1.
Colony of Virginia
–
The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
Colony of Virginia
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith
Colony of Virginia
–
Flag
Colony of Virginia
–
Lines show legal treaty frontiers between Virginia Colony and Indian Nations in various years, as well as today's state boundaries. Red: Treaty of 1646. Green: Treaty of Albany (1684). Blue: Treaty of Albany (1722). Orange:
Proclamation of 1763. Black: Treaty of Camp Charlotte (1774). Area west of this line in present-day Southwest VA was ceded by the Cherokee in 1775.
Colony of Virginia
–
Indian massacre of 1622, depicted in a 1628 woodcut by
Matthäus Merian out of
Theodore de Bry 's workshop.
2.
Massacre
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A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime
Massacre
–
The
Chios Massacre refers to a famous incident during the
Greek War of Independence in 1822.
Massacre
–
Twenty-six republicans were assassinated by fascists that belonged to
Franco's Nationalists at the beginning of the
Spanish Civil War, between August and September of 1936. This mass grave is placed at the small town named as
Estépar, in Northern Spain. The excavation occurred in July–August of 2014.
Massacre
–
The
El Mozote massacre, El Salvador 1981
3.
English overseas possessions
–
In 1639, a series of English fortresses on the Indian coast was initiated with Fort St George. In North America, Newfoundland and Virginia were the first centres of English colonization, as the 17th century wore on, Maine, Plymouth, New Hampshire, Salem, Massachusetts Bay, New Scotland, Connecticut, New Haven, Maryland, and Rhode Island and Providence were settled. In 1664, New Netherland and New Sweden were taken from the Dutch, becoming New York, New Jersey, the Kingdom of England is generally dated from the rule of Æthelstan from 927. During the rule of the House of Knýtlinga, from 1013 to 1014 and 1016 to 1042, in 1066, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, conquered England, making the Duchy a Crown land of the English throne. Through the remainder of the Middle Ages the kings of England held extensive territories in France, under the Angevin Empire, England formed part of a collection of lands in the British Isles and France held by the Plantagenet dynasty. The collapse of this dynasty led to the Hundred Years War between England and France, at the outset of the war the Kings of England ruled almost all of France, but by the end of it in 1453 only the Pale of Calais remained to them. Calais was eventually lost to the French in 1558, the Channel Islands, as the remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, retain their link to the Crown to the present day, Other early English expansion occurred within the British Isles. As early as 1169, the Norman invasion of Ireland began to establish English possessions in Ireland, as a result of this the Lordship of Ireland was held for centuries by the English monarch, although it was not until the early 17th century that the Plantation of Ulster began. English control of Ireland fluctuated for centuries until Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the voyages of Christopher Columbus began in 1492, and he sighted land in the West Indies on 12 October that year. Cabot sailed in 1497, successfully making landfall on the coast of Newfoundland, there, he believed he had reached Asia and made no attempt to found a permanent colony. He led another voyage to the Americas the following year, the Reformation had made enemies of England and Spain, and in 1562 Elizabeth sanctioned the privateers Hawkins and Drake to attack Spanish ships off the coast of West Africa. Later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth approved further raids against Spanish ports in the Americas, meanwhile, the influential writers Richard Hakluyt and John Dee were beginning to press for the establishment of Englands own overseas empire. The first serious attempts to establish English colonies overseas were made in the last quarter of the 16th century, the 1580s saw the first attempt at permanent English settlements in North America, a generation before the Plantation of Ulster. Soon there was an explosion of English colonial activity, driven by men seeking new land, by the pursuit of trade, in the 17th century, the destination of most English people making a new life overseas was in the West Indies rather than in North America. Financed by the Muscovy Company, Martin Frobisher set sail on 7 June 1576, from Blackwall, London, in August 1576 he landed at Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island and this was marked by the first Church of England service recorded on North American soil. Frobisher returned to Frobisher Bay in 1577, solemnly taking possession of the side of it in Queen Elizabeths name. In a third voyage, in 1578, he reached the shores of Greenland, while on the coast of Greenland, he also claimed that for England. At the same time, between 1577 and 1580, Sir Francis Drake was circumnavigating the globe and he claimed Elizabeth Island off Cape Horn for his queen, and on 24 August 1578 claimed another Elizabeth Island, in the Straits of Magellan
English overseas possessions
–
A replica of
Cabot 's ship, the
Matthew
English overseas possessions
–
Queen Elizabeth
English overseas possessions
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Re-enactment of English settlers arriving in Virginia, 1607
English overseas possessions
–
Captain John Smith, 'Admiral of New England'
4.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
5.
John Smith (explorer)
–
Captain John Smith, Admiral of New England, was an English soldier, explorer, and author. He was knighted for his services to Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania and he was considered to have played an important part in the establishment of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North America. He was a leader of the Virginia Colony between September 1608 and August 1609, and led an exploration along the rivers of Virginia and he was the first English explorer to map the Chesapeake Bay area and New England. His books and maps were important in encouraging and supporting English colonization of the New World and he gave the name New England to the region and noted, Here every man may be master and owner of his owne labour and land. If he have nothing but his hands, he may. by industries quickly grow rich, when Jamestown was Englands first permanent settlement in the New World, Smith trained the settlers to farm and work, thus saving the colony from early devastation. He publicly stated He that will not work, shall not eat, quoting from the Bible, harsh weather, lack of water, living in a swampy wilderness and attacks from the Powhatan Indians almost destroyed the colony. The Jamestown settlement survived and so did Smith, but he had to return to England after being injured by an explosion of gunpowder in a boat. John Smith was baptized on 6 January 1580 at Willoughby near Alford, Lincolnshire and he claimed descent from the ancient Smith family of Cuerdley, Lancashire, and was educated at King Edward VI Grammar School, Louth from 1592–1595. After his father died, Smith left home at the age of sixteen and he served as a mercenary in the army of Henry IV of France against the Spaniards, fighting for Dutch independence from Spanish King Phillip II. He then set off for the Mediterranean, there he engaged in both trade and piracy, and later fought against the Ottoman Turks in the Long Turkish War. Smith was promoted to a captain while fighting for the Austrian Habsburgs in Hungary in the campaign of Michael the Brave in 1600 and 1601. After the death of Michael the Brave, he fought for Radu Șerban in Wallachia against Ottoman vassal Ieremia Movilă, however, in 1602, he was wounded in a skirmish with the Tartars, captured, and sold as a slave. As Smith describes it, we all sold for slaves, like beasts in a market, Smith claimed that his master, a Turkish nobleman, sent him as a gift to his Greek mistress in Constantinople, who fell in love with Smith. In 1606, Smith became involved with the Virginia Company of Londons plan to colonize Virginia for profit, it had granted a charter by King James. The expedition set sail in three ships, the Discovery, the Susan Constant, and the Godspeed, on 20 December 1606. His page was a 12-year-old boy named Samuel Collier, during the voyage, Smith was charged with mutiny, and Captain Christopher Newport had planned to execute him. The English arrived at Jamestown in April 1607 and, by the summer of that year, the search for a suitable site ended on 14 May 1607 when Captain Edward Maria Wingfield, president of the council, chose the Jamestown site as the location for the colony. After the four-month ocean trip, their stores were sufficient only for each to have a cup or two of grain-meal per day
John Smith (explorer)
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Captain John Smith (1624)
John Smith (explorer)
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Window in St Helena's Church, Willoughby, displaying Smith's coat of arms
John Smith (explorer)
–
Statue at
Historic Jamestowne
John Smith (explorer)
–
John Smith taking the King of Pamunkey prisoner (1624 history)
6.
