1.
Indonesian Army
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The Indonesian Army, the land component of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, has an estimated strength of 300,000 active personnel. The history of the Indonesian Army has its roots in 1945 when the Tentara Keamanan Rakyat Civil Security Forces first emerged as a paramilitary and police corps. The Indonesia Army is composed of a headquarters,12 military area commands, a reserve command KOSTRAD, a special forces command Kopassus. In the week following the Japanese surrender of 1945, the Giyugun, most PETA and Heiho members did not yet know about the declaration of independence. Command structures and membership vital for an army were consequently dismantled. In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the Dutch, a thirty-year-old former school teacher, Sudirman, was elected commander-in-chief at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12 November 1945. At critical moments during the revolution, the managed to manifest itself as a peoples army, the army of the revolution. As the power of the newborn, in addition to arranging the TNI itself, at the time must also face various challenges. From within the country, the military face-undermining undermining both a political dimension as well as military dimensions, political undermining sourced from the communist groups who want to put the military under their influence through political officers, the Bureau of Struggle, and TNI community. Challenges from abroad, namely TNI twice face the Dutch military aggression that had a more advanced weaponry, thus, the integrity and existence of the Unitary Republic of Indonesia has been able to be maintained by military force with the people. In accordance with the decision of the Round Table Conference, at the end of 1949 formed the United States of Indonesia, correspondingly, also formed the Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia Serikat which is combined with the TNI and the former KNIL as its core. In August 1950 RIS was disbanded and returned to form unitary State, APRIS was renamed to Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia. The period is called the period of liberal democracy is characterized by various rebellions in the country. The army also need to confront the uprising in Makassar led by Andi Azis, meanwhile, DaruI Tslam in West Java widen its influence to South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi and Aceh. In 1958 the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia / Peoples Struggle started arebellion in large parts of Sumatra, all of the rebellion were crushed by the military along with the strength of other national components. On 17 November 1952, General Nasution is suspended as army chief of staff following army indiscipline over command, on 5 July 1959, Sukarno, with armed forces support, issued a decree dissolving the Constituent Assembly and reintroducing the Constitution of 1945 with strong presidential powers. He assumed the role of Prime Minister, which completes the structure of Guided Democracy. At the same time, the Indonesian government started sending their troops on UN peacekeeping mission, the first batch of soldiers were sent to Sinai, Egypt and were known as Garuda Contingent 1
2.
Indonesian Navy
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The Indonesian Navy was founded on 10 September 1945. The Indonesian Navy is the largest navy in South East Asia based on the number of active personnel, as of 2009, the Indonesian Navy had about 75,000 active personnel and more than 150 vessels in active service. The Indonesian Navy is one of a few navies in the region backed by a domestic defence industry, marine corps. All commissioned ships of the TNI-AL have the prefix KRI, standing for Kapal Republik Indonesia, the Indonesian Navys history began on 10 September 1945, at the outset of the Indonesian National Revolution. The administration of the early Indonesian government established the Peoples Marine Security Agency, as the revolution grew and the Navy began its work, naval bases were established throughout the archipelago. Former ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy handed down to the new republic were acqurired, besides, they also attempted to breach the Dutch naval blockade in order to obtain aid from abroad. The newly-formed navy confronted the more superior Royal Netherlands Navy in Bali, Sibolga, cross-sea operations are also able to prepare the armed forces in South Kalimantan, Bali and Sulawesi. Limitations in strength and ability to lead the Navy had to divert the struggle in the countryside, after most boats were sunk and nearly all bases battered by the Dutch, but the determination to participate again in the sea never subsided. In the hard times during the National Revolution the Navy succeeded in forming the Fleet Forces, Marine Corps, the formation of these elements mark the presence of aspects for the formation of a modern national navy. The end of the War of Independence marked the development of the Navy as a modern Navy and this step in the consolidation of the body along with the Navy, revamping the organization and recruitment of personnel through educational institutions before manning naval equipment. During 1949-1959 the Navy managed to enhance the strength and improve its capabilities, Navy combat equipment grew, both from the Dutch and from other various countries. At the time of the country started to recover from the threat of disintegration, in 1959, the Navy experienced a significant progress until 1965. This is motivated by the politics of confrontation in order to seize West Irian, with such power in the era of the 1960s the Navy was called the largest Navy in Southeast Asia. The Indonesian government claimed West Irian as part of Indonesia. The Dutch government however, the Indonesian Navy started preparing a couple of naval operations for the liberation of West Irian known as Operation Trikora. At the beginning of Trikora, fast-ship torpedo Navy ships have to deal with ships destroyers, frigates, on January 15,1962 Commodore Yos Sudarso along with RI Macan Tutul sank in the sea battle in the Arafura Sea. This battle is known as the Vlakke Hoek incident, at that time the Navy is preparing to organize Operation Jayawijaya which would be the largest amphibious operation in the history of Indonesian military operations if commenced. No less than 100 warships and 16,000 sailors and Marines prepared in the operation, the deployment of forces forced the Dutch to return to negotiations and reached an agreement to hand over West Irian to Indonesia. After seizing West Irian, Soekarno by 1963 moved his sights on Malaysia, Indonesia political confrontation against Neocolonialism and Imperialism continued in Operation Dwikora to oppose the formation of Malaysia
3.
Indonesian Air Force
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The Indonesian Air Force is the air force branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. The Indonesian Air Force has 37,850 personnel and equipped with 110 combat aircraft, the inventory includes SU-27 and SU-30 as the main fighters supplemented by F-16 Fighting Falcons. The Indonesian Air Force is also engaging in talks with Russia to purchase 8 Sukhoi SU-35 as a replacement for the already-aging US Northrop F-5 Tiger light fighters in its inventory. After World War II ended, Indonesia became the country in Southeast Asia to acquire an air force. After the Japanese announced their surrender at the end of WWII, several days later, Indonesian Peoples Security Force was formed to undertake security duties. The Air Division of this force was formed, using ex-Japanese planes scattered everywhere, especially in the island of Java. The most numerous of these aeroplanes were the Yokosuka K5Y1 Willow trainers, at the time of the founding, there was only one Indonesian holding a multi-engine pilot license from the pre-war Dutch Flying School, Agustinus Adisucipto. He was assisted by a few Japanese pilots who decided to stay in the newly born country, the new roundel was created simply by painting white on the lower part of the Japanese Hinomaru, reflecting the red and white of the Indonesian flag. The Peoples Security Force was then re-organized to form an armed force. This marked the birth of the Indonesian Air Force on 9 April 1946, however, tensions rose as the Dutch tried to re-claim their former colony and launched an assault on 21 July 1947, destroying most of the planes on the ground. Some planes survived though and were hidden in remote bases, tactically, these raids did not have any effect on the Dutch positions, but psychologically, it was a great success as it proved that the Indonesian Air Force still existed. The Dutch had previously claimed the destruction of Indonesian Air Force in their assault before, Dutch Curtiss P-40E Warhawks tried to find all the guerrillas planes, but they were too late to find those ghost aircraft which landed quickly in Maguwo Air Base, near Yogyakarta. Indonesian pro-independence guerrillas tried to save captured aircraft in a number of areas, including examples of the Mitsubishi A6M Zero-Sen Zeke, Aichi D3A Val. Under pressure from the United Nations, the Dutch finally agreed to acknowledge Indonesian independence, following the 1949 Round Table Conference, sovereignty was officially transferred to the United States of Indonesia. The Dutch armed forces left and the aeroplanes were handed over to the Indonesians, during this era, Indonesia received its first jet aircraft, De Havilland DH-115 Vampire. It was also during this era that the roundels were changed to the red. Several Indonesian pilots scored their first kills, including Captain Ignatius Dewanto with his North American P-51 Mustang and its pilot, Allen Pope, an American CIA agent, was captured and tried in Jakarta, thus revealing the significant involvement of the CIAs Operation Haik in the rebellion. The most famous Indonesian fighter pilot in this era was Rusmin Nurjadin, Nurjadin commanded MiG-21 squadrons in 1962–65 and founded an acrobatic team in 1962 that flew the MiG-17F/PF Fresco over some cities in Indonesia
4.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
5.
Commander-in-chief
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A commander-in-chief is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nations military forces or significant elements of those forces. In the latter case, the element is those forces within a particular region. Often, a given countrys commander-in-chief need not be or have been an officer or even a veteran. This follows the principle of civilian control of the military, the role of commander-in-chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium powers, in its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War, a nations head of state usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the forces within their territory. A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship. The term is used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch. According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces, the incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Bujar Nishani. The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces, the Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. The Constitution states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. e, the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69. The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister and he retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh. Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the command of the President of the Republic. The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces, the powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all related to national defence
6.
