1.
Mississippi River
–
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
2.
Lake Pontchartrain
–
Lake Pontchartrain is a brackish estuary located in southeastern Louisiana in the United States. It covers an area of 630 square miles with a depth of 12 to 14 feet. Some shipping channels are kept deeper through dredging and it is roughly oval in shape, about 40 miles from west to east and 24 miles from south to north. In descending order of area, the lake is located in parts of six Louisiana parishes, St. Tammany, Orleans, Jefferson, St. John the Baptist, St. Charles, the water boundaries were defined in 1979. Lake Pontchartrain is named for Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain from Pontchartrain city and he was the French Minister of the Marine, Chancellor, and Controller-General of Finances during the reign of Frances Sun King, Louis XIV, for whom the colony of La Louisiane was named. It receives fresh water from the Tangipahoa, Tchefuncte, Tickfaw, Amite, and Bogue Falaya rivers and it is one of the largest wetlands along the Gulf Coast of North America. It comprises more than 125,000 ac of wetland, including hardwoods and cypress swamps along with a complex mixture of herbaceous wetlands including fresh, intermediate. Salinity varies from negligible at the northern cusp west of Mandeville up to half the salinity of seawater at its eastern bulge near Interstate 10. Lake Maurepas, a freshwater lake, connects with Lake Pontchartrain on the west via Pass Manchac. The Industrial Canal connects the Mississippi River with the lake at New Orleans, bonnet Carré Spillway diverts water from the Mississippi into the lake during times of river flooding. The lake was created 2,600 to 4,000 years ago as the evolving Mississippi River Delta formed its southern and eastern shorelines with alluvial deposits and its Native American name was Okwata. In 1699, French explorer Pierre Le Moyne dIberville renamed it Pontchartrain after Louis Phélypeaux, human habitation of the region began at least 3,500 years ago, but increased rapidly with the arrival of Europeans about 300 years ago. The great American naturalist, William Bartram, explored the north shore during a trip west in 1777, in 1852 a railroad was constructed to link New Orleans to the north. However, the pilings were burned to the line in the Civil War. The great cypress swamps of the area were logged in the early 20th century. The current population in the region is over 1.5 million, there have been many problems with conservation management of the forests and wetlands. Owing to past exploitation, the ecosystems of the lake have been placed under stress, marshes, for example, are turning to open water, and cypress swamps are being killed by salt water intrusion. However, Brown Pelicans and Bald Eagles, once scarce, are now a common sight along the shores, a team of experts assembled by The Nature Conservancy assessed the situation in 2004
3.
Industrial Canal Lock
–
The Inner Harbor Navigation Canal Lock—commonly known as Industrial Canal Lock or simply Industrial Lock—is a navigation lock in New Orleans. It connects the Lower Mississippi River to the Industrial Canal and other sea-level waterways, the lock is located at Lower Mississippi River mile 92.6 AHP. Although the depth over the sill is 9.6 meters, the Industrial Canal and Lock were built by the Port of New Orleans to provide navigation between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain. The project was completed in 1923, in the 1930s, the federal Gulf Intracoastal Waterway connected to the Industrial Canal via Lake Pontchartrain and used the lock to connect to the Mississippi River. Commercial traffic using the lock paid a toll of 5 cents per gross ton. Beginning in 1944, the government leased the lock and the southern segment of the canal. In 1965 another waterway, the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet Canal, was completed, the MRGO was a deep-draft channel affording ocean-going vessels a short-cut from the Port of New Orleans to the Gulf of Mexico. Thus three different waterways—the Industrial Canal, the Intracoastal and the MRGO—were now using the lock to connect to the river. In 1986 the federal government purchased the Industrial Lock from the Port of New Orleans, the lock underwent major repairs in 1998. It was closed for two months, forcing traffic to take an oft-used detour through Breton Sound near the mouth of the Mississippi River. The $6 million project included $2 million in emergency repairs, the chamber was dewatered for the first time in 20 years, and concrete was replaced in portions of the chamber itself and in four of the eight valves. The valve mechanisms had suffered rust and corrosion and were replaced with steel hardware. Six of the ten gates, fabricated around 1920 and weighing 250 tons apiece, were removed for sandblasting. New seals and pintles were installed, according to the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers website the lock was closed on 08/11/2008 for 60 days for repairs. Replacement of the lock with a larger lock was authorized as early as 1956. By the late 20th century, barge tows were waiting an average of ten hours to lock through, despite community opposition in the adjacent Lower 9th Ward and Bywater neighborhoods, Congress approved a $573 million replacement project in 1998, and site acquisition and preparation began. The new lock design features a larger chamber—35.5 meters wide,366 meters long and 9.6 meters deep, the lock is designed to be precast nearby and floated to site, immediately north of the existing lock. Ancillary and collateral work includes replacement of the adjacent St. Claude Avenue Bridge, opponents of the replacement project argue that, in addition to causing environmental problems and economic disruption, lock construction is economically unjustified
4.
Waterway
–
A waterway is any navigable body of water. A shipping route consists of one or several waterways, Waterways can include rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, and canals. Vessels using waterways vary from small animal-drawn barges to immense ocean tankers and ocean liners, media related to Waterways at Wikimedia Commons Waterscape - Britains official guide to canals, rivers and lakes
5.
New Orleans
–
New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
6.
Louisiana
–
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
7.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
United States Army
–
The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
9.
