Johnson, a servant with the Survey of India, proposed the Johnson Line in 1865. Johnson presented this line to the Maharaja of Kashmir, who claimed the 18,000 square kilometres contained within
34.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
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The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between Pakistan and India. The conflict began following Pakistans Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu, India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on West Pakistan. The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II, much of the war was fought by the countries land forces in Kashmir and along the border between India and Pakistan. Most of the battles were fought by opposing infantry and armoured units, with backing from air forces. In spite of shortcomings, the Pakistan Army managed to fight the larger Indian Army. Many details of war, like those of other Indo-Pakistani Wars. Despite the cease-fire rendering the conflict militarily inconclusive, both India and Pakistan claimed victory, most neutral assessments, however, agree that India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared. Internationally, the war was viewed in the context of the greater Cold War, before the war, the United States and the United Kingdom had been major material allies of both India and Pakistan, as their primary suppliers of military hardware and foreign developmental aid. As a consequence, India and Pakistan openly developed closer relationships with the Soviet Union and China, the perceived negative stance of the western powers during the conflict, and during the 1971 war, has continued to affect relations between the West and the subcontinent. Since the Partition of British India in 1947, Pakistan and India remained in contention over several issues. Although the Kashmir conflict was the predominant issue dividing the nations, other border disputes existed, most notably over the Rann of Kutch, the issue first arose in 1956 which ended with India regaining control over the disputed area. Pakistani patrols began patrolling in territory controlled by India in January 1965, initially involving border police from both nations, the disputed area soon witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the countries armed forces. In June 1965, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. The verdict, which later in 1968, saw Pakistan awarded 350 square miles of the Rann of Kutch. Pakistan believed that the population of Kashmir was generally discontented with Indian rule, Pakistan attempted to ignite the resistance movement by means of a covert infiltration, codenamed Operation Gibraltar. The Pakistani infiltrators were discovered, however, their presence reported by local Kashmiris. On 5 August 1965 between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani soldiers crossed the Line of Control dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir, Indian forces, tipped off by the local populace, crossed the cease fire line on 15 August. Initially, the Indian Army met with success, capturing three important mountain positions after a prolonged artillery barrage
35.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
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Lasting just 13 days, it is one of the shortest wars in history. Officially, East Pakistan had earlier called for its seccession from the unity of Pakistan on 26 March 1971, the remaining 10,324 to 15,000 prisoners were civilians, either family members of the military personnel or collaborators. It is estimated that between 300,000 and 3,000,000 civilians were killed in Bangladesh, as a result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people fled the country at the time to seek refuge in neighbouring India. Which made it difficult to govern both wings. In addition, there were religious and racial tensions between Bengalis and multi-ethnic Pakistanis as Bengalis looked a lot different from their dominant Western Pakistanis. The Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stressed his political position to resolve the crises by presenting his Six Points. The Awami Leagues election dominancy feared many Pakistanis that would allow the Bengalis to draft the constitution on towards the six-points, however, the mission was not supported by the elements in the National Security Council and was subsequently vetoed. President Yahya Khan postponed the inauguration of the National Assembly and this caused a shattering disillusionment to the Awami League, in early March 1971, approximately ~300 Biharis were slaughtered in rioting by Bengali mobs in Chittagong alone. The Government of Pakistan used the Bihari massacre to justify its deployment of the military in East Pakistan on 25 March when it initiated its military crackdown. Mass arrests of dissidents began and after days of strikes and non-cooperation movement. The Awami League was declared outlawed by the government and many of its members and sympathizers took refuge in Eastern India, Mujib was arrested on the night of 25/26 March 1971 at about 1,30 am and taken to Pakistan. The next action carried out was Operation Searchlight followed by Operation Barisal, on 26 March 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman of Pakistan Army declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. In April, the exiled Awami League leaders formed a government-in-exile in Baidyanathtala of Meherpur, the East Pakistan Rifles, Bengali officers in Pakistans army, navy, and marines, defected to the rebellion after taking refuge in different parts of India. M. The resulting flood of impoverished East Pakistani refugees placed a strain on Indias already overburdened economy. Unlike his contemporary Yaqub who was a pacifist and knew well of the limits of force, confessing at the hearings of War Enquiry Commission, Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi reportedly comment on his actions and noted, On the night between 25/26 March 1971, Tikka struck, peaceful night was turned into a time of wailing, crying and burning. Tikka let loose everything at his disposal as if raiding an enemy, the military action was a display of stark cruelty more merciless than the massacres at Bukhara and Baghdad by Chengiz Khan and Halaku Khan. Resorted to the killing of civilians and a scorched earth policy and his orders to his troops were, I want the land not the people
36.