Opchanacanough
–
His name meant He whose Soul is White in the Algonquian Powhatan language. He was the brother of Chief Powhatan, who had organized and dominated the Powhatan Confederacy. The Powhatan Confederacy was established in the late 16th and early 17th centuries under the leadership of Chief Wahunsonacock, at the time of the English settlement at Jamestown which was established in May 1607, Opechancanough was a much-feared warrior and a charismatic leader of the Powhatans. As Chief Powhatans younger brother, he headed a tribe situated along the Pamunkey River near the town of West Point. A short time later, after a succession of the chiefdom by Opitchipam. The natives and the colonists came into increasingly irreconcilable conflicts as the export crop, tobacco. The relationship became more strained as ever-increasing numbers of Europeans arrived and began establishing hundreds. The colony eventually rebounded, however, and later killed hundreds of natives in retaliation. Chief Opechancanough launched a last major effort to expel the colonists on April 18,1644, in 1646, forces under Royal Governor William Berkeley captured Opechancanough, at the time believed to be between 90 and 100 years old. They paraded him as a prisoner through Jamestown before a crowd, the chief was subsequently killed by a soldier. Before dying, the chief said, If it had been my fortune to take Sir William Berkeley prisoner. He was succeeded as Weroance first by Nectowance, then by Totopotomoi and he became known as Don Luis. Murrin, however, suggests that Opechancanough was more likely the nephew or cousin of Don Luis, shortly thereafter, Don Luis is believed to have returned to live with the Powhatan and turned against the Europeans. Don Luis and his allies killed the Jesuits at the mission in the winter of 1571, other historians speculate that Don Luis may have become the father of Powhatan chiefs Wahunsunacock and Opechancanough. Their remains are buried on the Pamunkey Indian Reservation in King William, from various contemporary reports, it is speculated that Opchanacanough may have suffered from myasthenia gravis. These reports include symptoms of weakness which improved with resting, Opechancanough was portrayed by Stuart Randall in the 1953 low-budget film Captain John Smith and Pocahontas. This film shortened his name to Opechanco and he appeared as a figure in the Animated Hero Classics 1994 episode Pocahontas, and was voiced by Lorenzo Gonzalez. Opechancanough is portrayed in the 2005 film The New World, in which he is played by Wes Studi, in the film, he is conflated with Tomocomo, a priest who accompanied Pocahontas/Rebecca to London
Opchanacanough
–
'John Smith taking the King of Pamunkey prisoner', a fanciful image of Opechancanough from Smith's General History of Virginia (1624). The image of Opechancanough is in fact based on a 1585 painting of another native warrior by
John White [1] {See below}
Opchanacanough
–
A 1585 painting of a
Chesapeake Bay warrior by
John White; this painting was adapted to represent Opechancanough in the engraving above.
7.
Jamestown, Virginia
–
The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. William Kelso writes that Jamestown is where the British Empire began, Jamestown was established by the Virginia Company of London as James Fort on May 4,1607, and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke, Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years, from 1616 until 1699. The settlement was located within the country of Tsenacommacah, which was ruled by the Powhatan Confederacy, the natives initially welcomed and provided crucial provisions and support for the colonists, who were not agriculturally inclined. Relations with the newcomers soured fairly early on, leading to the annihilation of the Paspahegh in warfare within 3 years. Mortality at Jamestown itself was very high due to disease and starvation, the Second Supply also brought the first two European women to the settlement. They most likely worked in the fields as indentured servants. The modern conception of slavery in the future United States was formalized in 1640 and was entrenched in Virginia by 1660. In 1676, the town was burned during Bacons Rebellion. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations comprising the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites, Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site on Jamestown Island, is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site and Preservation Virginia. Jamestown Settlement, a living history site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation. Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, the English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590. Late in 1606, English entrepreneurs set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World, the fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a long voyage of four months, including a stop in Puerto Rico. The expedition made landfall on April 26,1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry, Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25,1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a peninsula some 40 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian tribes, the island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking
Jamestown, Virginia
–
The ruined tower of the 1639
Jamestown Church; the
nave was reconstructed in 1907 on the original foundations
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Location in Virginia
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Salt
marshes along Jamestown Island. The ample wetlands on the island proved to be a breeding ground for mosquitoes.
Jamestown, Virginia
–
Detail of the map made by Pedro de Zúñiga, depicting the fort in about 1608
8.
James River
–
The James River is a river in the U. S. state of Virginia. It is 348 miles long, extending to 444 miles if one includes the Jackson River, the James River drains a catchment comprising 10,432 square miles. The watershed includes about 4% open water and an area with a population of 2.5 million people and it is the 12th longest river in the United States that remains entirely within a single state. Tidal waters extend west to Richmond, the capital of Virginia, larger tributaries draining to the tidal portion include the Appomattox River, Chickahominy River, Warwick River, Pagan River, and the Nansemond River. At its mouth near Newport News Point, the Elizabeth River, many boats pass through this river to import and export Virginia products. The navigable portion of the river was the highway of the Colony of Virginia during its first 15 years, facilitating supply ships delivering supplies. However, for the first five years, despite many hopes of gold and riches, in 1612, businessman John Rolfe successfully cultivated a non-native strain of tobacco which proved popular in England. Soon, the became the primary means of exporting the large hogsheads of this cash crop from an ever-growing number of plantations with wharfs along its banks. This development made the efforts of the Virginia Company of London successful financially, spurring even more development, investments. The upper reaches of the river above the head of navigation at the line were explored by fur trading parties sent by Abraham Wood during the late 17th century. Although ocean-going ships were unable to navigate beyond present-day Richmond, portage of products, produce from the Piedmont and Great Valley regions traveled down the river to seaports at Richmond and Manchester through such port towns as Lynchburg, Scottsville, Columbia and Buchanan. The James River was considered as a route for transport of produce from the Ohio Valley, the James River and Kanawha Canal was built for this purpose, to provide a navigable portion of the Kanawha River, a tributary of the Ohio River. For the most mountainous section between the two points, the James River and Kanawha Turnpike was built to provide a link via wagons. However, before the canal could be completed, in the mid-19th century, railroads emerged as a more practical technology. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway was completed between Richmond and the Ohio River at the new city of Huntington, West Virginia by 1873, dooming the canals economic prospects. In the 1880s, the Richmond and Alleghany Railroad was laid along the portion of the canals towpath. In modern times, this line is used primarily in transporting West Virginia coal to export coal piers at Newport News. The James River contains numerous parks and other recreational attractions, canoeing, fishing, kayaking, hiking, and swimming are some of the activities that people enjoy along the river during the summer
James River
–
James River at the crossing of the
Blue Ridge Parkway
James River
–
The James, hidden by trees, at Percival's Island Riverwalk in
Lynchburg,
Virginia
James River
–
James River at Huntington Park Beach in Newport News
James River
–
ACL Railroad crossing at the falls in Richmond.
9.
Plantation (settlement or colony)
–
Plantation was an early method of colonization where settlers went in order to establish a permanent or semi-permanent colonial base, for example for planting tobacco or cotton. Such plantations were also intended to promote Western culture and Christianity among nearby indigenous peoples. Although the term planter to refer to a settler first appears as early as the 16th-century, the term plantation was applied to the large farms that were the economical basis of many of the 17th-century American colonies. The peak of the economy in the Caribbean was in the 18th century. Most of that time Britain prospered as the top slaving nation in the Atlantic world, more than 2,500,000 slaves were transported to the Caribbean plantations between 1690 and 1807. In 1789 the French colony of Saint-Domingue, producer of 40 percent of the sugar, was the most valuable colony on earth. Slaves outnumbered whites and free people of color by at least eight to one, but provided all of the manual labor. Slave labor made sugar production profitable, importing sugar to Great Britain resulted in a dramatic change in the eating habits of Britons, one of the greatest in human history. In 1700, Britons used an average of four pounds of sugar a year, the Plantations of Ireland were an instrument of retribution and colonization after several Irish rebellions against English rule throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The largest settlement, the Plantation of Ulster in the part of the island, was established following the rebellion of Hugh Roe ODonnell. The plantations were seen as part of process that would Anglicise Ireland, lands were seized from the native landowners both as punishment for rebellion and as punishment for remaining Catholic rather than conforming to the established church. These lands were given to English Protestant settlers who would be loyal to the Crown, during the Middle Ages, the Scottish government planted Scots-speaking lowland merchant colonies in the Gàidhealtachd, for example at Campbeltown and Cromarty. Jamestown, Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in North America, during the 17th century, the Chesapeake Bay area was immensely hospitable to tobacco cultivation. Ships annually hauled 1.5 million pounds of tobacco out to the Bay by the 1630s, farmers responded to falling prices by growing even more tobacco. The labor supply from Africa was expensive, in the 17th century, farmers relied on indentured servants for labor. To encourage settlement of the colonies, the Crown granted land to colonists who paid for workers, the planters replaced tobacco with other crops after the soils became exhausted in the coastal areas. Cotton was produced on plantations on the Sea Islands off South Carolina, settlers poured into what became known as the Deep South, putting pressure on the federal government to remove the Native American tribes from the Southeast. Cotton was king, and worldwide demand for American cotton resulted in growing wealth among planters in the South, European colonists did not regard the land as belonging to the tens of thousands of Native Americans who occupied it, because their patterns of use were so different
Plantation (settlement or colony)
–
Jamaica, from the early nineteenth century. Watercolor, ink, and pencil. Created between 1808 and 1816.