President of Indonesia
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The President of the Republic of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The President leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is the commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, on 20 October 2014, Joko Widodo became the 7th and current President of Indonesia. The Indonesian presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 Constitution by the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence, on 16 October 1945, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta announced a vice-presidential decree which turned the Central National Committee of Indonesia equal status with that of the president. On 11 November 1945, the KNIP made the decision to separate the role of Head of State with that of Head of Government, during the Indonesian National Revolution, both Sukarno and Hatta were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Sukarno then gave a mandate for Sjafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency Government and this was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as its Chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno on 13 July 1949, on 17 December 1949, Sukarno was elected president of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia and presidential mandate passed to Assaat. When it became clear that RIS was going to be replaced by a state, Asaat stepped down from the presidency. Indonesia now adopted the constitution that had been intended for RIS, officially known as the Provisional Constitution, the document confirmed the presidents role as the Head of State, but limited him to a mostly ceremonial role. He appointed a Prime Minister on the advice of formateurs, despite his limited constitutional role, Sukarno commanded great moral authority. Nonetheless, he was never content with the role of ceremonial Head of State, the rest of the decade saw a series of unstable governments. Taking advantage of the situation, Sukarno made a speech in April 1959, the People reacted enthusiastically and there was strong pressure on the Constituante, the body responsible for formulating a new constitution, to adopt the 1945 Constitution. When the Constituante did not budge, Sukarno issued a Presidential Decree on 5 July 1959 declaring that Indonesia was returning to the 1945 Constitution and that document made the president head of government as well as head of state. In 1963, Sukarno declared himself president for Life, although Indonesia had re-adopted the 1945 Constitution, it did not mean that it was strictly adhered to. The MPR, which at this stage was still on a basis, was subservient to the president despite its status of the Nations highest Governing Body. It was only in 1966, when the tide began to turn against Sukarno that the MPRS nominally regained its rightful constitutional status. All throughout his rise to power, General Suharto seemed determined to do things constitutionally, Suharto allowed the MPR to execute its constitutional duty of formulating the Broad Outlines of State Policy whilst he as the president would be responsible for implementing GBHN. Suharto also made it an obligation to deliver accountability speeches towards the end of his terms. During the speech, Suharto outlined the achievements that his administration had made, despite the constitutional and democratic façade, Suharto made sure that the MPR was also subservient to him
7.
Joko Widodo
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Joko Widodo is the seventh President of Indonesia, in office since 2014. Previously he was the Mayor of Surakarta from 2005 to 2012 and he is the first Indonesian president without a high-ranking political or military background. Jokowi was nominated by his party, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, Jokowi was elected as Governor of Jakarta on 20 September 2012 after a second round runoff election in which he defeated the incumbent governor Fauzi Bowo. Jokowis win was seen as reflecting popular voter support for new or clean leaders rather than the old style of politics in Indonesia. His nomination as PDI-P candidate for the 2014 presidential election was announced on 14 March 2014, the presidential election was held on 9 July 2014. After some controversy about the result of the election, Jokowi was named as president-elect on 22 July, Joko Widodo is of Javanese descent. Before changing his name, Jokowi was called Mulyono and his father came from Karanganyar, his grandparents came from a village in Boyolali. His education began in State Primary School 111, Tirtoyoso, known for being a school for the wealthy citizens. At the age of twelve, he started working in his fathers furniture workshop, the evictions he experienced three times in his childhood affected his way of thinking and his leadership later on as the mayor of Surakarta as he organised housing in the city. After primary school, he continued his studies in SMP Negeri 1 Surakarta and he had wanted to continue his education in SMA Negeri 1 Surakarta, but he failed the entrance exam and went to SMA Negeri 6 Surakarta instead. Joko Widodo graduated from Faculty of Forestry at Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta in 1985 to study, Jokowi began his tenure at a state-owned enterprise company called PT Kertas Kraft Aceh, but went home not long after due to his disinterest. He then began working for his grandfathers furniture factory, before establishing his own company called Rakabu, the companys fine product has its fame heard internationally, as they are also exported to the Western World. It was in France where his furniture product first start penertrating European market and this brought Widodo to a customer named Bernard, who gave him the nickname he is famous for, Jokowi. Ultimately he was inspired to become a politician so that he can transform his hometown, Surakarta, Jokowi ran for mayoral race in 2005 together with his running mate, F. X. Hadi Rudyatmo, winning 36. 62% of the vote against the incumbent Slamet Suryanto and 2 other candidates, when he first ran for the office of mayor of Surakarta, his background as a property and furniture businessman was questioned. He adopted the development framework of European cities into his own city of Surakarta, in 2007, Surakarta had also hosted the World Music Festival which was held at the complex of Fort Vastenburg. The FMD in 2008 was held in the Mangkunegaran Palace Complex, part of Jokowis personal style was his populist can-do elements designed to build bonds with the broad electorate. Following the electric company policy to pursue a more disciplined approach to collecting overdue bills, the city government quickly authorized payment but in settling the bill protested that it should consider the public interest before taking this type of action
8.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
9.
Retirement
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Retirement is the point where a person stops employment completely. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours, an increasing number of individuals are choosing to put off this point of total retirement, by selecting to exist in the emerging state of Pre-tirement. In most countries, the idea of retirement is of recent origin, being introduced during the late 19th, previously, low life expectancy and the absence of pension arrangements meant that most workers continued to work until death. Germany was the first country to introduce retirement, in 1889, nowadays, most developed countries have systems to provide pensions on retirement in old age, which may be sponsored by employers and/or the state. In many poorer countries, support for the old is still provided through the family. Today, retirement with a pension is considered a right of the worker in many societies, in many western countries this right is mentioned in national constitutions. Retirement, or the practice of leaving ones job or ceasing to work after reaching an age, has been around since around the 18th century. Prior to the 18th century, the life expectancy of people was between 26 and 40 years. Due to this, only a percentage of the population were reaching an age where physical impairments began to be obstacles to working. Retirement as a government policy began to be adopted by countries during the late 19th century, a person may retire at whatever age they please. However, a countrys tax laws and/or state old-age pension rules usually mean that in a country a certain age is thought of as the standard retirement age. The standard retirement age varies from country to country but it is generally between 50 and 70, in some countries this age is different for males and females, although this has recently been challenged in some countries, and in some countries the ages are being brought into line. The table below shows the variation in eligibility ages for public benefits in the United States and many European countries. Notes, Parentheses indicate eligibility age for women when different, 1–2, OECD Pensions at a Glance, Cols. 3–6, Tabulations from HRS, ELSA and SHARE, square brackets indicate early retirement for some public employees. * In France, the retirement age has been extended to 62 and 67 respectively, for those turning 65 in 2008, full benefits will be payable beginning at age 66. Public servants are not covered by Social Security but have their own pension programs. Military members of the US Armed Forces may elect to retire after 20 years of active duty and their retirement pay is calculated on total number of years on active duty, their final pay grade and the retirement system in place when they entered service
10.
Air chief marshal
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Air chief marshal is a four-star air officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force, where it is the most senior peacetime air force rank. Air chief marshal is an air officer rank and has a NATO ranking code of OF-9. An air chief marshal is equivalent to an admiral in the Royal Navy or a general in the British Army or the Royal Marines, in other forces, such as the United States Armed Forces and the Canadian Armed Forces, the equivalent four-star rank is general. The rank of air marshal is immediately senior to the rank of air marshal. Air chief marshals are sometimes considered to be air marshals. Prior to the adoption of RAF-specific rank titles in 1919, it was suggested that the RAF might use the Royal Navys officer ranks, for example, the rank that later became air chief marshal would have been air admiral. However, air marshal was preferred and was adopted on 1 August 1919. The rank was first used on 1 April 1922 with the promotion of Sir Hugh Trenchard, with Trenchards promotion to marshal of the RAF on 1 January 1927, no officer held the rank until Sir John Salmond was promoted on 1 January 1929. It has been used ever since. In the RAF, the rank of air marshal is held by the serving Chief of the Air Staff. Throughout the history of the RAF,139 RAF officers have held the rank and it has also awarded in an honorary capacity to senior members of the British Royal Family. Additionally, Lord Stirrup was granted a promotion to marshal of the Royal Air Force in 2014. The marshals are still to be found on the RAFs active list even though they have for all practical purposes retired, the rank insignia consists of three narrow light blue bands over a light blue band on a broad black band. This is worn on the sleeves of the service dress jacket or on the shoulders of the flying suit or working uniform. The command flag for an RAF air chief marshal is defined by the two red bands running through the centre of the flag. The vehicle star plate for an RAF air chief marshal depicts four stars on an air force blue background. The rank of air marshal is also used in the air forces of many countries which were under British influence around the time their air force was founded. This includes many the air forces of many Commonwealth countries and it is also instituted as a rank in the Ghana Air Force and Royal New Zealand Air Force as member of the Commonwealth of Nations, however not in practice
11.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
12.