Kodandera M. Cariappa
–
Field Marshal K. M. Cariappa or Kodandera Kipper Madappa Cariappa OBE was the first Indian commander-in-chief of the Indian Army. He led Indian forces on the Western Front during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 and he is one of only two Indian Army officers to hold the five-star rank of field marshal, the other being Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Indian Army in 1949 and his distinguished military career spanned almost three decades. He was transferred between multiple regiments early in his career before settling on 1/7 Rajputs, which became his permanent regiment and he served in various staff capacities at various unit and command headquarters and also at the General HQ, New Delhi. Before taking over as the C-in-C of the Indian Army, Cariappa served as the commander of the Indian Armys Eastern and Western Commands, Cariappa was born on 28 January 1899, in Madikeri, Kodagu, to a family of farmers belonging to the Kodandera clan. His father, Madappa, worked with the revenue department, Cariappa was the second child in a family of four sons and two daughters. He was known as Chimma to his relatives, after completing his education in the Central High School at Madikeri in 1917, he attended Presidency College, Chennai to pursue his education further. During college, he learned that Indians were being recruited into the army, as he wished to serve as a soldier he applied for the training. Of the 70 applicants, Cariappa was one of 42 who were granted admission into the Daly Cadet College. He scored well in all the aspects of his training and graduated seventh in his class, Cariappa graduated on 1 December 1919, and was granted a temporary commission. Subsequently, a permanent commission was granted on 9 September 1922 and this was done to make Cariappas rank junior to those British officers who passed out from Sandhurst on 16 July 1920. He was commissioned into the 2nd Battalion of the 88th Carnatic Infantry at Bombay as a second lieutenant. He was promoted to lieutenant on 1 December 1920. Later he was transferred to the 2/125 Napier Rifles which moved to Mesopotamia in May 1920 and he was promoted to lieutenant on 17 July 1921. On his return to India, Cariappa was posted to the 7th Prince of Wales Own Dogra Regiment in June 1922, in June 1923, Cariappa was transferred to the 1/7 Rajputs, which became his permanent regimental home. In 1925, Cariappa went on a tour to Europe as well as the United States, Japan. He met a number of soldiers and civilians in various nations. The tour proved to be educational for him, after this he was able to settle down
37.
Kodandera Subayya Thimayya
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Gen. Thimayya was the only Indian to command an Infantry brigade in battle during the Second World War and is regarded as the most distinguished combat officer the Indian Army has produced. After the Korean War, Thimayya headed a United Nations unit dealing with the repatriation of prisoners of war, Kodandera Subayya Thimayya was born in Madikeri, the district town of Kodagu, Karnataka, on 30 March 1906, to Thimayya and Sitamma. His family was one the leading coffee planters in the area and his mother, Sitamma, was highly educated and a social worker. She was the recipient of Kaisar-e-Hind Medal, Thimayya was the second child of six children in his family. The eldest was Ponappa, then Thimayya, followed by Somayya, all the three boys of the family rose to become officers in the Indian Army. On his fathers side, he belonged to the Kodendera clan to which Indias first commander-in-chief Cariappa also belonged and his mother Cheppudi Chittauwa was from the Cheppudira family. His wife Mrs Nina Thimayya was a recipient of the Kesar-e-hind for her philanthropic contribution during the 1935 Quetta earthquake and his maternal uncle C B Ponnappa was in first batch of commissioned Indian officers from the Indore defence school and a batchmate of Cariappa. Desiring that he receive an education, he was sent at the age of eight years to St Josephs College in Coonoor a convent run by Irish brothers. Later, Thimayya was sent to Bishop Cotton Boys School in Bangalore, following his graduation from RIMC, Timmy, as he was affectionately known, was one of only six Indian cadets selected for further training at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He was commissioned into the Indian Army in 1926, in January 