United States Army Corps of Engineers
–
The United States Army Corps of Engineers, also sometimes shortened to CoE is a U. S. Although generally associated with dams, canals and flood protection in the United States, the Corps of Engineers provides outdoor recreation opportunities to the public, and provides 24% of U. S. hydropower capacity. The corps mission is to Deliver vital public and military engineering services, partnering in peace and war to strengthen our Nations security, energize the economy and their most visible missions include, Planning, designing, building, and operating locks and dams. Other civil engineering projects include flood control, beach nourishment, design and construction of flood protection systems through various federal mandates. Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army, Air Force, Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve and other Defense and Federal agencies. The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to 16 June 1775, colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washingtons first chief engineer, however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill, the first Corps of Engineers was mostly composed of French subjects who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI. that the said Corps. Shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York, until 1866, the superintendent of the United States Military Academy was always an officer of engineer. During the first half of the 19th century, West Point was the major and, for a while, the General Survey Act of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes. Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the U. S and it was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the Great Lakes. In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey, the survey, based in Detroit, Mich. was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852, in the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U. S. Naval officers. The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the American Civil War, many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this institution were West Point graduates who rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some of these men were Union Generals George McClellan, Henry Halleck, George Meade, and Confederate generals Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, the versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, the destruction of supply lines. The Army Corps of Engineers served as a function in making the war effort logistically feasible. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern, from the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. During World War II the mission grew to more than 27,000 military, included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants, camps for 5.3 million soldiers, depots, ports, and hospitals, as well as the Manhattan Project, and the Pentagon
10.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
–
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
11.
Nautical chart
–
A nautical chart is a graphic representation of a maritime area and adjacent coastal regions. Nautical charts are essential tools for marine navigation, many countries require vessels, especially commercial ships, Nautical charting may take the form of charts printed on paper or computerized electronic navigational charts. With each daily download, critical data such as Local Notice to Mariners is added to the on-demand chart files so that these charts will be up to date at the time of printing, Nautical charts are based on hydrographic surveys. As surveying is laborious and time-consuming, hydrographic data for many areas of sea may be dated, depths are measured in a variety of ways. Historically the sounding line was used, in modern times, echo sounding is used for measuring the seabed in the open sea. When measuring the depth of water over an entire obstruction, such as a shipwreck. This ensures that difficult to find projections, such as masts, Nautical charts are issued by power of the national hydrographic offices in many countries. These charts are considered official in contrast to those made by commercial publishers, many hydrographic offices provide regular, sometimes weekly, manual updates of their charts through their sales agents. Individual hydrographic offices produce national chart series and international chart series, there are also commercially published charts, some of which may carry additional information of particular interest, e. g. for yacht skippers. The nature of a waterway depicted by a chart may change, therefore, old or uncorrected charts should never be used for navigation. Every producer of nautical charts also provides a system to inform mariners of changes that affect the chart. In the U. S. NOAA also has a partner who prints the POD NOAA charts. To give notice to mariners, radio broadcasts provide advance notice of urgent corrections, a good way to keep track of corrections is with a Chart and Publication Correction Record Card system. When the time comes to use the chart, he pulls the chart and charts card and this system ensures that every chart is properly corrected prior to use. A prudent mariner should obtain a new chart if he has not kept track of corrections, various Digital Notices to Mariners systems are available on the market such as Digitrace, Voyager, or ChartCo, to correct British Admiralty charts as well as NOAA charts. These systems provide only vessel relevant corrections via e-mail or web downloads, tracings to assist corrections are provided at the same time. The Canadian Coast Guard produces the Notice to Mariners publication which informs mariners of important navigational safety matters affecting Canadian Waters and this electronic publication is published on a monthly basis and can be downloaded from the Notices to Mariners Web site. The information in the Notice to Mariners is formatted to simplify the correction of paper charts, various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic navigational charts
12.
Industrial Canal
–
The Industrial Canal is a 5.5 mile waterway in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. The waterways proper name, as used by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the more common Industrial Canal name is used locally, both by commercial mariners and by landside residents. The canal connects the Mississippi River to Lake Pontchartrain and it separates New Orleans East from the rest of the city of New Orleans, and the Lower 9th Ward from the Upper 9th Ward. The entirety of the passes through the 9th Ward of the city. Along the riverfront, the canal constitutes the boundary of the Upper 9th Ward on the side of the canal. Near the lake, it is considered to be the eastern boundary of the Gentilly neighborhood. The dream of a canal connecting the Mississippi River to Lake Pontchartrain goes back to Spanish colonial times. Engineers confirmed that canal locks would be necessary, a canal proposed in the early 19th century was never built, but the right-of-way for the proposed waterway gave its name to the citys Canal Street. In July 1914 the Louisiana State Government authorized the Port of New Orleans to build a shipping canal between the river and lake. Considerable land was expropriated in the portion of the city. Toward the lake this was mostly little-developed swamp, along the riverfront, though, buildings demolished to make room for the canal included homes and the Ursuline Convent, whose Dauphine Street facility was nearly a century old at that time. Dredging of the canal began on 6 June 1918, the length from the lake to the lock near the river was constructed with a 30 foot depth, with a width of 300 feet at the top of the canal and at least 150 feet at the bottom. The original lock system had 5 gates, a width of 74 feet, the opening dedication ceremony was presided over by Louisiana Governor John M. Parker on 5 May 1923. The cost was 19 million dollars, the original length of the canal was 5.3 miles with a 1,600 foot right-of way. The longer current length of 5.5 miles is due to the extension of the lakeshore by dredging in the late 1920s. After the opening of the canal, slips and docks were added along its length, allowing it to function as a harbor and industrial zone in addition to serving as a transit canal. In 1944, the government leased the Industrial Canal lock. In the 1960s the Industrial Canal/Intracoastal Waterway junction was enlarged, in expectation of the surge in traffic resulting from the completion of the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet
13.