10.
Henricus
–
It was named for Prince Henry, the eldest son of King James I. The site of Henricus later became part of the Shire of Henrico, in 1749, the portion of Henrico County that lay south of the James River was detached to form the present-day Chesterfield County. Today, the settlement is interpreted via Henricus Historical Park, a history museum. Henricus was one of the earliest English settlements in the New World and it was located on the James River, a few miles southeast of the modern city of Richmond, Virginia. Prior to the development of Richmond, Henricus was one of the westernmost outlying developments from the Colony of Virginias fortified capital downriver at Jamestown. In 1612–1613, a facility known as Mt. Malady was built nearby and this settlement was near where Pocahontas grew up among the Appomattoc tribe of the Powhatan Confederacy. Reverend Alexander Whitaker converted her to Christianity during her captivity under Sir Thomas Dale and she met settler John Rolfe during this time and they married on April 5,1614. Rolfes longtime friend, Richard Buck, presided at their wedding and they lived together across the river at the Varina Farms Plantation. Their mixed-race son, Thomas Rolfe, was born on the plantation and his descendants were among many of the so-called First Families of Virginia. The Virginia Company tried to found the first institution of education in British America. In 1618, they obtained a charter for a proposed University of Henrico. By 1622, the settlers had established a school for Native Americans on the site, much of the English settlement was destroyed in the Indian Massacre of 1622. By 1623, more settlers occupied the land than before the massacre. The next year King James I of England dissolved the Virginia Company and its college, seizing its assets, the Crown controlled it from then on. In 1693, the College of William and Mary was established in Williamsburg, a plaque on the Wren Building, the colleges first structure, ascribes the institutions origin to the college proposed at Henrico. The area later saw action during the American Revolutionary War, the channel was later widened, and the old river channel silted up, forming what is now the 810-acre Dutch Gap Conservation Area. Eventually the exact location of the town of Henricus was forgotten. The 12-acre archeological site in Chesterfield County was listed as Henrico on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places in 1972
Henricus
–
Reconstruction of Mt. Malady, the first English hospital in America.
Henricus
–
Reconstructed settler's house
11.
London Company
–
The London Company was an English joint stock company established in 1606 by royal charter by King James I with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America. The territory granted to the London Company included the coast south America from the 34th parallel north to the 41st parallel, as part of the Virginia Company and Colony, the London Company owned a large portion of Atlantic and Inland Canada. The company was permitted by its charter to establish a 100-square-mile settlement within this area, the portion of the companys territory north of the 38th parallel was shared with the Plymouth Company, with the stipulation that neither company found a colony within 100 miles of each other. The London Company made landfall on April 26,1607, at the edge of the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Deciding to move the encampment, on May 4,1607, later in 1607, the Plymouth Company established its Popham Colony in present-day Maine, but it was abandoned after about a year. By 1609, the Plymouth Company had dissolved, as a result, the charter for the London Company was adjusted with a new grant that extended from sea to sea of the previously-shared area between the 38th and 40th parallel. It was amended in 1612 to include the new territory of the Somers Isles, the London Company struggled financially, especially with labor shortages in its Virginia colony. Its profits improved after sweeter strains of tobacco than the variety were cultivated. By 1619 a system of indentured service was developed in the colony. In 1624, the company lost its charter, and Virginia became a royal colony, in Renaissance England, wealthy merchants, eager to find investment opportunities, established a number of companies to trade in various parts of the world. Each company was made up of individuals who purchased shares of company stock, the Crown granted a charter to each company with a monopoly to explore, trade or settle a particular region of the world. Profits were shared among the investors according to the amount of stock each owned, between 1585 and 1630, more than 6,300 Englishmen and women invested in joint stock companies trading with Russia, Turkey, Africa, the East Indies, the Mediterranean and North America. Investors in the Virginia Company hoped to profit from the resources of the New World. In 1606 Captain Bartholomew Gosnold obtained of King James I a charter for two companies, the first, for the South-Virginia or London Company, covered what are now Maryland, Virginia and Carolina, between Latitude 34° and Latitude 41° North. Gosnolds principal backers were Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, Edward Wingfield, the second Company, the Plymouth Adventurers, were empowered to settle as far as 45° North, encompassing what are present day Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England. The Company paid all the costs of establishing each colony, and in return controlled all land and resources there, the first leader of the Virginia Company in England was its treasurer, Sir Thomas Smythe, who arranged the 1609 charter. He had been governor of the East India Company since 1603, in an extensive publicity campaign, Wingfield, Gosnold and a few others, circulated pamphlets, plays, sermons and broadsides throughout England to raise interest in New World investments. Shareholders could buy stock individually or in groups, almost 1700 people purchased shares, including men of different occupations and classes, wealthy women, and representatives of institutions such as trade guilds, towns and cities
London Company
–
The Virginia Company of London
12.
Thomas Dale
–
Sir Thomas Dale was an English naval commander and deputy-governor of the Virginia Colony in 1611 and from 1614 to 1616. He is also credited with the establishment of Bermuda Hundred, Bermuda Cittie, and he married Elizabeth Throckmorton prior to his departure for Virginia in 1611. It is unknown if the pair had any children together, from about 1588 to 1609, Thomas Dale was in the service of the Low Countries with the English army originally under Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. Because of his ability and ambition, he became friends with people in positions of authority. In 1599 Thomas Dale was recruited by the Earl of Essex for Englands army, after many years of training he was knighted by King James to become Sir Thomas Dale of Surry on 16 June 1606. He has a school in Chester, Va named after him. Sent with three ships, on 19 May 1611, he arrived at Jamestown with men, cattle and he found the conditions unhealthy and greatly in need of improvement. Dale immediately called for a meeting of the Jamestown Council, and he served as acting Governor for 3½ months in 1611, and again for a two-year period between 1614 and 1616. In the interim, he served as the Marshall of the colony, effectively, for five years, he was the highest ranking law enforcement officer in Virginia. He exhibited a certain stern efficiency which was perhaps the best support and it was during his administration that the first code of laws of Virginia, nominally in force from 1611 to 1619, was effectively tested. This code, entitled Articles, Lawes, and Orders Divine, Politique, and Martiall, was notable for its pitiless severity, perhaps Dales most lasting reform was economic. Measurable economic progress was made, and the settlers began expanding their planting to land belonging to native tribes. Not only did food production increase markedly, but the following year John Rolfe succeeded on his plot in raising the first hybrid tobacco, seeking a better site than Jamestown, Thomas Dale sailed up the James River to the area now known as Chesterfield County. A short distance further up the James, in 1611, he began the construction of a development at Henricus on. Henricus was envisioned as possible replacement capital for Jamestown, and was to have the first college in Virginia, in addition to creating the new settlement at Henricus, Dale also established the port town of Bermuda Hundred and Bermuda Cittie. He began the work at Dutch Gap, using methods he had learned while serving in Holland. They intended to make salt by boiling down the sea water, Governor Dale sailed back to England in the spring of 1616 aboard the Treasurer. Accompanying him on what was considered an investor-relations journey were John Rolfe, his wife Rebecca and their one-year-old son, queen Anne and others were reportedly charmed by Rebecca, and investment in the Virginia Company was enhanced
Thomas Dale
–
Dale (left, standing behind
Alexander Whitaker wearing armor) as portrayed in The Baptism of Pocahontas, 1840, by
John Gadsby Chapman
13.