1935, Thimayya married Nina Cariappa, and was promoted to Captain the following month. On 20 March 1936, they had a daughter, Mireille, after this tenure, Thimayya was posted to his battalion in Singapore. In October 1941, he was transferred at his request to India, Thimayya was posted as the Second-in-Command of a new raising at the Hyderabad Regimental Centre in Agra. He was then detailed to attend the Staff College at Quetta where he, Thimayya was promoted to Major in February 1943, and served as GSO2 of 25th Indian Division, the first Indian officer to get this coveted staff appointment. His infantry division was conducting jungle training and was preparing to go into Burma to face the Japanese Army during the Second World War. Thimayya was promoted to temporary Lieutenant-Colonel in May 1944, in Burma, he was posted to his old regiment as Commanding Officer of 8/19th Hyderabad, which he led with outstanding success in battle. For a short while the battalion was under the command of the 3rd Commando Brigade, with Brigadier C. R. Hardy at the helm and he was also promoted to the rank of Brigadier in the field on 25 March 1945. For his outstanding service in battle, he was awarded the much coveted Distinguished Service Order and his innate talents of professional soldiering and leadership were soon recognized by Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck, the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army. He was specially selected to lead the 268th Indian Infantry Brigade as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan after World War II
38.
Premindra Singh Bhagat
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The Victoria Cross was conferred on him for his actions in the Sudan theatre during World War II. General Bhagat is an alumnus of the famous Prince of Wales Royal Indian Military College, Bhagat was born on 13 October 1918 in Gorakhpur, British India to Surendra Singh Bhagat, an executive engineer in the provincial government of the then United Provinces. In 1930, he entered the Royal Indian Military College, a school in Dehradun. In June 1937, he entered the Indian Military Academy, as a gentleman cadet, Bhagat captained the academy tennis and squash teams. While noted by his instructors as an intelligent all-round sportsman, he was described as a careless student. In January 1938, Surendra Singh Bhagat died in a accident in Varanasi. Bhagat applied himself to his studies in his year and was commissioned in the British Indian Army on 15 July 1939 as a Second lieutenant in the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners. He was posted to the 21 Field Company of Engineers at Pune in September, the 10th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Brigadier William Slim, MC. Slim launched an attack on the fort of Gallabat, with the assault spearheaded by the 3rd Royal Garhwal Rifles under Lieutenant-Colonel S. E. Taylor, while Gallabat was captured, an enemy counter-attack forced the brigade to withdraw. The Sappers were tasked with obstructing the enemy to prevent them from following too closely, at one stage, two broken-down tanks were filled with explosives and placed on a culvert to collapse it and halt the enemy. The charges were detonated, but one failed to explode. With the enemy closing in, 2Lt, Bhagat dashed out from under cover and with bullets flying all around him, detonated the remaining explosives and collapsed the culvert. For his heroism, he was recommended for a Military Cross, after the brigade was relieved by 9th Indian Infantry Brigade in mid-November, it readied for the Battle of Keren. Bhagats Bren carrier passed through a heavily mined stretch of road, Bhagat then continued in another carrier, defusing mines by hand as the column moved down the road. Under close enemy fire and without food or rest, he worked for four days, after having another Bren carrier blown up under him on 2 February, which resulted in punctured eardrums, he was relieved of further duties and evacuated to Khartoum for treatment. Now a war hero, Bhagat was made an acting captain and he married Mohini Bhandari, the daughter of a colonel in the Indian Army Medical Corps, on 24 February 1942 in Pune. Bhagat spent the remainder of the war away from the front, first as a recruiting officer for the Bombay Sappers. In mid-1943, the unit was posted to Chhindwara in the Central Provinces for training in jungle warfare for the war in Burma
39.