Eastern New Orleans
–
Eastern New Orleans is a large section of the city of New Orleans, Louisiana. Developed extensively from the 1960s onwards, its numerous residential subdivisions offered suburban-style living within the city limits, starting in the mid-1980s, Eastern New Orleans increasingly suffered from disinvestment and urban decay. As a result, the Pre-Katrina trend of few, if any. Approximately 65,000 to 75,000 residents presently inhabit Eastern New Orleans, Eastern New Orleans is the portion of the city to the east of the Industrial Canal and north of the Intracoastal Waterway. It is often called New Orleans East as well, or simply Da East, Eastern New Orleans is a portion of the Ninth Ward of New Orleans. Originally named Lake Forest, as development first centered along the easternmost segment of Lake Forest Boulevard, eastover is a gated community containing palatial homes and a Joe Lee-designed golf course. The far eastern portion of Eastern New Orleans has little urban development, Village de LEst is known for its Vietnamese community. The Vietnamese community is known as Versailles, as the earliest migrants to the area, arriving in the years after 1975. The commercial hub for this community extends along Alcee Fortier Boulevard, sometimes known as Little Vietnam, the area hosts a number of Vietnamese restaurants, including Dong Phuong Restaurant & Bakery. Eastern New Orleans is the extensive suburban or suburban-style region of Greater New Orleans where, since the late 1960s. Until the late 19th century, this area was outside of the city limits of New Orleans, there was little development other than in two areas. The first hugged the long, narrow ridge of ground along Gentilly Road. Various farms, plantations, and small villages such as Michoud were sited along this ridge, in the early 20th century some residential development of the area began, at first as an extension of Gentilly. Construction of the Industrial Canal began in 1918 and was completed in 1923, from the 1930s to the 1960s, Lincoln Beach, on the shore of Lake Pontchartrain, was the citys amusement park for the African-American community. However other than light flooding near the Morrison Canal, damage from Betsy was much more modest than had been feared, tragically, some of those who evacuated Eastern New Orleans in advance of Betsys arrival went to the Lower 9th Ward, which flooded disastrously. Rapid growth east of the Industrial Canal commenced in the 1960s, many new subdivisions were developed in the 1960s and 1970s, to cater to those who preferred a more suburban lifestyle but were open to remaining within the city limits of New Orleans. Eastern New Orleans grew in a comparatively well-planned and neatly zoned fashion, some care was taken to avoid placing major thoroughfares along the rights-of-way of unsightly drainage canals, as had frequently occurred in suburban Jefferson Parish. Instead, major roads were located equidistant from parallel canals and were outfitted with landscaped medians, numerous subdivisions were developed with large lakes at their centers, providing both an assist to neighborhood drainage and a scenic backdrop for the backyards of homes
14.
Lower Ninth Ward
–
Lower Ninth Ward is a neighborhood of the city of New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. As the name implies, it is part of the Ninth Ward of New Orleans, the term Lower refers to its location farther towards the mouth of the Mississippi River, downriver, down or below the rest of the city. The 9th Ward, like all wards of New Orleans, is a voting district, the 9th Ward was added as a voting district in 1852. The Lower 9th Ward is composed of Ward 9 Districts 1,2,4, and 7 which make up the Holy Cross Area and Ward 9 Districts 3,5,6, and 8. Higher voting district numbers in the 9th Ward are on the side of the Industrial Canal. The area came to attention for its devastation in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Excluding the industrial and swamp areas north of the Florida Canal, three major avenues cross the developed portion of the neighborhood, each with bridges over the Industrial Canal. Most major businesses serving the neighborhood are located on St. Claude or Claiborne, the Lower Ninth Ward is also commonly used to describe a slightly larger area. This area borders the Mississippi River to the South and St. Bernard Parish to the east, to the west is the Industrial Canal, across which is the Bywater section of New Orleans. The northern or inland boundary is given as the Florida Canal with Florida Avenue, a levee. Alternatively, the area north of Florida Avenue is sometimes included as being part of the Lower 9th Ward. In Louisianas colonial era, this area was developed as sugar plantations, with narrow lots extending back from the river frontage that provided the transportation. At the start of the 19th century, the closer to the river was developed for residential use. In 1834 the United States Army established the Jackson Barracks here, as late as the 1870s, the area behind St. Claude was still mostly small farms with scattered residences. The area on the side of Claiborne was mostly undeveloped cypress swamp. What became the Lower 9th Ward did not become distinct from the parts of the 9th Ward until the start of the 1920s. This development bisected the 9th Ward, at this time, people started referring to the area above from the Canal as the Upper 9th Ward, and this area as the Lower. The section on the River side of Saint Claude Avenue, which developed as an area first, is sometimes called the Holy Cross Neighborhood for Holy Cross High School
15.
9th Ward of New Orleans
–
The Ninth Ward or 9th Ward is a distinctive region of New Orleans, Louisiana, which is located in the easternmost downriver portion of the city. It is geographically the largest of the seventeen Wards of New Orleans, on the south, the Ninth Ward is bounded by the Mississippi River. On the western or upriver side, the Ninth Ward is bounded by Franklin Avenue, then Almonaster Avenue, then Peoples Avenue. From the north end of Peoples Avenue the boundary continues on a line north to Lake Pontchartrain. The Lake forms the north and northeastern end of the ward, saint Bernard Parish is the boundary to the southeast, Lake Borgne farther southeast and east, and the end of Orleans Parish to the east at the Rigolets. While there is overlap, the 9th Ward should not be confused with city planning designation of the ninth planning district of New Orleans. Brite, actor John Larroquette, trumpeter Kermit Ruffins, and the prominent Batiste musical family, from 2012 to 2016, the 9th Ward was represented in the Louisiana House of Representatives by Democrat Wesley T. Bishop. When Bishop was elected in 2015 to the Louisiana State Senate, another Democrat, Jimmy Harris, St. Claude St. Roch Bywater Florida Desire The smallest of these pieces is the area south and east of these canals. The portion of the Ninth Ward along the river down-river from the Industrial Canal stretching to the St. Bernard line is called the Lower 9th Ward or Lower Ninth and it includes the Holy Cross neighborhood, the twin Doullut Steamboat Houses and the Jackson Barracks. Until Hurricane Katrina, the Lower Ninth Ward had the highest percentage of home ownership in the city. The area west or above the Canal has sometimes called the Upper Ninth Ward. Such distinctions arose when the Industrial Canal bisected the neighborhood in the 1920s, the portion of the Ninth Ward along the riverfront between Faubourg Marigny and the Industrial Canal is known as Bywater. Further back are the Infamous St. Claude and Florida area and this part of the Ward contained two of the Housing Projects of New Orleans. The Desire neighborhood was home to the notorious Desire Projects, until they were demolished concurrent with HOPE VI policy, just across Florida Avenue from that are the Florida Projects once stood. Nearby was the Agriculture Street Landfill, an old city dump that was covered over and made into a neighborhood of low-income housing, the area along the river front was developed first, at the start of the 19th century, followed by the natural high land along Gentilly Ridge. Along the lakefront were various fishing camps built on piers, the most famous collection being Little Woods, the Industrial Canal was dredged through the neighborhood at the start of the 1920s. Most of the area between Gentilly Ridge and Lake Pontchartrain was swamp, not drained and developed until the mid, lincoln Beach was an amusement park along the lakefront for African-Americans during the era of racial segregation. The nearby Pontchartrain Beach was the amusement area for whites
16.