Thomas Gates (governor)
–
Sir Thomas Gates, was the governor of Jamestown, in the English colony of Virginia. His predecessor, George Percy, through leadership, was responsible for the lives lost during the period called the Starving Time. The English-born Gates arrived to find a few surviving starving colonists commanded by Percy, Gates ruled with deputy governor Sir Thomas Dale. Their controlled, strict methods helped the early colonies survive, however, they did not assist in making them thrive. Gates was appointed by the Virginia Company of London, which had established the Jamestown settlement under a Royal Charter for the colonisation of Virginia and he had sailed for Jamestown in 1609, aboard the Sea Venture, the new flagship of the Virginia Company. The Sea Venture was part of the Third Supply, a fleet of seven ships, at sea, the ships of the Third Supply were separated by a three-day storm now thought to have been a large hurricane. The Admiral of the Virginia Company, Sir George Somers, had taken the helm to fight the storm, the rocks proved to be the reef line to the east of the uninhabited archipelago now known as Bermuda. The other ships went on to Jamestown, not knowing the fate of the Sea Venture, the 150 survivors spent the next ten months in Bermuda building two new ships on which to complete the journey to Jamestown. Two factions developed, however, due to a dispute between Gates and Somers over who was now the superior, as an appointed officer for Jamestown, Gates felt he was in authority, now that they were ashore. Somers felt that he retained authority until the settlers, including Gates, were landed at Jamestown, the two new ships, the Deliverance and the Patience were completed and sailed for Virginia in 1610. They left two men to maintain their claim of Bermuda for England, the Charter of the Virginia Company would officially be extended to include Bermuda in 1612. Ever since, Bermuda has also known officially as The Somers Isles. Sir Thomas Gates left his own name on a part of the colony, Gates Bay, the oldest surviving fort in Bermuda, built between 1612 and 1615, is known as Gates Fort. Many scholars believe Gates accounts inspired William Shakespeares comedy The Tempest and it is the Spoyle of an English Shippe of 300 tonnes called SEA VENTURE bound with seven others to Virginia or NOVA BRITANIA in America. In it were two Knights, Sir Thomas Gates, Knight Governor of the English Forces and Colonie there, passengers and mariners she had beside one hundred and fiftie. Wee were forced to runne her ashore under a point that bore South East from the Northerne Point of the Island which wee discovered first on the eighth and twentieth of July 1609. On reaching Jamestown, only 60 of the 500 settlers previously landed there were found alive through the winter of 1609–1610 which became known as the Starving Time, the condition of the settlement was so poor that it was decided to abandon it and return everyone to England. However, the arrival of another relief fleet under Lord De La Warr gave the colony a reprieve
Thomas Gates (governor)
–
Sir Thomas Gates
14.
Powhatan (Native American leader)
–
He was the father of Pocahontas, who eventually converted to Christianity and married the English settler John Rolfe. Seventeenth-century English spellings were not standardized, and representations were many of the sounds of the Algonquian language spoken by Wahunsenacawh and he had many names and titles, his own people sometimes called him Ottaniack, sometimes Mamauatonick, and usually in his presence Wahunsenasawk. He apparently inherited the leadership of about 4-6 tribes, with its base at the line near present-day Richmond. Through diplomacy and/or force, he had assembled a total of about 30 tribes into the Powhatan Confederacy by the early 17th century, the confederacy was estimated to include 10, 000-15,000 people. In December 1607, English soldier and pioneer John Smith, one of the Jamestown colonys leaders, was captured by an expedition led by Opechancanough. Smith was taken to Werowocomoco, Powhatans capital along the York River, Smith recounted in 1624 that Pocahontas, one of Powhatans daughters, kept her father from executing him. However, since Smiths 1608 and 1612 reports omitted this account, some believe that the event Smith recounted as a prelude to his execution was an adoption ceremony by which Smith was ritually accepted as subchief of the town of Capahosic in Powhatans alliance. As the historian Margaret Williamson Huber has written, Powhatan calculated that moving Smith and his men to Capahosic would keep them nearby and better under his control. In January 1609, Smith recorded directing some of his men to build an English-style house for Powhatan at Werowocomoco, both sides looked for opportunities to surprise one another. When ambushed, he held the Powhatan at gunpoint before the warriors, when Smith returned to Werowocomoco, he found the house unfinished and the place abandoned. The men had deserted to the Powhatan side, since 2003, state officials and researchers have concluded the likely site of Werowocomoco is further west along the York River at Purtan Bay. There archeologists have found evidence of a residential settlement dating to 1200. They have found artifacts, including European goods, which indicate likely interaction with the English in the early 17th century. In 2006 the Werowocomoco Archeological Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, excavations continue by a team headed by the College of William and Mary. Powhatan made his capital at Orapake, located about 50 miles west in a swamp at the head of the Chickahominy River. The modern-day interchange of Interstate 64 and Interstate 295 is near this location, by the time Smith left Virginia in 1609, the fragile peace between colonists and Algonquians was already beginning to fray. Soon conflict led to the First Anglo-Powhatan War, and further English expansion beyond Jamestown, the English effectively destroyed two subtribes, the Kecoughtan and the Paspahegh, at the beginning of this war. Powhatan sent Nemattanew to operate against the English on the upper James River, with the capture of Pocahontas by Captain Samuel Argall in 1613, Powhatan sued for peace
Powhatan (Native American leader)
–
Powhatan, detail of map published by
John Smith (1612)
Powhatan (Native American leader)
–
Whitaker (left, in white vestments) as portrayed in The Baptism of Pocahontas, 1840, by
John Gadsby Chapman
15.
Christianization
–
Christianization is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire groups at once. Various strategies and techniques were employed in Christianization campaigns from Late Antiquity, often the conversion of the ruler was followed by the compulsory baptism of his subjects. In essence, it was intended that the traditions and practices still existed, Early works of this type have tended to be downplayed and even dismissed as a form of Protestant apologetics aimed at purification of Christianity. The Council of Jerusalem, according to Acts 15, agreed that lack of circumcision could not be a basis for excluding Gentile believers from membership in the Jesus community. Rather, they instructed new believers to avoid pollution of idols, fornication, things strangled, the Apostolic Decree thus helped to establish nascent Christianity as a unique alternative among the forms of Judaism for prospective Proselytes. The Armenian and Ethiopian churches are the instances of imposition of Christianity by sovereign rulers predating the council of Nicaea. The initial conversion of the Roman Empire occurred mostly in areas of Europe. Later conversions happened among the Grecian-Roman-Celtic populations over centuries, often initially among its urban population, the term pagan is from Latin and means villager, rustic, civilian. It is derived from this historical transition, the root of that word is present in todays word paisan or paisano. The Christianization of the Roman Empire is typically divided into two phases, before and after the year 312, which marked the momentous quasi-conversion of Constantine. By this date, Christianity had already converted a significant but unknown proportion of at least the urban population of the empire, Constantine ended the intermittent persecution of Christianity with the Edict of Milan, which granted tolerance to all religions, but specifically mentioned Christianity. Under Constantines successors, Christianization of Roman society proceeded by fits and starts, Constantines sons, for example, banned pagan state religious sacrifices in 341, but did not close the temples. Although all state temples in all cities were ordered shut in 356, under Julian, the temples were reopened and state religious sacrifices performed once more. When Gratian declined the position and title of Pontifex Maximus, his act brought an end to the state religion due to the positions authority. Again, however, this process ended state official practices but not private religious devotion, however, many temples remained open until Theodosius Is edict of Thessalonica in 381 banned haruspices and other pagan religious practices. From 389 to 393 he issued a series of decrees which led to the banning of religious rites and by confiscating their property. Further laws were passed against remaining pagan practices over the course of the following years, the effectiveness of these laws empire-wide is debatable. Christianization of central Balkans is documented at the end of the 4th century, where Nicetas the Bishop of Remesiana brought the gospel to those mountain wolves, reportedly his mission was successful, and the worship of Dionysus and other Thracian gods was eventually replaced by Christianity
Christianization
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St. Francis Xavier converting the
Paravas seeking protection of Portuguese explorers from Arab fleets offshore: a 19th-century representation of the "docile heathen".