Pindad
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PT Pindad is an Indonesian state-owned enterprise specialising in military and commercial products. PT Pindad provides the main weapon systems required to support independence in defence, furthermore, PT Pindad also produces several industrial products for other aspects such as transportation and commercial explosives. Its activities cover design, development, engineering and fabrication as well as maintenance and this was the beginning of PT. Pindad as the only defence manufacturing industry in Indonesia, besides a weapons workshop, Daendels also set up a large-caliber munitions workshop named Proyektiel Fabriek and a chemistry lab in Semarang. Later, the Dutch colonial government set up a workshop for the manufacturing and repair of munitions, on 1 January 1851, CW was renamed Artilerie Constructie Winkel. Then in 1961, the two weapons workshop in Surabaya, PW and ACW, united under ACW and this merger gave ACW three installations of production, infantry weapons and their tools, munitions and other items related to explosives, research laboratory materials, and manufactured goods. The First World War in 1914 involved many European countries, including the Netherlands, for the sake of strategic importance, the Dutch colonial government started to consider the relocation of important installations. Bandung was also near the capital of the Dutch East Indies, ACW was first moved to Bandung, in the period 1918–1920. The fourth installation joined under the name Artilerie Inrichtingen, during the era of Japanese occupation, AI did not change, whether it was the addition of installation or the production process. The only changes were in terms of changes in the administration and organisation of the according to Japanese military rule. Changes also occurred in naming of ACW to Daichi Ichi Kozo, Geweemarkerschool to Dai Ni Kozo, PF to Dai San Kozo, PW to Dai Shi Kozo, and Monrage Artilerie to Dai Go Kazo. After the time Japan surrendered to the Allies and a vacuum was eminent in Indonesia. Various attempts to seize occurred defence installations in the city, in the end, during 9 October 1945, the Pejuang Pemuda reclaimed the ACW from the Japanese and named it the Pabrik Senjata Kiaracondong. Youth occupation did not last long, because the Allies arrived Indonesia, Pabrik Senjata Kiaracondong was divided into two factories. The first plant consisted of ACW, PF, and PW merged into Leger Produktie Bedrijven, the second named Central Reparatie Werkplaats, along with it, the Dutch had to gradually surrender its assets to the government of Indonesia under President Sukarno, including LPB. LPB was later renamed Pabrik Senjata dan Munisi which was managed by the Indonesian Army, and then centralisation of organisation was made to streamline production lines from 13 to 6 lines, with a new line for Munisi Kaliber Kecil newly formed. PSM also modernised the factory with the purchase of new machinery for the manufacture of arms, ammunition, spare parts, materials, tools, after eight years running, PSM was renamed to the Army Equipment Factory on 1 December 1958. Pabal AD did not just reproduce weapons and munitions, but also other military equipment, many potential youth were sent abroad to study ballistic weapons
13.
National Institute of Aeronautics and Space
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National Institute of Aeronautics and Space is the Indonesian government space agency. It was established on November 27,1963, by former Indonesian president Sukarno after one years existence of a space agency organization. LAPAN is responsible for civilian and military aerospace research. It has also developed sounding rockets and has been developing small orbital space launchers that will allow Indonesia to join the space powers club in 2012–2014, the LAPAN A1 in 2007 and LAPAN A2 satellites were launched by India in 2015. On May 31,1962, Indonesia commenced aeronautics exploration when the Aeronautics Committee was established by the Indonesian prime minister, Juanda, the secretary of Indonesian Aeronautics, RJ Salatun, was also involved in the establishment. On September 22,1962, the Initial Scientific and Military Rocket Project was formed as an affiliation of AURI, the outcome of the project was the launching of two Kartika series rockets and their telemetric ordnances. After two informal projects, which had no contribution, the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space was established in 1963 by Presidential Decree 236. For more than 20 years, LAPAN has done research on rocket, remote sensing, satellites, the first program was the Palapa A1 and A2. The satellites were almost identical to Canadas Anik and Western Unions Westars, although the satellites belonged to the government-owned company Perumtel, the spacecraft were made in the United States. The development of microsatellites has become an opportunity for LAPAN in developing its space program, the development of such satellites requires only limited budget and facilities, compared to the development of big satellites. Lapan-A1 or Lapan-Tubsat is designed to transfer of knowledge, skill and experience on micro-satellite technology development from Technische Universität Berlin, the spacecraft is based the German DLR-Tubsat, but includes a new star sensor and features a new 45 ×45 ×27 cm structure. The satellite payload is a COTS video camera with 1000 mm lens, resulting in nadir resolution of 5 m, in addition to that the satellite carries another video camera with 50 mm lens, resulting in 200 m resolution video image with swath of 80 km at nadir. The uplink and downlink for telemetry, tracking and command is done in UHF, the satellite was successfully launched to SSO of 635 km as auxiliary payload in Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle C7 from Sriharikota, India on January 10,2007. LAPAN Tubsat performed technological experiments, earth observation and attitude control experiments, the satellite will be launched as a secondary payload of Indias ASTROSAT mission into a circular orbit of 650 km with an inclination of 8 degrees. The purpose of the project is to develop capability to design, assembly, integration, the satellite was successfully launched on 28 September 2015 using Indias ISRO Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle and will monitor Indonesia every 97 minutes or 14 times a day. LAPAN-A3 or LAPAN-IPB will perform remote sensing mission. In addition to that, the satellite will support global AIS mission, the satellite payload is a four-band push broom multi-spectral imaging camera, which will give resolution of 18 m and coverage of 120 km from 650 km altitude. The satellite has been launched in June 2016, in 2008 Indonesia signed an agreement with the Ukrainian National Space Agency that will allow access to rocket and satellite technologies
14.
Indonesian Aerospace
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Indonesian Aerospace is an Indonesian aerospace company involved in aircraft design and the development and manufacture of civilian and military regional commuter aircraft. The company was known as Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara. It was expanded from a research and industrial facility under the auspices of the Indonesian Air Force, Wiweko Soepono, Nurtanio Pringgoadisurjo, and J. Sumarsono, opened a simple workshop at Magetan, near Madiun. With basic materials, gliders were designed and built – Zogling, in 1948, a motorised aircraft, WEL-X was built by Wiweko Soepono using a Harley Davidson engine. The small craft was registered as RI-X and this era marked the rise of several aeromodelling clubs. The war for independence, however, halted all progress until 1953, in that year, The Experimental Section was organised. Consisting of only 15 personnel, led by Nurtanio Pringgoadisurjo, The team built, on 24 April 1957, The Experimental Section graduated into The Inspection, Trial, and Production Sub-Depot based on Decision Letter of Indonesian Air Force Chief of Staff number 68. In 1958, a training aircraft prototype named Belalang 89. The design was produced as Belalang 90. Five Belalang 90 were built and used for military training, within the same year, a sport plane, Kunang 25, was also built and flown. On 1 August 1960, by the order of Indonesian Air Force Chief of Staff, by 16 December 1961, the new body, known as LAPIP, was actively negotiating for technological transfers and contracts. LAPIP was able to secure a joint licensing and production contract with Poland, within the same year, Indonesia was producing PZL-104 Wilga or locally named Gelatik. 44 were produced for agriculture, transport, and aero club purposes, in 1965, Aircraft Industry Project Implementation Command and Independent Aircraft Industry National Company were formed to expand and formulate specific uses of the young aviation industry. Within the same timeline, Aviation Studies were promoted in the top universities. One of the first schools was founded within the department of the engineering faculty of Institut Teknologi Bandung ITB by Oetarjo Diran. In September 1974, Pertaminas Advanced Technology Division signed a contract with MBB and CASA for producing Bölkow Bo 105. On 26 April 1976, mandated by Government Act No, Industri Pesawat Terbang Nurtanio was officially established with Dr. BJ. The infrastructure was completed and inaugurated on 23 August 1976 by President Suharto, the new body was a merge between Nurtanio Aviation Industry Body and Pertaminas Advanced Technology Division
15.
North Sea Boats
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North Sea Boats is an international boat building company specialized in building craft for military, law enforcement, SAR, commercial, and high performance applications. The company has presence in Sweden, Singapore and Indonesia, with its headquarters located at Banyuwangi East Java Indonesia, North Sea Boats was founded in 2003 by John and Lizza Lundin as a trading name for PT. John Lundin grew up with boats, as his father Allan Lundin founded the Swedeship company which operated shipyards including Gotland shipyard, after the Swedish shipyard crisis the Swedeship company was the largest privately owned boat building company in Sweden. It was through Swedeship that John first came to Indonesia in the mid 90s to investigate the companys expansion opportunities, Allan Lundin died from cancer in 1996, and Swedeship was sold. However the family dream of a shipyard in Indonesia still remained, so John, after some years of small-scale furniture manufacturing to gain experience of the business culture there, they founding the boat building company North Sea Boats in 2003. The boats are constructed using modern production techniques such as dual surface vacuum core resin infusion. All materials used are LLoyds / DNV Class Approved, and include carbon fibre and E Glass multi-axial non-woven stitched re-inforcings. The various models incorporate open architecture deck plans that can be configured to perform tasks in a broad range of operational environments. They can be powered by diesel engines, outboard motors or by transom drives. A63 meter long carbon composite stealth trimaran missile ship, the Indonesian Navy ordered the first of four for delivery starting in 2012. A replacement 63 m Trimaran is now under construction in Banyuwangi, in the interim period, advances in infusable vinylester resin chemistry have seen the incorporation of nano particles into the resin. These particles aid the transfer of the resin through the carbon/glass fibre matrix and this makes the carbon fibre composite structure of the new vessel self-extinguishing. Saab and PT Lundin revealed a mockup of a trimaran Unmanned Surface Vessel at Indo Defence 2014 and it was formally unveiled by Indonesia’s defence minister General Ryamizard Ryacudu and Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Marsetio in a joint ribbon-cutting ceremony on the first day of the show. Development of the Bonefish demonstrator began at the start of 2014, the mockup was built in approximately six months at PT Lundin’s composite boat production facility in Banyuwangi, East Java. Capable of speeds of up to 40kts, Bonefish is designed to incorporate a range of sensors, satellite-based control. Potential missions could include anti-piracy, maritime surveillance, anti-submarine warfare, mine countermeasures, search and rescue, and hydrography. The 10.3 X2K Range and the 11.3 m X2K RHIB Range of models incorporate a double stepped hull design that is based on a race boat design from Sweden. It is a performance model capable of speeds in excess of 50 knots
16.