Florida Avenue Bridge
–
The Florida Avenue Bridge is a vertical lift bridge spanning the Industrial Canal in New Orleans, Louisiana. The bridge has one track, two vehicle lanes and two sidewalks. A parallel high-elevation four-lane roadway bridge is planned, the Florida Avenue Bridge takes its name from Florida Avenue, formerly the Florida Walk alongside the Florida Canal. The three of the four identical bridges are in use today—St. Claude Avenue, Almonaster Avenue, and Seabrook, while St. Claude Bridge no longer carries rail service, Seabrook remains dedicated to rail service only. The original Florida Avenue Bridge was removed in 2000 as a hazard to navigation and replaced with the current modern. It was designed by Modjeski and Masters, Inc. and built by American Bridge with a project cost of approximately $47 million. The new bridge was funded by the United States Coast Guard under a Truman-Hobbs appropriation. The new bridge has a clearance of 300 feet and 156 feet vertical clearance above the low water level in the fully raised position. In the lowered position, the clearance is less than five feet above the low water level. The lift bridge is capable of sufficient vertical clearance for ship traffic, the bridge has undergone repairs due to Hurricane Katrina storm surge in 2005. It sustained flooding once again due to Hurricane Gustav in 2008, a parallel, four-lane, vehicular only, is planned to be built just south of the Port of New Orleans existing lift bridge by the Louisiana State Department of Transportation and Development. Design is underway, but due to funding issues, the construction has been placed on hold by the State of Louisiana
17.
Confluence
–
In geography, a confluence is the meeting of two or more bodies of water. The term is used to describe the meeting of tidal or other non-riverine bodies of water. A one-mile portion of the Industrial Canal in New Orleans accommodates the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada is at the confluence of the Niagara River and Lake Ontario. The junction of the Green River and Colorado River forms the heart of Canyonlands National Park in Utahs Canyon Country, the Sangam, near Allahabad, India, where the sacred rivers Ganges and Yamuna meet to create one of the holiest places in Hinduism. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, located in Pittsburgh, the Madison, Jefferson and Gallatin Rivers in Three Forks, Montana form the confluence of the Missouri River, one of the longest rivers in the United States. Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia, is at the confluence of the Gombak River and the Klang River. Passau known also as the Dreiflüssestadt, because the Danube River is joined there by the Inn River from the South, manaus, Brazil is on the Rio Negro near its confluence with the Amazon. It is the port and a hub for the regions extensive river system. Osijek, Croatia, is on the bank of the river Drava 25 km upstream of its confluence with the Danube. Belgrade, the capital of Serbia lies at the confluence of the Sava, the Hochelaga Archipelago, including the island and city of Montreal, is located at the confluence of the St. Lawrence River and Ottawa River in Quebec, Canada. Winnipeg, Canada, is at the confluence of the Red River, the area is referred to as The Forks by locals, and has been an important trade location for over 6000 years. The confluence of the rivers Danube and Morava in Devín on the border between Slovakia and Austria, triangle of Three Emperors, former tripoint in Europe. Cairo, Illinois, in the United States, where the Ohio River flows into the Mississippi River, St. Louis, Missouri, is built just south of the confluence of the Mississippi River and the Missouri River. Lyon, France is located on the confluence of the Saône and Rhone rivers, lytton, British Columbia, Canada, is located at the confluence of the muddy Fraser River and the clearer Thompson River. The confluence between the Franklin River and Gordon River in south-western Tasmania The confluence of the Snake and Columbia River at the Tri-Cities of Washington, the confluence of the rivers Pivka and Rak is one of the largest subterranean confluences in Europe. The confluence at Lokoja, Nigeria, where the Niger and Benue rivers merge, the Sudanese capital of Khartoum, located at the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile. This merging point is the beginning of the Nile, columbus, Ohio, in the United States is at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers. Luang Prabang in Laos is at the confluence of the Mekong, River Kabul and River Swat at Attock, in Pakistan
18.
Gulf Intracoastal Waterway
–
The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway is the portion of the Intracoastal Waterway located along the Gulf Coast of the United States. It is an inland waterway running approximately 1,050 mi from Carrabelle, Florida, to Brownsville. The waterway provides a channel with a depth of 12 ft. Although the U. S. government proposals for such a waterway were made in the early 19th century, the Hathaway Bridge in Panama City, Florida, for example, is at mile 284.6 EHL. The Queen Isabella Causeway Bridge at South Padre Island is at mile 665.1 WHL, the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway crosses or meets, and in some cases is confluent with, numerous other navigable rivers and waterways
19.