Christianization
–
James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15:19-29, c. 50 AD: "...we should write to them [Gentiles] to abstain only from things polluted by
idols and from
fornication and from whatever has been strangled and from
blood..." (
NRSV)
Christianization
–
Constantine's conversion, by
Rubens.
Christianization
–
Statue depicting the baptism of Clovis by
Saint Remigius.
16.
Tributary state
–
The term tributary state refers to one of the two main ways in which a pre-modern state might be subordinate to a more powerful state. The heart of the relationship was that the tributary would send a token of submission to the superior power. This token often took the form of a transfer of wealth, such as the delivery of gold, produce, or slaves. John used to send annually to the Viceroy of Sicily in order to rule Malta and it might also involve attendance by the subordinate ruler at the court of the hegemon in order to make a public show of submission. Tributary relations involve no element of control or interference by the hegemon. At most, the hegemonic power might intervene in succession issues, for this reason, the extrapolation from pre-modern inter-state relations to the modern international system is problematic. For instance, Tributaries of Imperial China implies Chinese sovereign claim over territories not now regarded as Chinese, historically, the Emperor of China saw himself as the emperor of the entire civilized world. It was not possible for such an emperor to have diplomatic relations with any other power. Diplomatic missions and trading parties from non-Chinese regions were interpreted in Chinese records as being tributary, in Al Andalus, the last remaining Moorish Nasrid Dynasty in the Emirate of Granada paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom of Castile. Tributary states, usually on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire, were under vassalage in different forms, some were allowed to select their own leaders, while others paid tribute for their lands. In the Western colonial system, non-Western states were incorporated into a European empire as protectorates. In the Philippines, the Datus of the Barangays became vassals of the Spanish Empire and their right to rule was recognized by King Philip II of Spain, on 11 June 1594, under the condition of paying tributes due to the Spanish Crown. For modern forms of subordination, see puppet state, satellite state. Tribute Bunga mas Mandala Suzerainty Vassal state Puppet state Satellite state Client state
Tributary state
–
Bunga mas, a form of tribute sent to the King of
Siam from its vassal states in the
Malay Peninsula
17.
Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr
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De La Warr is pronounced Delaware. There have been two creations of Baron De La Warr, and West came from the second. He was the son of Thomas West, 2nd Baron De La Warr, of Wherwell Abbey in Hampshire and Anne Knollys, daughter of Catherine Carey and he was born at Wherwell, Hampshire, England, and died at sea while travelling from England to the Colony of Virginia. Thomas West received his education at Queens College, Oxford and he served in the army under Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and, in 1601, was charged with supporting Essexs ill-fated insurrection against Queen Elizabeth, but he was acquitted of those charges. He succeeded his father as Baron De La Warr in 1602, Lord De La Warr was appointed governor-for-life and captain-general of the Colony of Virginia, to replace the governing council of the colony under the presidency of Captain John Smith. As part of Englands response, De La Warr recruited and equipped a contingent of 150 men, the supply fleet arrived in Jamestown in June, just in time to persuade the original settlers not to give up and go home to England. These tactics, identical to those practiced by the Powhatan themselves, Lord De La Warr returned to England due to illness in the spring of 1611, leaving his deputy, Sir Samuel Argall, in charge of the colony. Later that year, De La Warr wrote and published a book titled The Relation of the Right Honourable the Lord De-La-Warre, Lord Governour and Captaine Generall of the Colonie and he died at sea en route to Virginia. It was thought for years that Lord De La Warr had been buried in the Azores or at sea. By 2006, researchers had concluded that his body was brought to Jamestown for burial, a grave site thought to contain the remains of Captain Bartholomew Gosnold may instead contain those of Lord De La Warr. Lord De La Warrs brother, John West, later governor of Virginia. On 25 November 1596, De La Warr married Cecily, the daughter of Sir Thomas Shirley of Wiston, Sussex and Anne and they had children, Cecily or Cecilia, who married firstly Sir Francis Bindlosse and secondly after 1629 John Byron, 1st Baron Byron. She was buried at Hucknall-Torkard in Nottinghamshire, lucy, who married Sir Robert Byron, Governor of Liverpool and a Colonel in the service of the Royalist Infantry Forces who fought in the English Civil War. Henry, who succeeded his father as the 4th Baron De La Warr, married Isabella, daughter of Sir Thomas Edmunds and he died at the age of 24 and was succeed by his son Charles West, 5th Baron De La Warr. Lundy, Darryl Roger, ed. Thomas West, 3rd Baron Delaware, pp.14230 at §142296,13955 at §139543,14230 at §142295–§142296,20756 at §207553, §207556, §207558,24497 at §244965. Cokayne, George Edward, et al. eds, the Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct or Dormant. Mosley, Charles, ed. Burkes Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, the Complete Peerage or a History of the House of Lords and All its Members From the Earliest Times, Volume XIV, Addenda & Corrigenda. Biography at Encyclopedia Virginia De la Warr, Thomas West, Lord
Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr
–
Lord De La Warr.
Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr
–
Depiction of the arrival of De La Warr at Jamestown
18.
Anglo-Powhatan Wars
–
The Anglo-Powhatan Wars were three wars fought between English settlers of the Virginia Colony, and Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy in the early seventeenth century. The First War started in 1610, and ended in a settlement in 1614. Another war between the two powers lasted from 1622 to 1626, the third war lasted from 1644 until 1646, and ended when Opechancanough was captured and killed. That war resulted in a boundary being defined between the Indians and English lands that could only be crossed for official business with a special pass and this situation would last until 1677 and the Treaty of Middle Plantation, which established Indian reservations following Bacons Rebellion. Complications with natives typically resulted at most of the settlements the English tried to establish from the beginning, the failed Roanoke colony marked the first contact between English settlers and Algonquian coastal tribes in North Carolina. The first permanent English settlement, Jamestown, Virginia, was within the territory of the powerful yet still expanding chiefdom of Wahunsunacawh, Jamestown, and the other colonies to be established in the New World were dependent on natives for a successful settlement. However, Smith underestimated the power of the Virginia Indians and what they were capable of, smiths capture represented just an example of the diplomatic strategies employed by Wahunsunacawh to make the English cooperate with and contribute to his expanding control in this region. Smith was released in time for New Years 1608, when he promised to move the colony to Capahosick, Smith had convinced the grand chief that he was the son of Captain Newport, and that Newport was their head weroance. Relations between the two peoples began deteriorating again in late 1608, when the colonists began to strong-arm some supplies of corn from the natives. Smiths contacts with rival tribes around the Chesapeake Bay in the summer, by spring 1609, the local Paspahegh tribe had resumed raiding the English fort at Jamestown. However, their weroance, Wowinchopunk, declared a truce after he was captured and escaped. Then Smith, who had become president of the colony the preceding fall, antagonized the Powhatan further in summer 1609, First he sent a party with Captain John Martin to settle in Nansemond territory. When they could not purchase the island with their temple, Martin ransacked it and the platforms of their weroances, and occupied it by force. Later he abandoned the position after 17 of his men, disobeying orders, were wiped out while trying to buy corn at the Kecoughtan village. Smith was then injured in a gunpowder explosion, deposed as president, and sailed to England on October 4,1609. Soon afterward, the settlers succeeded in establishing a fortification, Fort Algernon at Old Point Comfort. In November, the Powhatan ambushed and killed Captain John Ratcliffe, francis West sailed to the Patawomecks, a fringe group among Powhatans subjects, for corn, but beheaded two of them, then absconded directly to England. Unable to trade with the natives, the English began to starve to death, to the point that when Sir Thomas Gates arrived in late May 1610, he decided to evacuate Jamestown
Anglo-Powhatan Wars
–
Indian massacre of 1622, depicted as a woodcut by
Matthaeus Merian
Anglo-Powhatan Wars
–
Red line shows boundary between the Virginia Colony and Tributary Indian tribes, as established by the Treaty of 1646. Red dot shows Jamestown, capital of Virginia Colony.