Military history of Indonesia
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The archaeological findings dated from prehistoric era has discovered numbers of stone and metal tools, such as axes, arrows and spearheads. These are mostly used for hunting, and might also be used in tribal warfare, some of this bronze tools such as elaborate axe might had ceremonial purpose instead. Indonesian tribes also familiar with natively-developed edged weapons, such as parang, klewang, mandau, badik, pedang, kujang, golok, the martial activity in Indonesia started as tribal warfare among Indonesian tribes. Indonesian tribes such as Dayak, Nias and Batak are known to practice the headhunting rituals, the tribal warfare among villages still happen today among Papuan tribes of Indonesian West Papua and Papua provinces. It is important to understand, that due to its geographical conditions, plus some tribes has been fiercely protecting their land and retain their tribal way of life for centuries, by chasing away intruders. As the result, the developments and experiences are not evenly distributes among various parts of Indonesia, the ancient kingdoms of Indonesia developed a martial art which was used both in warfare and for self-defense. It is today known as pencak silat. The standing military unit started to form when Indonesians entering the kingdom phase c. 4th century, after adopting Hindu-Buddhist style of civic institution and social system. The formation of ancient Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms saw the establishment of Hindu-caste Kshatriya class, the category which includes warriors, soldiers, generals, warlords. Major Indonesian empires such as Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as the regional powerhouse, as they launched naval raids. The bas-relief also depicting wooden double outtriggered ships, which testified that during this period, the earliest written historical records of martial activities, was the 7th century Srivijayan conquest, launched by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. The Kedukan Bukit inscription mentioned about Dapunta Hyangs siddhayatra expedition that brought 20,000 troops,312 people in boats and this is the earliest record of military activity in Indonesian history. Also from 7th century Srivijaya, the Telaga Batu inscription mentions titles related to military unit, such as senāpati, cātabhata, puhāvam and this shows that a specialized military ranks and titles, also profession related to military activity, has been established in Srivijayan court institution. Followed by Kota Kapur inscription, which mentions about Srivijayan naval military expedition against Bhumi Java, in the 7th century, the Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu, launched various naval raids against the Cham ports of Indochina. The city of Indrapura by the Mekong River was temporarily controlled from Palembang in the early 8th century, by 7th to 9th century Srivijaya held an alliance to the Sailendras of Central Java as the member of two royal houses intermarried. In the late 10th century, the rivalry between Sumatran Srivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdom has become more intense and hostile, in the year 990, king Dharmawangsa launched a naval invasion against Srivijaya, and unsuccessfully attempted to capture Palembang. Dharmawangsas invasion led the Maharaja of Srivijaya, Chulamaniwarmadewa to seek protection from China, in 1006, Srivijaya successfully repelling the Javanese invasion, and in retaliation, Srivijaya assisted Haji Wurawari of Lwaram to revolt, attacking and destroying the Medang palace. With the death of Dharmawangsa and the fall of the Medang capital, in 1025 Rajendra Chola, the Chola king from Coromandel in South India, launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and conquered Kadaram from Srivijaya
17.
History of United Nations peacekeeping
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The United Nations Peacekeeping began in 1948. Its first mission was in the Middle East to observe and maintain the ceasefire during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, since then, United Nations peacekeepers have taken part in a total of 63 missions around the globe,17 of which continue today. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988, though the term peacekeeping is not found in the United Nations Charter, the authorization is generally considered to lie in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7. The League of Nations-controlled International Force in the Saar may be the first true example of an international peace observation force, before any official peacekeeping mission, the UN played an important role in the conflict concerning Trieste after World War II. From 1947 to 1954, Trieste was declared an independent city state under the protection of the United Nations as the Free Territory of Trieste, the territory was divided into two zones, which later formed the basis for the division of the territory between Italy and Yugoslavia. The UN also authorized two nations to station troops in the Free Territory, the US and the UK in the northern zone, the first UN peacekeeping mission was a team of observers deployed to the Middle East in 1948, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The mission was authorized on May 29,1948. This date is used as a day to all the UN peacekeepers who have lost their lives known as the International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers. The group, the UN Truce Supervision Organization, as it was named, in 1949, observers were deployed to the border of India and Pakistan in a similar mission after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. They also continue to monitor the border, in 1950, the UN faced one of its greatest early challenges when North Korea invaded South Korea, starting the Korean War. The Soviet Union was, at the time, boycotting the UN in protest over the Chinese seat being occupied by the Republic of China rather than the Peoples Republic of China. It was therefore unable to veto the authorization of member states to assist in the defense of South Korea. The United Nations forces pushed the North Koreans out of the South, although a cease-fire was declared in 1953, UN forces remained along the demilitarized zone until 1967, when American and South Korean forces took over. In 1956, the UN responded to the Suez Crisis with the United Nations Emergency Force to supervise the withdrawal of invading forces, pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his work in establishing UN peacekeeping operations. UNEF was the first official armed peacekeeping operation modeled on Pearsons ideas, since 1956, most UN peacekeeping forces, including those called observer missions, have been armed. While some conflicts were separate enough from the Cold War to achieve support for peacekeeping missions. The UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, begun in 1964, attempted to end the conflict between the ethnic Greeks and Turks on the island and prevent wider conflict between NATO members Turkey and Greece, neither of these disputes were seen to have Cold War or ideological implications. There was one exception to the rule, in the Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic, 1965–1966, the UN authorized an observer mission in a country where ideological factions were facing off
18.
Indonesian National Revolution
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It took place between Indonesias declaration of independence in 1945 and the Dutch recognition of Indonesias independence at the end of 1949. The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the Year of National Awakening, the struggle lasted for over four years and involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces were able to control the towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra. In 1949 international pressure on the Netherlands became such that, together with the existing partial military stalemate, the revolution marked the end of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for Netherlands New Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic castes, as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers and it did not significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the majority of the population, although a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule, others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, the occupation of Indonesia by Japan for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, in Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra, the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, on 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese, under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee elected Sukarno as President, PROCLAMATION We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia. Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means, as the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted, it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia, the resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender, created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many pemuda joined pro-Republic struggle groups, the most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun and Heiho groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit, in the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations. To spread the message, pemuda set up their own radio stations and newspapers. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up, Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment, some wanted passionate armed struggle, others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a struggle to be led
19.
Darul Islam (Indonesia)
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Darul Islam or also well known as DI/TII and NII is an Islamist group in Indonesia that aims for the establishment of an Islamic state of Indonesia. It was started in 1942 by a group of Muslim militias, coordinated by a charismatic radical Muslim politician, the group recognised only Sharia as a valid source of law. The movement has produced splinters and offshoots that range from Jemaah Islamiyah to non-violent religious groups, during the Indonesian National Revolution, Kartosoewirjo founded his own band of fighters in West Java, called Hizbullah and Sabilillah. As a protest toward the Renville Agreement signed by Indonesian leaders in 1948, Darul Islam did not disband itself after the transfer of sovereignty in 1949, resulting in a clash with the government of the Indonesian Republic. Rebels in South Sulawesi led by army deserter Abdul Kahar Muzakkar joined the Darul Islam Movement in 1951, on 20 September 1953, Daud Beureueh declared that Aceh was part of the Islamic State of Indonesia under the leadership of Kartosoewirjo. The movement flourished in the 1950s due to instability within the central government during the Liberal Democracy Era. In 1957, it was estimated that the Darul Islam controlled one-third of West Java and more than 90% of South Sulawesi and Aceh provinces where the government only controlled the cities, the movement had 15,000 armed guerillas operating under the banner of Tentara Islam Indonesia. In that year, Darul Islam agents unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Sukarno by throwing grenades at him during a function in Cikini. Implementation of martial law in 1957, followed by declaration of Guided Democracy by Sukarno in 1959, smaller Darul Islam bands operating in Central Java under Amir Fatah was crushed by Colonel Ahmad Yanis Banteng Raiders in 1954–1957. Darul Islam forces in South Kalimantan under Ibnu Hadjar were forced to surrender in 1959, Amir Fatah was killed in 1954, while Ibnu Hadjar was eventually executed in 1962. Three years of negotiations led to an agreement that ended the conflict in Aceh. Introduction of effective fence-of-legs method of encircling rebel mountain hideouts in 1959 succeeded in breaking the strong grip over West Javas rural areas. On June 1962, Kartosoewirjo was captured on his hideout of Mount Geber near Garut, in captivity, Kartosoewirjo issued order for all his followers to surrender, after which he was quickly tried and executed. The last Darul Islam band in West Java surrendered on August 1962, successive military operations also crushed the Darul Islam in South Sulawesi. On February 1965, its leader Kahar Muzakkar was killed in an ambush in the interior of Southeast Sulawesi province. However, despite the group being dismantled, underground networks have persisted, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were occurrences of Islamic terrorism attributed to a group known as Komando Jihad. The leaders arrested from this group were found to be Darul Islam veterans, mujahedeen KOMPAK Dijk, C. van Rebellion under the banner of Islam, the Darul Islam in Indonesia The Hague, M. Nijhoff,1981. ISBN 90-247-6172-7 Ahmad Sudirman page
20.