Gentilly, New Orleans
–
Gentilly is a broad, predominantly middle-class and racially diverse section of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Gentilly neighborhood is bounded by Lake Pontchartrain to the north, France Road to the east, Bayou St. John to the west, and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad to the south. The major north-south streets are Franklin Avenue, Elysian Fields Avenue, St. Anthony, St. Bernard, St. Roch, Paris, Wisner, A. P. Tureaud Avenue, the east-west streets are Lakeshore Drive, Leon C. Simon, Robert E. Lee, Prentiss, Harrison, Filmore, Mirabeau, Hayne, Chef Menteur, the first part of Gentilly to be developed was along the Gentilly Ridge, a long stretch of high ground along the former banks of Bayou Gentilly. A road, originally Gentilly Road, was built on the ridge, the high ground became Gentilly Boulevard and U. S. Highway 90, part of the Old Spanish Trail from St. Augustine, Florida to Los Angeles, California. Settlement was originally confined to along the long narrow ridge, plus Milneburg. Most of the ground between the ridge and the lake was swampy, Gentilly has traditionally been defined variously. Some definitions include a wider area, extending the neighborhood into the Upper 9th Ward. Some older New Orleanians extend the definition even further, to include the section of old Gentilly on the east side of the Industrial Canal, the London Avenue Canal floodwalls were breached in two places by Katrinas storm surge, flooding most of the area. Gentillys population has returned, with most homes requiring major gutting. As of the start of 2007, the area is populated with something less than half of its pre-Katrina residents. Bus service from the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority, 51-St, Bernard via Lake Vista, which runs from Canal to St. Bernard before going down Paris to Lake Pontchartrain. 55- Elysian Fields which runs from University of New Orleans, Elysian Fields at Gentilly (Nearside, Elysian Fields at Galvez, St Claude at Elysian Fields, neighborhoods in the area include, Dillard Filmore Milneburg Mirabeau Gardens, Mirabeau Ave. to Filmore Ave. and The London Ave. Oak Park, St. Bernard Ave to Paris Ave, Mirabeau Ave to Robert E Lee Blvd, Vista Park, Paris Ave to London Avenue Canal, Filmore to Robert E Lee Blvd. Three universities, the University of New Orleans, Southern University at New Orleans, New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminarys main campus is also located in Gentilly. New Orleans Public Schools operates district schools, while Recovery School District oversees charter schools and it was damaged in Hurricane Katrina. The library, in a new $5.7 million facility, the 18, 000-square-foot, two-sory facility had 26 computers and about 40,000 volumes of books as of 2012. It had a tag of $5.7 million
20.
Claiborne Avenue Bridge
–
The Claiborne Avenue Bridge, officially known as the Judge William Seeber Bridge, is a vertical lift bridge in New Orleans, Louisiana over the Industrial Canal. It was built by the Louisiana Department of Highways and opened to traffic in 1957. The bridge has suffered numerous disasters, A barge hit the bridge in 1993, Hurricane Katrina damaged it in 2005, the bridge carries four vehicular lanes, two in each direction, of North Claiborne Avenue, which here is also Louisiana Highway 39. It accommodates most marine traffic in the down position, the bridge is located in the 9th Ward of New Orleans, with the Upper 9th Ward on the western side and the Lower 9th Ward on the eastern or lower side. Along with St. Claude Avenue, it is one of the links of New Orleans with the communities in St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana such as Arabi. Many locals who use the bridge are unaware of the bridges official name. It cost around $770 million to build, on May 28,1993 the tugboat Chris was pushing an empty barge through the canal toward the Mississippi River locks. As was common at the time, the captain would have to wait to enter the locks. However, at 3,30 p. m. the barge collided with a pier of the bridge, causing a 145-foot section of the bridge to collapse onto the western canal bank. Two automobiles plummeted off of the bridge, killing one person, the waterway was closed to navigation for 2 days, and the bridge was closed for 2 months while the collapsed span was rebuilt. The concrete debris from the span was used to protect the new support pier from future collisions. In 2005 Hurricane Katrina severely affected the areas on both sides of the bridge, with the most extreme devastation on the Lower 9th Ward side. The bridge was out of service for months, left in the up position to accommodate Canal shipping, until it was restored to service in early 2006. On May 20,2008 a 17-year veteran New Orleans Police Officer Tommie Felix was killed when his vehicle drove off the bridge, currently the cause is under investigation
21.
Hurricane Katrina
–
Hurricane Katrina was the costliest natural disaster and one of the five deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States. The storm is ranked as the third most intense United States landfalling tropical cyclone. Overall, at least 1,245 people died in the hurricane and subsequent floods, total property damage was estimated at $108 billion, roughly four times the damage wrought by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 in the United States. Early the following day, the new depression intensified into Tropical Storm Katrina, the cyclone headed generally westward toward Florida and strengthened into a hurricane only two hours before making landfall at Hallandale Beach and Aventura on August 25. After very briefly weakening to a storm, Katrina emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 26. The storm caused severe destruction along the Gulf coast from central Florida to Texas, much of it due to the storm surge, severe property damage occurred in coastal areas, such as Mississippi beachfront towns, over 90 percent of these were flooded. Boats and casino barges rammed buildings, pushing cars and houses inland, over fifty breaches in New Orleanss hurricane surge protection were the cause of the majority of the death and destruction during Katrina on August 29,2005. Eventually 80% of the city and large tracts of neighboring parishes became flooded, according to a modeling exercise conducted by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, two-thirds of the deaths in Greater New Orleans were due to levee and floodwall failure. All of the studies concluded that the USACE, the designers and builders of the levee system as mandated by the Flood Control Act of 1965, is responsible. This is mainly due to a decision to use shorter steel sheet pilings in an effort to save money, exactly ten years after Katrina, J. Many other government officials were criticized for their responses, especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco, several agencies including the United States Coast Guard, National Hurricane Center, and National Weather Service were commended for their actions. They provided accurate hurricane weather tracking forecasts with sufficient lead time, Hurricane Katrina formed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the southeastern Bahamas on August 23,2005, as the result of an interaction of a tropical wave and the remains of Tropical Depression Ten. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina on the morning of August 24, the tropical storm moved towards Florida, and became a hurricane only two hours before making landfall between Hallandale Beach and Aventura on the morning of August 25. The storm weakened over land, but it regained hurricane status about one hour after entering the Gulf of Mexico, on August 27, the storm reached Category 3 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale, becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle disrupted the intensification, but caused the storm to nearly double in size, the storm rapidly intensified after entering the Gulf, growing from a Category 3 hurricane to a Category 5 hurricane in just nine hours. This rapid growth was due to the movement over the unusually warm waters of the Loop Current. Katrina attained Category 5 status on the morning of August 28 and reached its peak strength at 1800 UTC that day, with sustained winds of 175 mph. However, this record was broken by Hurricane Rita
22.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
23.