19.
Samuel Argall
–
Sir Samuel Argall was an English adventurer and naval officer. He captained one of Lord De La Warrs ships in the rescue mission to Virginia in 1610 which saved the colony from starvation. As a sea warrior, he is best known for his diplomacy with the Powhatan Confederacy. He kidnapped the Chiefs daughter, Pocahontas, and held her as a captive at Henricus as security against the return of English captives and property held by Powhatan on 13 April 1613. Pocahontas had long been a friend of the English and was treated with respect according to her rank, in the eyes of the English. Argall was also successful in his actions against French efforts at colonisation in Acadia and his voyage took only nine weeks and six days, including two weeks becalmed. This new route enabled the English to avoid enemy Spanish ships, upon his arrival at Jamestown, Captain Argall found the colonists in dire straits. Argall resupplied them with all the food he could spare and returned to England at the end of the summer. The help came to the colony at one of the most critical moments in its history, as it began the Starving Time, however, without the provisions Argall had left, the colony may have been totally destroyed. Argalls voyage also prevented the Spanish from gaining knowledge of the weakness of the Jamestown colony, Argalls larger ship, Mary and John, stationed at Cape Henry, chased the Spanish ship and ultimately denied it entrance into the Chesapeake Bay. De La Warr, became so ill that in the spring of 1611 he sailed home to England, serving under Dale, in March 1613, Argall, who was looking for food for the settlement, sailed up the Potomac River. There, he traded with the Patawomecks, a Native American tribe and they lived at the village of Passapatanzy. When two English colonists began trading with the Patawomecks, they discovered the presence of Pocahontas, the daughter of Wahunsonacock, according to a book by Captain John Smith, she had been there for around three months. As soon as he heard this, Argall resolved to capture Pocahontas, sending for the local chief, Japazaws, Argall told him he must bring her on board his ship, and suggested luring her with the present of a copper kettle. With the help of Japazaws, they tricked Pocahontas into captivity and their purpose, as they explained in a letter, was to ransom her for some English prisoners held by Chief Powhatan, along with various weapons and farming tools that the Powhatans had stolen. Powhatan returned the prisoners but failed to satisfy the colonists with the amount of weapons and tools he returned, after the capture of Pocahontas, later in 1613, under orders from London, Argall began to raid Acadia. First he eradicated the French Jesuit colony of Saint-Sauveur on Mount Desert Island, after the first of two trips to accomplish this, he carried fourteen prisoners back to Jamestown. He then went on to burn the settlement and the restant structures of a one on Sainte-Croix
Samuel Argall
–
Depiction of Captain Argall in negotiation with the
Chickahominy.
Samuel Argall
–
Portrait of Captain Argall
20.
Pocahontas
–
Pocahontas was a Native American woman notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chief of a network of tribal nations in the Tsenacommacah. Some historians have suggested that this story, as told by Smith, is untrue, Pocahontas was captured by the English during Anglo-Indian hostilities in 1613, and held for ransom. During her captivity, she converted to Christianity and took the name Rebecca, when the opportunity arose for her to return to her people, she chose to remain with the English. In April 1614, she married tobacco planter John Rolfe, and in January 1615, bore their son, in 1616, the Rolfes traveled to London. Pocahontas was presented to English society as an example of the savage in hopes of stimulating investment in the Jamestown settlement. She became something of a celebrity, was elegantly fêted, in 1617, the Rolfes set sail for Virginia, but Pocahontas died at Gravesend of unknown causes. She was buried in a church in Gravesend in the United Kingdom, numerous places, landmarks, and products in the United States have been named after Pocahontas. Her story has been romanticized over the years, and she is a subject of art, literature, Pocahontass birth year is unknown, but some historians estimate it to have been around 1596. In A True Relation of Virginia, Smith described the Pocahontas he met in the spring of 1608 as being a child of ten years old. In a letter written in 1616, he described her as she was in 1608. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, paramount chief of Tsenacommacah, Pocahontass childhood was probably little different from that of most girls who lived in Tsenacommacah. She learned how to perform what was considered to be work, which included foraging for food and firewood, farming. As she grew older, she helped other members of Powhatans household with preparations for large feasts, serving feasts, such as the one presented to John Smith after his capture, was a regular obligation of the Mamanatowick, or paramount chief. Bestowed at different times, the names carried different meanings and might be used in different contexts, Early in her life she was given a secret name, Matoaka, but later she was also known as Amonute. Matoaka means Bright Stream Between the Hills, Amonute cannot be translated, according to the anthropologist Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas revealed to the English only after she had taken another religious—baptismal—name, Rebecca. Pocahontass Christian name, Rebecca, may have been a gesture to Rebecca of the Book of Genesis who, as the mother of Jacob
Pocahontas
–
Portrait engraving by
Simon de Passe, 1616.
Pocahontas
Pocahontas
Pocahontas
–
John Gadsby Chapman, The Baptism of Pocahontas (1840)
21.
John Rolfe
–
John Rolfe was one of the early English settlers of North America. He is credited with the first successful cultivation of tobacco as a crop in the Colony of Virginia and is known as the husband of Pocahontas. Rolfe was born in Heacham, Norfolk, England, as the son of John Rolfe and Dorothea Mason, at the time, Spain held a virtual monopoly on the lucrative tobacco trade. Most Spanish colonies in the New World were located in southern climates more favourable to growth than the English settlements. As the consumption of tobacco had increased, the balance of trade between England and Spain began to be seriously affected, Rolfe was one of a number of businessmen who saw the opportunity to undercut Spanish imports by growing tobacco in Englands new colony in Virginia. A project of the proprietary Virginia Company of London, Jamestown had been established by an group of settlers on 14 May 1607. Heading the Third Supply fleet was the new flagship of the Virginia Company, the Third Supply fleet left England in May 1609 destined for Jamestown with seven large ships, towing two smaller pinnaces. In the southern region of the North Atlantic, they encountered a three-day-long storm, the ships of the fleet became separated. The new Sea Venture, whose caulking had not cured, was taking on water faster than it could be bailed, the Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, took the helm and the ship was deliberately driven onto the reefs of Bermuda to prevent its foundering. All aboard,150 passengers and crew, and 1 dog, most remained for ten months in Bermuda, subsequently also known as The Somers Isles, while they built two small ships to continue the voyage to Jamestown. A number of passengers and crew, however, did not complete this journey, some had died or been killed, lost at sea, or left behind to maintain Englands claim to Bermuda. Because of this, although the Virginia Companys charter was not extended to Bermuda until 1612, among those left buried in Bermuda were Rolfes wife and his infant daughter, Bermuda Rolfe. In May 1610, the two newly constructed ships set sail from Bermuda, with 142 castaways on board, including Rolfe, Admiral Somers, Stephen Hopkins, and Sir Thomas Gates. On arrival at Jamestown, they found the Virginia Colony almost destroyed by famine, very few supplies from the Third Supply had arrived because the same hurricane that caught the Sea Venture badly affected the rest of the fleet. After finally settling in—although his first wife, the English-born Sarah Hacker, in competing with Spain for European markets, there was another problem beside the warmer climates the Spanish settlements enjoyed. The native tobacco from Virginia was not liked by the English settlers, however, Rolfe wanted to introduce sweeter strains from Trinidad, using the hard-to-obtain Spanish seeds he brought with him. The appeal of Orinoco tobacco was in its nicotine, and the conviviality of its use in social situations. In 1612, Rolfe established Varina Farms, a plantation along the James River about 30 miles upstream from Jamestown, and across the river from Sir Thomas Dales progressive development at Henricus
John Rolfe
–
An 1850s painting of John Rolfe and
Pocahontas
John Rolfe
–
Rolfe (right, standing behind Pocahontas) as portrayed in The Baptism of Pocahontas, 1840, by
John Gadsby Chapman
22.