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
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Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed was the fifth President of India from 1974 to 1977 and also the 2nd President of India to die in office. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed was born on 13 May 1905, at the Hauz Qazi area of Old Delhi and his father, Col. Zalnur Ali Ahmed, was the first Assamese person to have an M. D. degree and also the first one from North-East India. His mother was a daughter of the Nawab of Loharu, ahmeds grandfather, Khaliluddin Ali Ahmed, was from Kacharighat near Golaghat, Assam, and hailed from a well-known Assamese Muslim family. Ahmed was educated at the Government High School in Gonda district, Uttar Pradesh and he attended St. Stephens College, Delhi, and St Catharines College, Cambridge. He was called to the Bar from the Inner Temple of London and he met Jawaharlal Nehru in England in 1925. He joined the Indian National Congress and actively participated in the Indian freedom movement, in 1942 he was arrested in the Quit India movement and sentenced to 3 1/2 years imprisonment. He was a member of the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee from 1936 and of AICC from 1947 to 74, after Independence he was elected to the Rajya Sabha and thereafter became Advocate-General of the Government of Assam. He was elected on Congress ticket to the Assam Legislative Assembly on two terms and from Jania constituency, subsequently, he was elected to the Lok Sabha from the Barpeta constituency, Assam in 1967 and again in 1971. In the Central Cabinet he was given important portfolios relating to Food and Agriculture, Cooperation, Education, Industrial Development and Company Laws. Chosen for the presidency by the Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, in 1974 and he is known to have issued the proclamation of emergency by signing the papers at midnight after a meeting with Indira Gandhi the same day. He used his authority as head of state to allow her to rule by decree once the Emergency in India was proclaimed in 1975. He is well known among Indian diplomats for his visit to Sudan in 1975 and he was the second Indian president to die in office, on 11 February 1977. His death occurred after he collapsed in his office while preparing to attend his daily Namaz prayer, today his grave lies right across the Parliament of India next to the Sunhari Masjid, at Sansad Chowk, in New Delhi. He was awarded a doctorate by the University of Pristina, in Kosovo, in 1975. He was elected President of the Assam Football Association and the Assam Cricket Association for several terms, in April 1967, he was elected President of the All India Cricket Association. He was a member of the Delhi Golf Club and the Delhi Gymkhana Club from 1961, in 1942 he was arrested in the Quit India movement and sentenced to 3 1/2 years imprisonment. Speeches of President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and my eleven years with Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, by F. A. A. Rehmaney. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, by M. A. Naidu,1975 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, fifth Lok Sabha Members Official Bioprofile
40.
Angola
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Angola /æŋˈɡoʊlə/, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country in Southern Africa. It is the seventh-largest country in Africa and is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to west. The exclave province of Cabinda has borders with the Republic of the Congo, the capital and largest city of Angola is Luanda. In the 19th century, European settlers slowly and hesitantly began to themselves in the interior. As a Portuguese colony, Angola did not encompass its present borders until the early 20th century, following resistance by groups such as the Cuamato, the Kwanyama and the Mbunda. Independence was achieved in 1975 under a communist one-party state backed by the Soviet Union, however, the country soon descended into an even lengthier civil war that lasted until 2002. It has since become a relatively stable presidential republic. Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves, and its economy is among the fastest growing in the world, Angolas economic growth is highly uneven, with the majority of the nations wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small sector of the population. Angola is a state of the United Nations, OPEC, African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union. A highly multiethnic country, Angolas 25.8 million people span various tribal groups, customs, Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule, namely in the predominance of the Portuguese language and the Catholic Church, combined with diverse indigenous influences. The name Angola comes from the Portuguese colonial name Reino de Angola, the toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title ngola held by the kings of Ndongo. Ndongo was a kingdom in the highlands, between the Kwanza and Lukala Rivers, nominally tributary to the king of Kongo but which was seeking greater independence during the 16th century, modern Angola was populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi and San prior to the first Bantu migrations. The Khoi and San peoples were neither pastoralists nor cultivators, following a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and they were displaced by Bantu peoples arriving from the north, some of whom likely originated in northwestern Nigeria. Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of bananas and taro, as well as large herds, to Angolas central highlands. During this time, the Bantu established a number of entities in most of what today comprises Angola. To its south lay the Kingdom of Ndongo, from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was known as Dongo. The region now known as Angola was reached by the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão in 1484, the year before, the Portuguese had established relations with the Kongo, which stretched at the time from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The Portuguese established their primary trading post at Soyo, which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the Cabinda exclave
41.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
42.