Carondelet Canal
–
The Carondelet Canal, also known as the Old Basin Canal, was a canal in New Orleans, Louisiana, U. S. A. operating from 1794 into the 1920s – or nearly 135 years. It ceased to be navigable in 1927 and was filled in 1938, construction of the canal began in June 1794, on the orders of Governor of Louisiana, Baron Carondelet, for whom the canal was named. The first shallow, narrow version of the canal was completed by the end of 1794, over the next two years, further work made the canal wider and deeper. It served dual purposes of water drainage and facilitating shipping. After the United States purchase of Louisiana, James Pitot worked to promote improvements of the canal, starting in 1805, the Orleans Navigation Company improved the Canal and the Bayou, making it more important for shipping. The 80, 000-square-foot turning basin at the head of the Canal inspired the naming of Basin Street in New Orleans, plans to build a connecting canal from the turning basin to the Mississippi River were never realized, in part because of the engineering challenges. Canal locks would have been needed due to the level differences between the River and the Lake. Plans for that never-built canal influenced the name of Canal Street in the city, by the early 1820s,70 to 80 vessels were reported using the Canal daily. By the time of the American Civil War, the New Basin Canal was doing more than twice the business of the Carondelet, by then often referred to as the Old Basin Canal. Larger ships too big to use the canal became more common in the late 19th century, during this period it was important for the oyster boat business. Early monarchs of the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club Mardi Gras krewe made their entrance on the waters of the Old Basin Canal, after World War I, use of the Canal declined further. In 1927 it was declared to no longer be a navigable waterway, portions of the old Carondelet Canal infrastructure remain as among the oldest sections of the citys storm water drainage system
24.
French Quarter
–
The French Quarter, also known as the Vieux Carré, is the oldest neighborhood in the city of New Orleans. After New Orleans was founded in 1718 by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, the city developed around the Vieux Carré, the district is more commonly called the French Quarter today, or simply The Quarter, related to changes in the city with American immigration after the Louisiana Purchase. The district as a whole has been designated as a National Historic Landmark and it is a prime tourist destination in the city, as well as attracting local residents. The French Quarter is located at 29°57′31″N 90°03′54″W and has an elevation of 1 foot, according to the United States Census Bureau, the district has a total area of 0.66 square miles. 0.49 square miles of which is land and 0.17 square miles of which is water, the most common definition of the French Quarter includes all the land stretching along the Mississippi River from Canal Street to Esplanade Avenue and inland to North Rampart Street. It equals an area of 78 square blocks, louis Street and North Rampart Street to the west. The National Historic Landmark district is stated to be 85 square blocks, the Quarter is subdistrict of the French Quarter/CBD Area. Faubourg Marigny Mississippi River Central Business District Iberville Tremé As of the census of 2000, there were 4,176 people,2,908 households, the population density was 8,523 /mi². As of the census of 2010, there were 3,813 people,2,635 households, most of the French Quarters architecture was built during the late 18th century and the period of Spanish rule over the city, which is reflected in the architecture of the neighborhood. Their strict new fire codes mandated that all structures be physically adjacent, the old French peaked roofs were replaced with flat tiled ones, and wooden siding was banned in favor of fire-resistant stucco, painted in the pastel hues fashionable at the time. As a result, colorful walls and roofs and elaborately decorated ironwork balconies and galleries, from the late 18th, when Anglophone Americans began to move in after the Louisiana Purchase, they mostly built on available land upriver, across modern-day Canal Street. This thoroughfare became the place of two cultures, one Francophone Creole and the other Anglophone American. The median of the boulevard became a place where the two contentious cultures could meet and do business in both French and English. As such, it known as the neutral ground. Even before the Civil War, French Creoles had become a minority in the French Quarter, in the late 19th century the Quarter became a less fashionable part of town, and many immigrants from southern Italy and Ireland settled there. In 1905, the Italian consul estimated that one-third to one-half of the Quarter’s population were Italian-born or second generation Italian-Americans, Irish immigrants also settled heavily in the Esplanade area, which was called the Irish Channel. In 1917, the closure of Storyville sent much of the vice formerly concentrated therein back into the French Quarter, was the last straw, and they began to move uptown. This, combined with the loss of the French Opera House two years later, provided a bookend to the era of French Creole culture in the Quarter, many of the remaining French Creoles moved to the University area
25.
Bayou St. John
–
Bayou St. John is a bayou within the city of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Bayou as a natural feature drained the land of a good portion of what was to become New Orleans. Charles Avenue above Lee Circle, the Carrollton neighborhood, the Treme neighborhood, the portion still in existence today was navigable by canoes and similar small vessels, used by Native Americans since pre-Columbian times. The natives knew the waterway as Bayouk Choupic, the Bayou and portage were key factors in the selection of the site where the city was founded in 1718, at the River end of the portage route. The portage trail along the bayou became the Grand Route St. John which eventually was replaced by the wide, after the destructive hurricanes of 1778 and 1779, the charitable Bayou plantation owner, Don Andres Almonester, rebuilt the Charity Hospital. Earlier Almonester had founded a hospital near the portage road prior to the construction of the important Carondelet waterway. After the Louisiana purchase in 1803, the Carondelet Canal was dug to connect the back of the city with the Bayou, in the 19th century, an area along Bayou St. John was reputedly the location of many voodoo rituals by Marie Laveau. During the first half of the 20th century, commercial use of the Bayou declined, some New Orleanians began living in houseboats on the Bayou. Complaints from residents of neighborhoods and sanitation concerns led to this practice being outlawed in the 1930s. A Works Progress Administration project cleaned up and beautified the area, a lock was installed near the Lake Pontchartrain end. In the summer of 1955, the New Orleans Sewerage and Water Board temporarily drained the Bayou, to clean out debris, since then, the Bayou has been a picturesque body of water with small earthen levees on either side, forming a narrow park space in the city. From the mid-20th century on, the banks of the Bayou across from City Park became a destination for young couples seeking privacy. The banks of Bayou St. John are an important meeting place for the downtown Mardi Gras Indian tribes for their Super Sunday parade after Carnival
26.