Paramount chief
–
A paramount chief is the English language designation for the highest-level political leader in a regional or local polity or country administered politically with a chief-based system. More recently, Paramount Chief is a title created by British administrators during the 19th and 20th-century Colonial era and used in India, Africa. They used it as a substitute for the king to maintain that only the British monarch held that title. Since the title chief was already used in terms of district and town administrators, the addition of paramount was made so as to distinguish between the ruling monarch and the local aristocracy. Kenya, Title since 1904 of the former laibon of all the Maasai in Kenya Sudan, In South Sudan, the Paramount Chief works with the government-appointed Payam Director, both of whom report to a county Commissioner. The title changed to king at 4 October 1966 independence date from Britain, in Namibia over the Awa-Khoi or Red Nation of the Nama people, a Chiefdom established before 1700. The SiSwati name for the office is Ngwenyama, a term for lion. Title Inkosi Enkhulu of the amaMpondomise title Inkosi Enkhulu of the abaThembu, Khan is first seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283–289 and was used as a state title by the Rouran confederation. It was subsequently adopted by the Göktürks before Turkic peoples and the Mongols brought it to the rest of Asia, in the middle of the sixth century it was known as Kagan – King of the Turks to the Persians. It now has many equivalent meanings such as commander, leader, the most famous khan was the Great Khan of Mongols, Genghis Khan. Another famous Manchu khan was Nurhachi#Name and titles, aotearoa, Ariki Nui of Ngati Tuwharetoa, a Māori tribe in the central North Island – a hereditary chieftainship which still has great influence. In the 1850s the Māori King Movement resulted in the election of a Waikato chief as Māori King, NB, This title was not recognised by the Rotuma Island Council as the titles Gagaja and Sau have never been used together. The closest thing to a paramount chief is the position of Fakpure, Monarchy of Fiji – the Great Council of Chiefs until de-established in March 2012, recognised Elizabeth II as Tui Viti or Paramount Chief. Chef supérieur Great King Hegemon High King Monarchy Paramount Ruler or Paramount King Sachem WorldStatesmen see each present country
Paramount chief
–
The Great Mongol Khan: Genghis Khan
Paramount chief
–
Manchu
Tribal Chief Nurhaci
Paramount chief
–
Fijian chief and warlord
Seru Epenisa Cakobau (1815–1883).
Paramount chief
–
Samoan paramount chief
Mata'afa Iosefo (1832–1912)
23.
Pamunkey
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The Pamunkey Indian Tribe is one of 11 Virginia Indian tribes recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the states only federally recognized tribe, receiving its status in 2015. The historical tribe was part of the Powhatan paramountcy, made up of Algonquian-speaking tribes, the Powhatan paramount chiefdom was made up of over 30 tribes, estimated to total about 10, 000–15,000 people at the time the English arrived in 1607. The Pamunkey tribe made up about one-tenth to one-fifteenth of the total, when the English arrived, the Pamunkey were one of the most powerful groups of the Powhatan chiefdom. They inhabited the coastal tidewater of Virginia on the side of the James River near Chesapeake Bay. The Pamunkey tribe is one of two that still retain reservation lands assigned by the 1646 and 1677 treaties with the English colonial government. The Pamunkey reservation is located on some of its land on the Pamunkey River adjacent to present-day King William County. The Mattaponi reservation, the other in the state, is nearby on the Mattaponi River. The traditional Pamunkey way of life was subsistence living and they lived through a combination of fishing, trapping, hunting, and farming. The latter was developed in the late Woodland Period of culture, the peoples used the Pamunkey River as a main mode of transportation and food source. The river also provided access to hunting grounds, and other tribes, access to the river was crucial, because Pamunkey villages were seldom permanent settlements. Because the Pamunkey people did not use fertilizers, they moved their fields and homes about every ten years to land to lie fallow. The Pamunkey, and all Virginia tribes, had an intimate, balanced relationship with the animals, plants, like other native tribes, they had techniques, such as controlled burning, to clear land for cultivation or hunting. The land belonged to the group as a whole, the chief and council would allot a parcel of cleared ground to a family head for life. Differing concepts of land and farm animal ownership and use caused some conflicts between the Virginia tribes and English colonists, for native tribes, the land was owned only as long as it was farmed, after that, it was available for public use. The Englishmen had, instead, laws on property and believed that the land was theirs as soon as the tribe sold it to them. As a result, when Englishmen allowed land to lie fallow, many Englishmen considered both as encroachments on their private property. Pamunkey homes, called yihakans, were long and narrow, they were described as “longhouses” by English colonists and they were structures made from bent saplings lashed together at the top to make a barrel shape. Indians covered the saplings with woven mats or bark, the 17th-century historian William Strachey thought that bark was harder to acquire, as he noticed that only higher-status families owned bark-covered houses
Pamunkey
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Pamunkey tribal members re-enact the story of Pocahantas - photo taken in 1910.
24.
Richard Pace (Jamestown)
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Richard Pace was an early settler and Ancient Planter of Colonial Jamestown, Virginia. According to a 1622 account published by the London Company, Richard Pace played a key role in warning the Jamestown colony of an impending Powahatan raid on the colony, the origins of Richard and Isabella Pace are not known. They may have been the couple who married in St. Dunstans Parish Church in October 1608, Richard Pace of Wapping Wall Carpenter and Isabell Smyth of the same marryed the 5th day October 1608. St Dunstans has historic links with the sea and with seafarers, and was recently the Church of the High Seas, where births, deaths. As Ancient Planters, Richard and Isabella Pace each received a grant of 100 acres under the headright system established in 1618. Although Richard Paces original patent has not survived, two later patents give details of the location and date, Pace died by 1625, and his wife Isabella remarried to William Perry. Perry thus became stepfather to Richard Paces adolescent son George and his father-in-law, and northerly on the main river. Granted by Francis West, September 1st,1628, the six are named in the patent as Lewis Bayly, Richard Irnest, John Skinner, Bennett Bulle, Roger Macher, and Ann Mason. In the same month, Richard Paces widow repatented the remainder of the original Pace grant—the 100 acres that had granted for her own personal adventure—thus putting the land in her own name. Granted by Francis West, September 20,1628, quitrent of one shilling per 50 acres is specified in both these patents. Having acquired their land, Richard and Isabella Pace made a trip to England, apparently to find and bring back with them servants to help with the clearing. They returned on the Marmaduke in August 1621, bringing them the six persons later named as headrights in George Paces 1628 patent. Among the other passengers on this sailing of the Marmaduke were a dozen women, Ursula Clawson was included in this group, but it appears she was not obliged to take her chances in the marriage auction, since her passage was to be paid by Richard Pace. There appear to be no records mentioning Ursula Clawson. In recent years, archeological excavations have been carried out at the location of the Paces Paines plantation in an effort to more about early colonial life. A state historical marker near the location recounts some of the history of Paces Paines, in April 1622, in the aftermath of the 1621/22 Powahatan attack on Jamestown, the Council in Virginia wrote to the London Company giving news of the disaster. George Sandys, Treasurer in Virginia, also wrote a letter to England about the attack and its consequences, sandyss letter was apparently the original source of the story of the Indian who warned Richard Pace. According to the story, a Powahatan youth living in the household of Richard Pace had been instructed to kill Pace, the youth instead warned Pace of the impending attack
Richard Pace (Jamestown)
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Historical marker in
Surry County, Virginia near the location of the Pace's Paines plantation.