Republic of South Maluku
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The Republic of South Maluku, also known as the Republic of the South Moluccas, was a self-proclaimed republic in the Maluku Islands founded on 25 April 1950. The main islands were Seram, Ambon, and Buru, after the defeat of the RMS on Ambon by Indonesian forces in November 1950, the self-declared RMS government withdrew to Seram, where armed struggle continued on Seram until December 1963. A government in exile was formed in the Netherlands in 1966 after resistance leader Dr. Chris Soumokil was captured by Indonesian forces on Seram, the government-in-exile continues to exist, with John Wattilete, a 55-year-old lawyer, inaugurated as head of state in April 2010. The Indonesian archipelago consists of over 15,000 islands, Dutch conquest exerted colonial control across the archipelago in the 19th century establishing a unitary administration. The borders of present-day Indonesia were formed through colonial expansion finalised in the 20th century, after the occupation by the Japanese Empire during World War II ended in 1945, nationalist leaders on Java unilaterally declared Indonesian independence. Not all regions and peoples of present-day Indonesia immediately subscribed to the proclaimed Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia, early organised indigenous resistance came from the South Moluccas with support and aid from the Dutch Government and Military. The South Moluccan rebels initially clung on to an early post-colonial treaty prescribing a federal form of statehood, the South Moluccan leaders based their decision on the treaty, which stipulated autonomy for each of the states of the federation. The Maluku Islands were the place in the world that grew the prized spices of clove and nutmeg. At one point, cloves were worth their weight in gold and Portuguese, Spanish, British, eventually, the traders of the Dutch East Indies Company emerged as the dominant merchant power in Maluku. Through an effective combination of force and diplomacy, the VOC achieved a structure of rule in northern Maluku. Throughout much of the VOC era, the south Malukans resisted Dutch dominance, the Banda Islands were only subdued after the indigenous power structure and organisation of trade and politics was destroyed with the extermination and forced evacuation of the Bandanese population. To repress the autonomous traders of East Seram, the VOC organised ‘Hongi’ raiding expeditions, to carry out these punitive expeditions, the Dutch allied with warrior bands from other south Maluku islands. During ‘Hongi’ raids, houses and vessels were burnt, cash crops were uprooted, survivors who escaped had to start from scratch and, during two centuries of resistance, the East Seramese increasingly suffered impoverishment. However, their independent trading network was never completely destroyed, from 1780 to 1802, the people of Seram joined an alliance of North Moluccan, Papuan and British forces in a combined revolt. Resistance leader prince Nuku established himself on Seram and aimed at uniting the North and South Moluccas under his leadership and his raiders targeted South Moluccan islands under the Dutch sphere of influence. When the British left the arena in 1802 his plans were foiled, during the Dutch colonisation of the Indonesian archipelago in the 19th century, following the collapse of the VOC, rebellions arose. In a famous revolt on the south Maluku island Saparua, the Dutch fort was taken by the rebel leader Pattimura, after reinforcements were sent from the colonial capital, the insurgents were captured and Pattimura was executed in 1817. Maluku was part of the Dutch East Indies, a colony of the Netherlands, Indonesian republicans included south Maluku as part of the independent Indonesia they declared in 1945
21.
Permesta
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Permesta was a rebel movement in Indonesia, its name based on Piagam Perjuangan Semesta. It was declared by civil and military leaders in East Indonesia on 2 March 1957, the center of the movement was in Manado, and the movement was led by Colonel Ventje Sumual. Alexander Evert Kawilarang resigned his position as Indonesian military attache in the USA to become a general in the Permesta army, on 17 February 1958 the Permesta rebels joined forces with the PRRI rebels based in Sumatra who had declared a revolutionary government two days earlier. Following successful Central Government attacks on the PRRI based in Sumatra, Central Government forces were able to capture the Permesta capital of Manado at the conclusion of June 1958. However, the Permesta rebels continued their resistance, fighting a campaign against central government troops until the last remnants surrendered and were given an amnesty in 1961. The PRRI rebellion in the west and Permesta rebellion in the east arose for a combination of reasons, also there was some animosity towards the Javanese ethnic group, who were the most numerous and influential in the newly created unitary state of Indonesia. In effect this conflict was less about any thoughts of secession from the Indonesian state, during 1957 the United States became increasingly concerned that Indonesia was becoming vulnerable to Communism due to the rising influence of the Indonesian Communist Party. In January 1958 the CIA began developing covert support networks to the PRRI, emboldened by CIA aid, the rebels began a series of airstrikes against cities in Sulawesi and Maluku held by central government. The cities bombed by CIA-piloted insurgent planes included Balikpapan, Makassar, on 15 May 1958, insurgent planes bombed the marketplace of Ambon, killing large numbers of civilians attending Ascension Sunday services. Responding to rebel and insurgent attacks, President Sukarno ordered the Indonesian military to crush the PRRI-Permesta rebellion, a series of air raids by the Indonesian Air Force on Manado destroyed most of the rebel B-26 planes. Meanwhile, a rebel B-26 bomber was shot down on 18 May 1958 by Indonesian pilot Ignatius Dewanto over Ambon, the B-26 pilot, the American CIA agent Allen Pope, was captured alive, exposing the CIAs deep involvement in the rebellion. Consequently, the CIA began to withdraw its support of the rebellion, Pope was eventually tried, convicted and sentenced to death in Jakarta, before being released at a later date. After annihilating the insurgent air force AUREV, central government troops launched an amphibious, Indonesian troops quickly expelled the rebels from Manado, after which they maintained guerrilla resistance around the Lake Tondano area. However, the government started a successful campaign offering amnesties to induce surrenders. Rebels who had familial and amicable relationships with many of the central government soldiers began to surrender. The last Permesta rebels surrendered and swore an oath of loyalty to the government in 1961. Feet to the Fire CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958, Kahin, Audrey R, Kahin, George McT. Subversion as Foreign Policy The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia, seattle and London, University of Washington Press
22.
History of Western New Guinea
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The History of West Papua, as a region and not a province, refers to the history of the Indonesian western half of the island of New Guinea and other smaller islands to its west. The eastern half of the island is Papua New Guinea, human habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. Trade between New Guinea and neighboring Indonesian islands was documented as early as the century. The Netherlands made claim to the region and commenced work in nineteenth century. The region was incorporated into the Indonesian republic in the 1960s, following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, Special Autonomy status was granted to the region, although to date, the region was divided into the provinces of Papua and West Papua in 2003. Papuan habitation of the region is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago, austronesian peoples migrating through Maritime Southeast Asia settled several thousand years ago. These groups have developed diverse cultures and languages in situ, there are over 300 languages, the rule of the Java-based empire of Majapahit extended to the western fringes of New Guinea. Wanin or Onin was probably the oldest name in recorded history to refer to the part of the island of New Guinea. He took possession of the land for the Spanish Crown, in the giving the island the name by which it is known today. He called it Nueva Guinea owing to the resemblance of the inhabitants to the peoples of the Guinea coast in West Africa. In 1660, the Dutch recognised the Sultan of Tidores sovereignty over New Guinea, New Guinea thus became notionally Dutch as the Dutch held power over Tidore. In 1828 the Dutch established a settlement in Lobo which also failed, almost 30 years later, Germans established the first missionary settlement on an island near Manokwari. Great Britain and Germany had recognised the Dutch claims in treaties of 1885 and 1895, at much the same time, Britain claimed south-east New Guinea, later known as the Territory of Papua, and Germany claimed the northeast, later known as the Territory of New Guinea. This effort also failed as most returned to Java disillusioned, the Dutch established the Boven Digul camp in Tanahmerah, in Dutch New Guinea, as a prison for Indonesian nationalists. The region became important in the War in the Pacific upon the Netherlands declaration of war on Japan after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, in 1942, the northern coast of West New Guinea and the nearby islands were occupied by Japan. In 1944, forces led by American general Douglas MacArthur launched a campaign from neighbouring Papua New Guinea to liberate Dutch New Guinea from the Japanese. Phase 1 was the capture of Hollandia, involving 80,000 Allied troops it was the largest amphibious operation of the war in the southwest Pacific
23.
Operation Trikora
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Operation Trikora was an combined Indonesian military operation which aimed to seize and annex the Dutch overseas territory of Netherlands New Guinea in 1961 and 1962. After negotiations, the Netherlands agreed on 15 August 1962 to hand over Western New Guinea to the United Nations, after its independence until 1961, Indonesia attempted to gain control of Western New Guinea through the United Nations without success. Since the Indonesian National Revolution, Indonesian nationalists had always regarded Western New Guinea as an part of the Indonesian state. They also contended that Western New Guinea belonged to Indonesia and was being occupied by the Dutch. Since 1954, Indonesia had been launching military raids into Western New Guinea, following the failure of negotiations at the United Nations, Sukarno escalated pressure on the Netherlands by nationalizing Dutch-owned businesses and estates, and repatriating Dutch nationals. These tensions between Indonesia and the Netherlands led to a reduction in trade between the two countries. Following a sustained period of harassment against Dutch diplomats in Indonesia, Indonesia formally severed ties with the Netherlands in August 1960, Indonesia also increased its military pressure on the Dutch New Guinea by purchasing weapons from the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. Over the following years, the Sukarno government would become dependent on Soviet military support, on 19 December 1961, Indonesias President Sukarno decreed the establishment of the Peoples Triple Command or Tri Komando Rakyat in order to annex West Irian by 1 January 1963. Trikoras operational command was to be called the Mandala Command for the Liberation of West Irian with Major-General Suharto, in preparation for the planned invasion, the Mandala command began making land, air, and sea incursions into West Irian. As a result, Indonesia embarked on a policy of confrontation against the Dutch over control of Western New Guinea, Sukarno also embarked on a policy of progressive mobilization to prepare the nation to carry out his commands. The Dutch were unable to find sufficient international support for its New Guinea policy, by contrast, Sukarno was able to muster the support of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies, and the Non-Aligned Movement. In response to Indonesian claims, the Dutch were forced to speed up the process of preparing the West Papuans for self-rule from 1959, Operation Trikora was to unfold in three phases, infiltration, exploitation and consolidation, all under cover of the Indonesian Air Force. The consolidation phase would then expand Indonesian control over the whole of Western New Guinea, the force was detected by a Dutch Lockheed P2V-7B Neptune and the Indonesian boats were intercepted by three Dutch destroyers. During the subsequent Vlakke Hoek Incident, one Indonesian boat was sunk, thus, this planned Indonesian amphibious landing ended disastrously with many crew members and marines being killed, among them Commodore Yos Sudarso, the Deputy Chief of the Indonesian Navy Staff. Over the next eight months, the Indonesian forces managed to insert 562 troops by sea and 1154 by air drops, the inserted Indonesian troops conducted guerrilla operations throughout Western New Guinea from April 1962 onwards, but they were largely militarily ineffective. Over 94 Indonesian soldiers were killed and 73 were wounded during the hostilities, by contrast, the Dutch suffered minimal casualties. Indonesian military activity continued to increase in the area through mid-1962 in preparation for the phase of the operation. By the summer of 1962, the Indonesian military had begun planning an amphibious and air assault against Biak
24.