Lock (water navigation)
–
A lock is a device used for raising and lowering boats, ships and other watercraft between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal waterways. Locks are used to make a more easily navigable, or to allow a canal to cross land that is not level. Later canals used more and larger locks to allow a direct route to be taken. Since 2016 the largest lock worldwide is the Kieldrecht Lock in the Port of Antwerp, a pound lock is a type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on canals and rivers. A pound lock has a chamber with gates at both ends that control the level of water in the pound, in contrast, an earlier design with a single gate was known as a flash lock. Pound locks were first used in medieval China during the Song Dynasty, having been pioneered by the government official and engineer Qiao Weiyue in 984. The gates were hanging gates, when they were closed the water accumulated like a tide until the level was reached. The water level could differ by 4 feet or 5 feet at each lock, in medieval Europe a sort of pound lock was built in 1373 at Vreeswijk, Netherlands. This pound lock serviced many ships at once in a large basin, yet the first true pound lock was built in 1396 at Damme near Bruges, Belgium. A famous civil engineer of pound locks in Europe was the Italian Bertola da Novate, who constructed 18 of them on the Naviglio di Bereguardo between the years 1452 and 1458. When a stretch of river is navigable, a lock is sometimes required to bypass an obstruction such as a rapid, dam. In large scale river navigation improvements, weirs and locks are used together, a river improved by these means is often called a Waterway or River Navigation. Sometimes a river is made entirely non-tidal by constructing a sea lock directly into the estuary, in more advanced river navigations, more locks are required. Where a longer cut bypasses a stretch of river, the upstream end of the cut will often be protected by a flood lock. The longer the cut, the greater the difference in level between start and end of the cut, so that a very long cut will need additional locks along its length. At this point, the cut is, in effect, a canal, Early completely artificial canals, across fairly flat countryside, would get round a small hill or depression by simply detouring around it. However, locks continued to be built to supplement these solutions, all pound locks have three elements, A watertight chamber connecting the upper and lower canals, and large enough to enclose one or more boats. The position of the chamber is fixed, but its level can vary
27.
Canal Street, New Orleans
–
Canal Street is a major thoroughfare in the city of New Orleans. Up until the early 1800s, it was the Creoles who lived in the Vieux Carré, after the Louisiana Purchase, a large influx of other cultures began to find their way into the city via the Mississippi River. A number of Americans from Kentucky and other Midwestern states moved into the city, along the division between these two cultures, a canal was planned. The canal was never built but the street took its place received the name. Furthermore, the median of the street known as the neutral ground. To this day, all medians of New Orleans streets are called neutral grounds, one end of Canal Street terminates at the Mississippi River. Canal Streets other terminus is in Mid-City at a collection of cemeteries, slightly offset from the Mid-City end is the beginning of Canal Boulevard, which extends to the shore of Lake Pontchartrain via the Lakeview neighborhood. Throughout its length, Canal, which runs east and west, serves as a line for cross streets running north and south. The street has three lanes of traffic in both directions, with a pair of tracks in the center. Canal Streets downtown segment serves as the hub of the public transit system or RTA, with numerous streetcar. Canal Street is often said to be the widest roadway in America to have called a street. For more than a century, Canal Street was the shopping district of Greater New Orleans. Local department stores Maison Blanche, D. H, the department stores began as sellers of fabric, notions, and accessories, with extensive floor space and glass windows. As elevators and escalators allowed for multi-floor department stores, the stores were enlarged, cities — and it received a boost in 1983 with the completion of Canal Places retail component. However, national trends disfavoring downtown retail finally caught up with Canal Street — with a key assist from the economic depression of the mid-80s. One Canal Place has three levels which are occupied by The Shops at Canal Place. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, a fire inflicted heavy damage to the Saks Fifth Avenue store, the mall reopened in February 2006, and a completely-remodeled Saks reopened in November. One Canal Place Office Tower is a Class A commercial office building managed by Corporate Realty and it is adjacent to the Westin New Orleans Hotel
28.
Port of New Orleans
–
The Port of New Orleans is a deep-water draft port located in New Orleans, Louisiana. It is the sixth-largest port in the United States based on volume of cargo handled and it also has the longest wharf in the world, which is 2.01 miles long and can accommodate 15 vessels at one time. The Port of New Orleans handles about 62 million short tons of cargo a year, the Port of South Louisiana, based in the New Orleans suburb of LaPlace handles 193 million short tons. The Port of New Orleans and the Port of South Louisiana combined form one of the largest port systems in the world by bulk tonnage, in 1946 a foreign trade zone was established in the port. The Port of New Orleans is the center of the Lower Mississippi River port complex in Louisiana, some 6,000 vessels and 500 million tons of cargo travel up and down the Mississippi River each year, including over half of the countrys grain exports. With this extremely high rate of traffic, the Port of New Orleans is seen as the point of American waterway trade. These six railroads are linked by the New Orleans Public Belt, the Port of New Orleans has made significant investments in assuring state-of-the-art facilities throughout the port. Revitalized container and breakbulk terminals are equipped with multi-purpose cranes, expanded marshalling yards. The Port of New Orleans facilities include over 204 hectares of cargo-handling areas, Port facilities accommodate about 2,000 vessel calls per year. The Port of New Orleans Napoleon Container Terminal is a $100 million 25-hectare state-of-the-art facility. The Henry Clay Avenue and Milan Street terminals in the Port of New Orleans are served by the worlds longest wharf, New Orleans Cold Storage a 14,800 square meter dockside cold storage facility at the Jourdan Road Terminal that contains ten super-blast freezing cells. As the countrys major coffee-handling port, the Port of New Orleans has 14 warehouses covering over 51 hectares of storage space, operated by P&O Ports of Louisiana, the Port of New Orleanss Henry Clay Avenue Wharf is located on the east bank of the Mississippi River. It handles containerized, breakbulk, and palletized cargoes, Berth 1 is 256 meters long with alongside depth of 11.5 meters. It is served by rail and has an 8,800 square meter shed,15,900 square meters of open area, Ports America Louisiana operates Nashville Avenue Wharves A, B, and C in the Port of New Orleans. Wharf A handles containerized, breakbulk, and palletized cargoes and its five berths are a total of 841 meters long with alongside depth of 10.6 meters. The wharf is served by rail and contains a 70,200 square meter shed,248,400 square meters of open space, the Port of New Orleans Nashville Avenue Wharf B has three berths totaling 544 meters long with alongside depth of 10.6 meters. Served by rail, the wharf has 13,100 square meters of shed and 248,400 square meters of open storage, the Port of New Orleans Nashville Avenue Wharf C is 505 meters long with alongside depth of 10.6 meters. Its three berths are served by rail tracks and platform-level tracks with truck service, and a 248,400 square meter open storage area
29.