Bhutan
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Bhutan, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked country in Asia and the smallest state located entirely within the Himalaya mountain range. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bordered by China in the north, Bhutan lacks a border with nearby Nepal due to the Indian state of Sikkim and with Bangladesh due to the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam. Bhutan is geopolitically in South Asia and is the second least populous nation after the Maldives. Thimphu is its capital and largest city, while Phuntsholing is its financial center, the independence of Bhutan has endured for centuries and the territory was never colonized in its history. Situated on the ancient Silk Road between Tibet, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, the Bhutanese state developed a national identity based on Buddhism. Headed by a leader known as the Zhabdrung Rinpoche, the territory was composed of many fiefdoms. Following a civil war in the 19th century, the House of Wangchuck reunited the country, Bhutan fostered a strategic partnership with India during the rise of Chinese communism and has a disputed border with the Peoples Republic of China. The King of Bhutan is known as the Dragon King, Bhutan is also notable for pioneering the concept of gross national happiness. The countrys landscape ranges from subtropical plains in the south to the sub-alpine Himalayan mountains in the north. The highest mountain in Bhutan is the Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. There is also diverse wildlife in Bhutan, in South Asia, Bhutan ranks first in economic freedom, ease of doing business and peace, second in per capita income and is the least corrupt country, as of 2016. However, Bhutan continues to be a least developed country, hydroelectricity accounts for the major share of its exports. The government is a parliamentary democracy, Bhutan maintains diplomatic relations with 52 countries and the European Union, but does not have formal ties with the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of the United Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the Royal Bhutan Army maintains extensive military relations with the Indian Armed Forces. The precise etymology of Bhutan is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the Tibetan endonym Bod used for Tibet. Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta end of Tibet, since the 17th century the official name of Bhutan has been Druk yul and Bhutan only appears in English-language official correspondence. Names similar to Bhutan — including Bohtan, Buhtan, Bottanthis, Bottan, jean-Baptiste Taverniers 1676 Six Voyages is the first to record the name Boutan. However, in case, these seem to have been describing not modern Bhutan
43.
Ghana
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Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy, located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the subregion of West Africa. Spanning a land mass of 238,535 km², Ghana is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east, Ghana means Warrior King in the Soninke language. The territory of present-day Ghana has been inhabited for a millennium, numerous kingdoms and empires emerged over the centuries, of which the most powerful was the Kingdom of Ashanti. Beginning in the 15th century, numerous European powers contested the area for trading rights, following over a century of native resistance, Ghanas current borders were established by the 1900s as the British Gold Coast. On 6 March 1957, it became the first sub-Saharan African nation to become independent of European colonisation, a multicultural nation, Ghana has a population of approximately 27 million, spanning a variety of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. Five percent of the population practices traditional faiths,71. 2% adhere to Christianity and 17. 6% are Muslim and its diverse geography and ecology ranges from coastal savannahs to tropical jungles. Ghana is a country led by a president who is both head of state and head of the government. Ghanas economy is one of the strongest and most diversified in Africa, following a century of relative stability. Ghanas growing economic prosperity and democratic political system have made it a power in West Africa. It is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States, Group of 24, Ghana was already recognized as one of the great kingdoms in Bilad el-Sudan by the ninth century. Ghana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms in the Southern and this included the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom. Until the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghanas territorial area was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans. Although the area of present-day Ghana in West Africa has experienced many population movements, by the early 11th century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region is named. From the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states of Ghana and these states included Bonoman, Ashanti, Denkyira, Mankessim Kingdom, and Akwamu Eastern region. By the 19th century, the territory of the part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti. The Kingdom of Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan Ashanti people created an advanced economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities then traded with the states of Africa. The earliest known kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbani states, the Mole-Dagombas came on horseback from present-day Burkina Faso under a single leader, Naa Gbewaa. The death of Naa Gbewaa caused civil war among his children, some of whom broke off and founded separate states including Dagbon, Mamprugu, Mossi, Nanumba, Akan trade with European states began after contact with Portuguese in the 15th century
44.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
45.
Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