Indonesian invasion of East Timor
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The Indonesian invasion of East Timor, known in Indonesia as Operation Lotus began on 7 December 1975, when the Indonesian military invaded East Timor under the pretext of anti-colonialism. East Timor owes its territorial distinctiveness from the rest of Timor, following the war, the Dutch East Indies secured its independence as the independent Republic of Indonesia and the Portuguese, meanwhile, re-established control over East Timor. When East Timor was invaded by Indonesia in December 1975, it had few links to the rest of the archipelago. As a former Portuguese colony, it lacked a shared experience with other regions. According to the pre-1974 Constitution of Portugal, East Timor, known then as Portuguese Timor, was an overseas province. Unlike the African colonies, East Timor did not experience a war of national liberation, however, indigenous political parties rapidly sprang up in Timor, The Timorese Democratic Union was the first political association to be announced after the Carnation Revolution. UDT was originally composed of senior leaders and plantation owners. These leaders had conservative origins and showed allegiance to Portugal, meanwhile, Fretilin was composed of administrators, teachers, and other newly recruited members of the urban elites. Fretilin quickly became more popular than UDT due to a variety of programs it introduced to the populace. However, UDT and Fretilin entered into a coalition by January 1975 with the goal of self-determination. This coalition came to represent almost all of the educated sector, APODETI, a third minor party, also sprang up, and its goal was integration with Indonesia. However, the party had little popular appeal, by April 1975, internal conflicts split the UDT leadership, with Lopes da Cruz leading a faction that wanted to abandon Fretilin. Lopes da Cruz was concerned that the wing of Fretilin would turn East Timor into a communist front. However, Fretilin called this accusation an Indonesian conspiracy, as the wing did not have a power base. On 11 August, Fretilin received a letter from UDT leaders terminating the coalition, UDT leaders arrested more than 80 Fretilin members, including future leader Xanana Gusmão. UDT members killed a dozen Fretilin members in four locations, the victims included a founding member of Fretilin, and a brother of its vice-president, Nicolau Lobato. Fretilin responded by appealing successfully to the Portuguese-trained East Timorese military units, uDTs violent takeover thus provoked the three-week long civil war, in pitting its 1,500 troops against the 2,000 regular forces now led by Fretilin commanders. When the Portuguese-trained East Timorese military switched allegiance to Fretilin, it came to be known as Falintil, by the end of August, the UDT remnants were retreating toward the Indonesian border
25.
Insurgency in Aceh
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The insurgency in Aceh was a conflict fought by the Free Aceh Movement between 1976 and 2005, with the goal of making the province of Aceh independent from Indonesia. The Indonesian state had designated it as the Aceh Disturbance, effects of strong military offensive in 2003 and 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake brought a peace deal and an end to the insurgency. There is something of a cultural and religious difference between Aceh and much of the rest of Indonesia, a more conservative form of Islam than is mainstream in most of Indonesia is widely practised in Aceh. The broadly secular policies of Suhartos New Order regime were especially unpopular in Aceh where many resented the governments policy of promoting a unified Indonesian culture. The centralist tendencies of the government of Suharto, along with other grievances, led Hasan di Tiro to form the Free Aceh Movement on 4 December 1976 and declare Acehnese independence. The main perceived threats were to Acehnese religion and culture from the neo-colonial government, the perceived unfair distribution of income from Acehs substantial natural resources was another point of contention. GAMs first operation in 1977 was carried out against Mobil Oil Indonesia which was the shareholder of PT Arun, at this stage, the numbers mobilised by GAM were extremely limited. While there had been considerable Acehnese disaffection and possibly sympathy for GAMs cause, many of GAMs leaders were young and highly educated professionals who were members of the upper and middle classes of Acehnese society. GAMs first cabinet, set up by di Tiro during his time in Aceh between 1976 and 1979, composed of the following Darul Islam rebellion. Many of them were men who remained loyal to former Aceh military governor. The most prominent person of group was Tengke Ilyas Leube. Some of the Darul Islam men were possibility linked to di Tiro through family or regional ties and these men provided the military know-how, local knowledge and logistical skills which the young educated leaders lacked. By the end of 1979, Indonesian suppression actions had all but crushed GAM—its leaders were either in exile, imprisoned, or killed, its followers were dispersed and pushed underground. Leaders such as di Tiro, Zaini Abdullah, Malik Mahmud, and Dr. Husaini M. Hasan had fled overseas and the original GAM cabinet ceased to function. In 1985, di Tiro secured Libyan support for GAM—taking advantage of Muammar Gaddafis policy of supporting nationalist rebellions through his Mathaba Against Imperialism, Racism, Zionism and Fascism. It was not clear if Libya had subsequently funded GAM but what it provided was a sanctuary in which GAM recruits could receive much-needed military training. Accounts differ on the number of trained by Libya during the period of 1986 to 1989 or 1990. GAM recruiters claimed that there were around 1,000 to 2,000 while press reports drawing from Indonesian militarys report claimed that they numbered 600 to 800, among the GAM leaders who joined during this phase were Sofyan Dawood and Ishak Daud
26.
Free Papua Movement
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The movement is outlawed in Indonesia, and agitating for independence for the provinces has incurred charges of treason. Since its inception the OPM has attempted diplomatic dialogue, conducted Morning Star flag-raising ceremonies, during World War II, Netherlands East Indies was guided by Sukarno to supply oil for the Japanese war effort and subsequently declared independence as the Republic of Indonesia on 17 August 1945. The pre-war relationship of the Netherlands and Netherlands New Guinea was replaced with the promotion of Papuan civil, the OPM was founded in December 1963, with the announcement that We do not want modern life. We refuse any kinds of development, religious groups, aid agencies, Netherlands New Guinea held elections in January 1961 and a New Guinea Council was inaugurated in April 1961. However, in Washington, D. C. S President John F. Kennedy to get the administration of West New Guinea transferred to Indonesia, separatist groups raise the West Papua Morning Star flag each year on 1 December, which they call Papuan independence day. An Indonesian police officer speculated that people doing this could be charged with the crime of treason, Indonesian Brigadier General Sarwo Edhie oversaw the design and conduct of the Act of Free Choice which took place from 14 July to 2 August 1969. One thousand and twenty five Papuan elders were selected from and instructed on the procedure as specified by the article 1962 New York Agreement. The result was a consensus for integration into Indonesia, in response, Oom Nicolas Jouwe and two OPM commanders, Seth Jafeth Roemkorem and Jacob Hendrik Prai, planned to announce Papuan Independence in 1971. On 1 July 1971 Roemkorem and Prai declared a Republic of West Papua, conflicts over strategy between Roemkorem and Prai soon initiated a split of the OPM into two factions, the PEMKA led by Prai, and TPN led by Roemkorem. This greatly weakened OPMs ability as a combat force. It remains widely used, however, invoked by both fighters and domestic and expatriate political activists. Starting from 1976, officials at mining company Freeport Indonesia received letters from the OPM threatening the company, the company refused to cooperate with OPM. Freeport estimated the damage at $US123,871.23, in 1982 a OPM Revolutionary Council was established, and under the chairmanship of Moses Werror the OPMRC has sought independence through a campaign of international diplomacy. In 1984 OPM staged an attack on Jayapura, the provincial capital, the attack was quickly repelled by the Indonesian military, who followed it with broader counter-insurgency activity. This triggered an exodus of Papuan refugees, apparently supported by the OPM, on 14 February 1986, Freeport Indonesia received information that the OPM was again becoming active in their area, and that some of Freeports employees were OPM members or sympathisers. On 18 February, a signed by a Rebel General warned that On Wed. 19th, there will be some rain on Tembagapura, additionally, the saboteurs set fire along the breaks in the fuel line, and shot at police that tried to approach the fires. On 14 April of that year, OPM insurgents cut more pipelines, slashed electric wires, vandalised plumbing
27.