25.
Wolstenholme Towne
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Named for Sir John Wolstenholme, one of the investors, it was established about 1618 on a plantation named Martins Hundred. Housing in Wolstenholme Towne consisted of rough cabins of wattle and daub woven on wooden posts thrust into the clay subsoil, on March 22,1622, the Native American Powhatans rose to kill as many English settlers as could be surprised in their homes and fields. From the fall line of the James River to Hampton Roads, they burned and looted settlements, Martins Hundred, the plantation hardest hit, lost more than 50, perhaps as many as 70. Wolstenholme Townes death toll was not separated in the death rolls, about 30 miles upriver on the south bank of the James, Sir Thomas Dales new citie of Henricus was also wiped out in what has come to be called the Indian Massacre of 1622. In the 20th century, separate groups of archaeologists uncovered the sites of both Wolstenholme Towne and Henricus, the former is located on the grounds of Carters Grove plantation in the Grove Community of southeastern James City County. The findings were chronicled by author and historian Ivor Noel Hume, in December 2007, Carters Grove was acquired from the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation by CNET founder Halsey Minor for $15.3 million. Minor planned to use the mansion as a residence and use the site as a center for a thoroughbred horse-breeding program. However, Minor made no changes or repairs to Carters Grove and his Carters Grove LLC went into bankruptcy and a federal judge turned the property over to a trustee to run. The property was assessed by trustees in October 2011 to determine the extent of damage present. Repairs have been made to the HVAC system, which has stabilized the temperature within the building, repairs to the structure are ongoing at this time, with the goal of returning Carters Grove to the condition it was in when it was sold to Minor. Former counties, cities, and towns of Virginia PreservationNation Blog Hume, new Clues to an Old Mystery
Wolstenholme Towne
26.
Julian calendar
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The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict, the Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years. For the Gregorian the figure is one day in 3,030 years, the difference in the average length of the year between Julian and Gregorian is 0. 002%. The Julian calendar has a year of 365 days divided into 12 months. A leap day is added to February every four years, the Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical year, as a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582, consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar. Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875, turkey switched on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918, Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923 - the national day, which was a religious holiday, was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes. The Julian calendar is used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, during the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as texts that describe events during the period of change. The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, in addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia. According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days
Julian calendar
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Russian icon of the
Theophany (the baptism of
Jesus by
John the Baptist) (6 January), the highest-ranked feast which occurs on the fixed cycle of the
Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.
Julian calendar
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This is a visual example of the official date change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian
Julian calendar
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Key concepts
27.
Lady Day
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It is the first of the four traditional English quarter days. The Lady is the Virgin Mary, the term derives from Middle English, when some nouns lost their genitive inflections. Lady would later gain an -s genitive ending, and therefore the name means Ladys day, in England, Lady Day was New Years Day between 1155 and 1752, when 1 January was declared to be the official start of the year. A vestige of this remains in the United Kingdoms tax year, until this change Lady Day had been used as the start of the legal year. This should be distinguished from the liturgical and historical year and it appears that in England and Wales, from at least the late 14th century, New Years Day was celebrated on 1 January as part of Yule. Before 1751 the year began in March, farmers time of entry into new farms and onto new fields was often this day. As a result, farming families who were changing farms would travel from the old farm to the new one on Lady Day, after the calendar change, Old Lady Day, the former date of the Annunciation, largely assumed this role. The date is significant in some of the works of Thomas Hardy, such as Tess of the dUrbervilles, in Ireland, however, Ladys Day means 15 August, the Feast of the Assumption of Mary, and is a day when fairs are celebrated in many country towns. New Year International Womens Day —8 March Mothers Day Mothering Sunday National Womens Day
Lady Day
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The Annunciation by
Leonardo da Vinci (1472–1475)
Uffizi Gallery.
28.
Feast of the Annunciation
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It is celebrated on 25 March each year. The Feast of the Annunciation is observed almost universally throughout Christianity, especially within Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Catholicism and it is a major Marian feast, classified as a solemnity in the Catholic Church, a Festival in the Lutheran Churches, and a Principal Feast in the Anglican Communion. Here is recorded the angelic salutation of Gabriel to Mary, Hail, full of grace, the LORD is with thee, and Marys response to Gods will, Let it be done to me according to thy word. The angelic salutation is the origin of the Hail Mary prayer and the Angelus, the Feast of the Annunciation was celebrated as early as the fourth or fifth century. A Synod of Worcester, England in 1240 forbade all work on the feast. As this feast celebrates the Incarnation of the Second Person of the Trinity, many Church Fathers, including St. Athanasius, St. Gregory of Nyssa, and St. Augustine, have expounded on it. In the tradition of the Western Churches, the feast is moved if necessary to prevent it falling during Holy Week or Easter Week or on a Sunday on the liturgical calendars. To avoid a Sunday before Holy Week, the day would be observed instead. In years such as 2016 when 25 March fell within Holy Week or Easter Week, in the tradition of the Eastern churches, the feast of the Annunciation is never moved under any circumstance. They have special combined liturgies for those years when the Annunciation coincides with another feast, in these churches, even on Good Friday a Divine Liturgy is celebrated when it coincides with the Annunciation. The Knights of Columbus observe the Feast of the Annunciation as the International Day of the Unborn Child
Feast of the Annunciation
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The Annunciation,
Henry Ossawa Tanner (1898)
Feast of the Annunciation
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The Annunciation by
Paolo de Matteis.
29.
Genealogists
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Genealogy, also known as family history, is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship, the results are often displayed in charts or written as narratives. Amateur genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses, professional genealogists may also conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their own databases. They may work for companies that provide software or produce materials of use to other professionals, both try to understand not just where and when people lived, but also their lifestyles, biographies, and motivations. This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration trends, bloodlines of Salem is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes members who can prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who choose to support the group. Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies, where novices can learn from experienced researchers. Such societies generally serve a specific geographical area and their members may also index records to make them more accessible, and engage in advocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries. Some schools engage students in projects as a means to reinforce lessons regarding immigration. Other benefits include family medical histories with families with medical conditions that are hereditary. The terms genealogy and family history are used synonymously. The term family history may be popular in Europe, genealogy more popular in the United States. In communitarian societies, ones identity is defined as much by ones kin network as by individual achievement, would be answered by a description of father, mother, and tribe. New Zealand Māori, for example, learn whakapapa to discover who they are, Family history plays a part in the practice of some religious belief systems. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a doctrine of baptism for the dead, in societies such as Australia or the United States, there was by the 20th-century growing pride in the pioneers and nation-builders. Establishing descent from these was, and is, important to such groups as the Daughters of the American Revolution, in Nazi Germany, family histories were compiled to affirm individuals affiliation with the master race and to adhere to legal requirements for marriage. In Germany today, family history is often perceived as a threat to privacy rather than as a source of self-esteem. Most 20th-century sources remain unavailable to the public on privacy grounds, funding of support for family history at archives is limited
Genealogists
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The family tree of
Ludwig Herzog von Württemberg (ruled 1568–1593)
Genealogists
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12 generations patrilineage of a Hindu Lingayat male from central
Karnataka worth over 275 years, depicted in descending order
Genealogists
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A Medieval genealogy traced from
Adam and Eve
Genealogists
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GRAMPS is an example of genealogy software.
30.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
Gregorian calendar
Gregorian calendar
Gregorian calendar
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First page of the papal bull
Inter gravissimas
Gregorian calendar
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Detail of the pope's tomb by
Camillo Rusconi (completed 1723); Antonio Lilio is genuflecting before the pope, presenting his printed calendar.