Indonesian military ranks
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The Indonesian National Armed Forces uses a simplified ranking system for the three branches of Indonesian Army, Indonesian Navy and Indonesian Air Force. Most of the ranks are similar with differences for the titles of the high-ranking officers. Exception exists, however, in the ranks of the members of the Indonesian Marine Corps. While Indonesian Marine Corps is a branch of the Navy, the titles of the Marine Corps are the same as those of the Army. Also, an Air Force Colonel with Electronical Engineering Corps background use the title Kolonel, there are no differences with enlisted personnels title for Army and Air Force, but the Navy still use the personnels branch/corps abbreviation behind the title. High-ranking officers use gold stars as their insignia, middle-rank officers use gold jasmine buds, high-rank NCOs use wavy bars, NCOs use yellow chevrons, high-rank enlisted men use red chevrons and lower-rank enlisted men use red bars. The following ranks were used at the beginning of the establishment of Tentara Keamanan Rakyat in 1946 and this first rank system, with insignia following Japanese practice, where used until 1957. The TKRs Ground, Air and Naval Forces, later the Indonesian Army, Air Force, note, Previous spelling used until 1973 was utilised. The rank system was updated by yet another General Orders on 22 June 1957, the Army and Marines received the Brigadier General rank, the Navy flag officer ranks were replaced by new ones and the Air Force updated its air marshals rank system. The ranks remained Army-style in the Army and Navy and army-style ranks were introduced into the air force. NCOs and Enlisted ranks and ratings became different per service branch, the rank insignia were differentiated only by the background color of the shoulder board and by gold or red piping at the sides of the boards. All three branches have the rank titles at the same paygrades, except for the Perwira Tinggi. From 1973 to 1990, the rank of Senior warrant officer was used and was the highest rank for all warrant officers during that time
28.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
29.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
30.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
31.
Indonesian Marine Corps
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There are future plans to expand the Indonesian Marine Corps to become an independent, uniformed force. It is commanded by a two star marine general, the two marine divisions are each led by a one star admiral. The Corps Mariniers, the predecessor of the corps was established on 15 November 1945 at Navy Base IV of ALRI in Tegal. The marine corps was formed as a training for Indonesian seamen who joined the Navy. Marines eventually were forced to join guerrilla warfare on land due to lack of sea defense equipments, in other places, the Corps were widely known as the ALRI Gunung because it is more frequent fighting in the jungle and the foot of the mountain, rather than at sea. But they are not included yet in the corps for this latest new corps at that time only exist in Navy Base IV in Tegal. The marine corps from Tegal sent troops to Semarang front of the Revolution 25 times to aid the Peoples Security Army whose personnel were losing to the Dutch. In the midst of the period, precisely on 17 March 1948 there have been a reorganization and rationalization of the marine corps. At that time, because the corps had a lot of combat experience on the ground. Corps Mariniers was then merged into the Diponegoro Division of the army by the name of Samudera Regiment and was divided into five battalions, Marine soldiers who wishto remain in the navy must submit a written request to the Minister of Defence and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. On October 9,1948, the Minister of Defense ratified Decree No, a / 565/1948, declaring the establishment of the marine corps. Nevertheless, the acceptance of new personnel only started after the Round Table Conference in 1949, selection reception was held at the main naval base in Surabaya. Approximately 1,200 recruits were selected to join the new naval amphibious forces, after being examined, it turns out 95 percent of the 1,200 people who received it are personnel are formerly part of the Corps Mariniers established in Tegal. Of all the personnel of the Korps Komando Operasi Angkatan Laut listed in its 1950 personnel roster,90 percent of the personnel were veterans of the Corps Mariniers of 1945. Therefore, the existence of marine Corps formed in 15 November 1945 as mentioned in the previous paragraphs, the marine crops has been active in various military operations in Indonesia. The operation was aborted as a consequence deals preceding the New York Agreement, at the height of the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, Harun Hj Mohd Said and Usman Ali, two members of the Marine Corps were dispatched to Singapore using rubber boats. Their main task is to infiltrate and sabotage the interests of Malaysia, in practice, these operations are only able to blow up the MacDonald House and cause civilian and non-military casualties. In that incident,20 fruit shops around the hotel was damaged,24 pieces sedan vehicles were destroyed,30 people died,35 people suffered serious injuries
32.
Guerrilla warfare
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The term, the diminutive form of war in Spanish, is usually translated as little war, and the word, guerrilla, has been used to refer to the concept since the 18th century, and perhaps earlier. In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a guerrilla is a guerrillero if male, the term guerrilla was used in English as early as 1809, to refer to the fighters, and also to denote a group or band of such fighters. However, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the style of warfare. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, guerrillas usually carries positive connotations, and is often used by such fighters themselves and by their sympathizers, while their foes in many cases call them terrorists. Making an objective definition of the difference between a guerrilla and a terrorist has proven a difficult task, the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a larger, more unwieldy one. The Guerrilla focuses on organizing in small units, depending on the support of the local population, tactically, the guerrilla army would avoid any confrontation with large units of enemy troops, but seek and eliminate small groups of soldiers to minimize losses and exhaust the opposing force. Not limiting their targets to personnel, enemy resources are preferred targets. All of that is to weaken the strength, to cause the enemy eventually to be unable to prosecute the war any longer. It is often misunderstood that guerrilla warfare must involve disguising as civilians to cause enemy troops to fail in telling friend from foe, however, this is not a primary feature of a guerrilla war. This type of war can be practiced anywhere there are places for combatants to cover themselves, at least one author credits the ancient Chinese work The Art of War with providing instruction in such tactics to Mao. The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War or 600 BC to 501 BC, was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare and this directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla tactics were employed by prehistoric tribal warriors against enemy tribes. Evidence of conventional warfare, on the hand, did not emerge until 3100 BC in Egypt. Since the Enlightenment, ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, socialism, because of the innovative tactics he used during his command, he made himself the name of Terror Romanorum. A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency operation involves actions taken by the government of a nation to contain or quell an insurgency taken up against it. Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellions, the two most influential of scholars of counter-insurgency have been Westerners whose job it had been to fight insurgents. Robert Thompson fought during the Malayan Emergency and David Galula fought during the Algerian War, together these officers advocated multi-pronged strategies to win over the civilian population to the side of the counter-insurgent. The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert of the Malayan Emergency, thompsons underlying assumption was that the counter-insurgent was committed to improving the rule of law and bettering local governance
33.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
34.
Constitution of Indonesia
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The Constitution of Indonesia is the basis for the government of the Indonesia. The constitution was written in June, July and August 1945 and it was abrogated by the Federal Constitution of 1949 and the Provisional Constitution of 1950, but restored on 5 July 1959. The 1945 Constitution then set forth the Pancasila, the five nationalist principles devised by Sukarno and it provides for a limited separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The governmental system has been described as presidential with parliamentary characteristics, the Japanese invaded the Netherlands East Indies in 1942, defeated the Dutch colonial regime, and occupied it for the duration of the Second World War. Indonesia then fell under the jurisdiction of the Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army, based in Saigon, on 29 April 1945, the 16th Army established Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, for Java. The 25th Army later established a BPUPKI for Sumatra, No such organisation existed for the remainder of Indonesia. The BPUPKI in Java, when established, consisted of 62 members and it was chaired by Dr Radjiman Wedyodiningrat. The future president Sukarno and vice-president Mohammad Hatta were among its members and they met in the building that had been used by the Dutch colonial quasi-parliament, the Volksraad in central Jakarta. It held two sessions,29 May –1 June and 10–17 July 1945, the first session discussed general matters, including the philosophy of the state for future independent Indonesia, Pancasila. The philosophy was formulated by nine members of BPUPKI, Soekarno, Hatta, Yamin, Maramis, Soebardjo, Wahid Hasjim, Muzakkir, Agus Salim and Abikoesno. The outcome was something of a compromise, and included an obligation for Muslims to follow syariah Islamic law, the second session produced a provisional constitution made up of 37 articles,4 transitory provision and 2 additional provision. The nation would be a state and a republic. On 26 July 1945, the Allies called for the surrender of Japan in the Potsdam Declaration. The Japanese authorities, realising they would lose the war, began to make firm plans for Indonesian independence. On 6 August, a bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. On 7 August, the Nanpo Gun headquarters announced that an Indonesian leader could enact a body called the Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, the dropping of a second atomic bomb, on Nagasaki, on 9 August prompted the Japanese to surrender unconditionally on 15 August 1945. Sukarno and Hatta declared independence on 17 August 1945, and the PPKI met the following day, in the meeting chaired by Sukarno, the 27 members, including Hatta, Supomo, Wachid Hasjim, Sam Ratulangi and Subardjo, began to discuss the proposed constitution article by article. The Committee made some changes, including the removal of 7 words from the text of Jakarta Charter which stated the obligation for Muslims to follow syariah Islamic law
35.
Conscription
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Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country. As of the early 21st century, many no longer conscript soldiers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities, many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during wartime or times of crisis. Around the reign of Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum, under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se, various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded, in other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them, with the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors, although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones interest to send the men home for harvest-time, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour. Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite ruszenie, the system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkish slave-soldiers by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in the 820s and 830s. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, the new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme
36.
Military volunteer
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A military volunteer is a person who enlists in military service by free will, and is not a mercenary or a foreign legionnaire. Volunteers often enlist to fight in the forces of a foreign country. Military volunteers are essential for the operation of volunteer militaries, many armies, including the U. S. Army, formerly distinguished between United States Volunteers enlisted during a war, and regulars who served on long-term basis. Troops raised as state militia were always volunteers, while U. S. troops could be volunteers or regulars, the rank of an officer in a volunteer unit was separate from his rank as a regular, and usually higher. When the volunteer forces were disbanded at the end of the war, for instance, George Armstrong Custer became a brigadier general of volunteers during the American Civil War, but when the war ended, he reverted to captain. Volunteer rank should not be confused with brevet rank, the move to a volunteer over conscription force for a national military appears to improve, at least for the United States, the professionalism of its standing armed forces. Military volunteer Foreign volunteers Sar-El, national project for volunteers for Israel SAF Volunteer Corps, volunteer scheme for the Singapore Armed Forces
37.
Indonesian National Police
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The Indonesian National Police is the national police force of Indonesia. It was formerly a part of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, the police were formally separated from the military in April 1999, a process which was formally completed in July 2000. The organization is now independent and is under the auspices of the President of Indonesia. Until this day, the Indonesian National Police is and still control of law enforcement. The organization is known for its corruption, violence and incompetence. The Indonesian National Police is also taking part in international UN missions, the strength of the Indonesian National Police stood at approximately up-to 387,470 in 2011 and the number is increasing every year. It also includes up-to 12,000 water police personnel and an estimated 40,000 People’s Security trainees who serve as a police auxiliary, the headquarters, known as Markas Besar/Mabes in Indonesian, is located in Kebayoran Baru, South Jakarta near the national police museum. Japanese occupation during WW II brought changes when the Japanese formed various armed organisations to support their war and this had led to the distribution of weapons to military trained youths, which were largely confiscated from the Dutch armoury. After the Japanese occupation, the police became an armed organisation. The Indonesian police was established in 1946, and its units fought in the Indonesian National Revolution against the invading Dutch forces, the police also participated in suppressing the 1948 communist revolt in Madiun. In 1966, the police was brought under the control of Armed Forces Chief, the police were not combatants who were required to surrender their weapons to the Allied Forces. During the revolution of independence, the police gradually formed into what is now known as Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia or the Indonesian National Police, in 2000, the police force officially regained its independence and now is separate from the military. The key tasks of the Indonesian National Police are to, maintain security and public order, enforce the law, and provide protection, as a national agency it has a large central headquarters in Jakarta. Their uniform are slightly different with the Indonesian Police which is mainly all Khaki where in the hand the Indonesian police force wear brownish grey. There are confusing terminological differences between some police commands and this derives from certain normative features of Indonesian governance. Indonesian political culture elevates the capital district of a province from districts in the same province. Similarly, the province of the country, enjoys special normative status over other provinces – though in practice all have the same governmental responsibilities. The Indonesian police structure continues this by creating a special command for the province of Jakarta, nevertheless, all of Indonesia’s police district commands and all the provincial commands have the same powers and duties
38.
Mobile Brigade Corps
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The Mobile Brigade Corps abbreviated BRIMOB is the main special police operations force and paramilitary law enforcement of Indonesia. It is also known as for being one of the oldest units in the Indonesian National Police and its duties are counter-terrorism, high-threat law enforcement, riot control, police raid, search and rescue, anti-anarchist, and explosive disposal operations in urban settings. The Mobile Brigade Corps is a component of the Indonesian National Police trained for counter-separatist and counter-insurgency duties. The Mobile Brigade is also known as the special branch of the Indonesian National Police which deals with special operations. Historically, Brimob wore the Indonesian spot camouflage pattern during the early 1960s as their uniform, formed in late 1945 as a special police corps named Pasukan Polisi Istimewa with the task of disarming remnants of the Japanese Imperial Army and protecting the chief of state and the capital city. Under the Japanese, it was called Tokubetsu Keisatsutai and it fought in the revolution and was the first military unit to engage in the Battle of Surabaya under the command of Police Inspector Moehammad Jasin. On 14 November 1946, Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir reorganised the Polisi Istimewa into the Mobile Brigade and this day is celebrated as the anniversary of this Blue Beret Corps. This Corps was reconstituted to suppress military and police conflicts and even coups detat, after that, Brimob was placed under the command of the Indonesian National Police. In 1981, the Mobile Brigade spawned a new unit called the Jihandak, in 1992 the Mobile Brigade was essentially a paramilitary organisation trained and organised along military line. It had a strength of about 12,000, the brigade was used primarily as an elite unit for emergencies and supporting police operations as a rapid response unit. The unit was deployed in domestic security and defense operations, and they are trained to deal with mass demonstrations. Since the May 1998 upheaval, PHH have received special anti-riot training, elements of the unit are cross trained for airborne and Search and Rescue operations. In each Police HQ that represents a province in Indonesia must have a BRIMOB force which consists of several Detachments of Pelopor, Pelopor is the main reaction force of the Mobile Brigade Corps of Indonesia. In each BRIMOB unit of a Police HQ in a province, there are about several detachments of pelopor, Gegana is an Indonesian Brimob Police special response unit who have special abilities mainly in bomb disposal matters. On the other hand, it specializes in the field of anti-terrorism, intelligence, anti-riot, and the handling of Chemical, Biological. This unit was formed in 1976 as a detachment, at first, it was meant to deal with aircraft hijacking. Later in 1995, with the expansion of Brimob, the Gegana Detachment was expanded to become the 2nd BRIMOB Regiment, however, there are a select few specialists who are very skilled in these specialties. Gegana does not have battalions or companies, the regiment is broken down into several detachments
39.
Municipal Police (Indonesia)
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The Municipal Police of Indonesia are municipal police units in Indonesia which are controlled by local government heads of states and is operated by the Department of Home Affairs. Its main duties are to assist the regional head of the government affairs in the field of Security. This force is under the auspices of the Ministry of Home Affairs, each province in Indonesia has a municipal police force controlled by the local provincial government. The base of the police are stationed in the local state government offices. Their service uniform and beret color is Khaki and wear black combat boots, in 2010, a controversial decree by Gamawan Fauzi, allows members of the unit to be armed with gas-powered revolvers or blanks, electric shock sticks, and baton for riots and crowd control. Generally, the police in Indonesia simply enforces the implementation of the local governments regulation. The Indonesian National Police meanwhile enforces the Indonesian National constitutional laws, the Indonesian National Police also have the rights and duty to investigate and arrest violators who can be prosecuted under a court of law. The municipal police can arrest violators, but prosecution is almost unheard of with violators usually let off with simple reprimand or in some cases, fined. In some cases however, the police units and the Police will work together in the field, although they will still retain their own respective tasks
40.
Municipal police
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Municipal police are law enforcement agencies that are under the control of local government. This includes the government, where it is the smallest administrative subdivision. They receive funding from the city budget, and may have legal powers than the state paid police. These police forces usually report to the Mayor or a police board. In terms of their role, they are generally preventive police. Historically, the role of the police of local civic protection was carried out by Municipal Guards. Today some formations of municipal police still carry the name of the city/communal/municipal guard
41.
Civil defense
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Civil defense, civil defence or civil protection is an effort to protect the citizens of a state from military attacks and natural disasters. It uses the principles of operations, prevention, mitigation, preparation, response, or emergency evacuation. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s and were implemented in some countries during the 1930s as the threat of war and it became widespread after the threat of nuclear weapons was realized. Since the end of the Cold War, the focus of civil defense has largely shifted from military attack to emergencies, in some countries, civil defense is seen as a key part of total defense. For example, in Sweden, the Swedish word totalförsvar refers to the commitment of a range of resources of the nation to its defense - including to civil protection. Respectively, some countries may have or have had military-organized civil defense units as part of their armed forces or as a paramilitary service, the advent of civil defence was stimulated by the experience of the bombing of civilian areas during the First World War. The bombing of the United Kingdom began on 19 January 1915 when German zeppelins dropped bombs on the Great Yarmouth area, German bombing operations of the First World War were surprisingly effective, especially after the Gotha bombers surpassed the zeppelins. The most devastating raids inflicted 121 casualties for each ton of bombs dropped, the Committee produced figures estimating that in London there would be 9,000 casualties in the first two days and then a continuing rate of 17,500 casualties a week. It was believed there would be total chaos and panic. To control the population harsh measures were proposed, bringing London under almost military control, a different government department proposed setting up camps for refugees for a few days before sending them back to London. A special government department, the Civil Defence Service, was established by the Home Office in 1935 and its remit included the pre-existing ARP as well as wardens, firemen, fire watchers, rescue, first aid post, stretcher party and industry. Over 1.9 million people served within the CD, nearly 2,400 lost their lives to enemy action, the organisation of civil defence was the responsibility of the local authority. Volunteers were ascribed to different units depending on experience or training, each local civil defence service was divided into several sections. Wardens were responsible for reconnaissance and reporting, and leadership, organisation, guidance. Wardens would also advise survivors of the locations of rest and food centres, Rescue Parties were required to assess and then access bombed-out buildings and retrieve injured or dead people. In addition they would turn off gas, electricity and water supplies, medical services, including First Aid Parties, provided on the spot medical assistance. The expected stream of information that would be generated during an attack was handled by Report, a local headquarters would have an ARP controller who would direct rescue, first aid and decontamination teams to the scenes of reported bombing. If local services were deemed insufficient to deal with the incident then the controller could request assistance from surrounding boroughs
TNI-AU (Air Force)
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(Indonesian Army): Kopassus, Tontaipur
(Indonesian Navy) & Indonesian Marine Corps : Kopaska, Taifib, Denjaka
(Indonesian Air Force): Paskhas & Bravo Detachment 90
TNI-AD (Indonesian Army)
TNI-AL (Indonesian Navy)
TNI-AU (Indonesian Air Force)
Indonesia
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