Panama Canal
–
The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
30.
New Basin Canal
–
The New Basin Canal, also known as the New Canal and the New Orleans Canal, was a shipping canal in New Orleans, Louisiana, from the 1830s through the 1940s. The New Basin Canal was constructed by the New Orleans Canal and Banking Company, yellow fever ravaged workers in the swamp in back of town, and the loss of slaves was judged too expensive, so most of the work was done by Irish immigrant laborers. The Irish workers died in great numbers, but the Company had no trouble finding men to take their place. Many were willing to risk their lives in hazardous, back-breaking work for a chance to earn $1 a day. By 1838, after an expense of $1 million, the 60-foot wide 3. 17-mile long canal was complete enough to be opened to small vessels drawing 6 feet, with $0.375 per ton charged for passage. Over the next decade the canal was enlarged to 12 feet deep,100 feet wide, many were buried without a grave marker in the levee and roadway-fill beside the canal. The New Canal Lighthouse or more commonly New Basin Canal Lighthouse was built on the far end of one of the jetties at the entrance to the canal and they were brought into the city near the River, via the canal, and used to build many uptown houses. The importance of the canal declined after World War I, especially with the opening of the Industrial Canal in 1923, in 1936 the Louisiana State Legislature passed a state constitutional amendment to close the canal. In 1937-38 the area back to Claiborne Avenue was filled in and it was filled in by about 1950, except for a half-mile-long stretch at the lakefront by the lighthouse, which has been used as a harbor for small boats and yachts and continues to exist. Much of the route became the Pontchartrain Expressway in the 1950s, the stretch from the Interstate to just shy of Robert E. Lee Blvd was developed into the present-day New Basin Canal Park, a linear green space paralleling West End Boulevard. On November 4,1990, the Irish Cultural Society of New Orleans dedicated a large Kilkenny marble Celtic cross in the park to commemorate the Irish workers who constructed the canal. The lighthouse which stands at the entrance to the canal, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985 as the New Canal Lighthouse and it was heavily damaged during the 2005 hurricane season by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. The first floor had collapsed and its cupola had fallen off, in 2006, the Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation signed a lease with the United States Coast Guard to repair the damaged lighthouse. It was disassembled and the building was put into storage, reconstruction of the lighthouse began in February 2012 and was completed in 2013. The New Canal Lighthouse is located on 30°1′37″N 90°6′47″W, drainage in New Orleans Lakeview, New Orleans New Canal Lighthouse West End, New Orleans Help Save the Lighthouse
31.
Jackson Barracks
–
Jackson Barracks is the headquarters of the Louisiana National Guard. It is located in the Lower 9th Ward of New Orleans, the base was established in 1834 and was originally known as New Orleans Barracks. On July 7,1866, it was renamed in honor of Andrew Jackson, the National Register of Historic Places listed Jackson Barracks in 1976. After the War of 1812, the U. S. Congress realized coastal cities did not have adequate defenses, so they prescribed the Federal Fortifications Act. The Act, signed by Congress on July 19,1832, provided over $180,000 for the acquisition of lands, the building of barracks to house U. S. Troops, and the establishment of command and control centers. His quadrangle design, in the center of the post, was intended to be a point in the event of an attack. The backs of the buildings were designed with no outward facing windows, a 10-foot brick facade joined the houses and fortified the post. The front of the Barracks by the river, had a levee, road, railroad, the back of the Barracks by St. Claude Avenue, housed a powder magazine to store ammunition. The first troops were in the barracks by February 1837, Colonel David E. Twiggs, the commanding officer of the 2nd Regiment of Dragoons, was chosen as the first commandant of the Post. During this time, Ulysses S. Grant, Robert E. Lee, stuart, P. G. T. Beauregard, were all stationed at the Barracks, although not at the same time. During the Mexican–American War, New Orleans Barracks became a post for sending and receiving troops, the wounded troops returning from Mexico initiated the construction of a federally operated hospital in 1849. It became the first Public Service Hospital for Veterans in the country, on May 17,1848, additional property was purchased from Mrs. Prudence Desilets expanding the Barracks north of Saint Claude Avenue to allow for the new hospital. The facility was a French designed, four-building, 2-story, open-bay hospital ward, the hospital remained active until its demolition in 1888. The sturdy wood was salvaged and used to construct bungalows around the Barracks, in 1861, Louisiana seceded from the United States. Confederate forces took control of the Barracks and held it for less than one year, on July 7,1866, the barracks was renamed “Jackson Barracks” after the colonial who led the Battle of New Orleans, Old Hickory, Andrew Jackson. Three years later, the United States reorganized its “colored troops” into colored regiments, an ACT of Congress signed March 3,1869, reduced the four colored regiments to two. The 39th and 40th Regiments were consolidated and renumbered as the 25th Infantry Regiment headquartered at Jackson Barracks, known as the Buffalo Soldiers, they served the United States during the Indian wars and Spanish–American War. During World War I, the Barracks was used as a station where General John J. Pershing reviewed the troops leaving for war
32.
Old Ursuline Convent, New Orleans
–
Ursuline Convent was a series of historic Ursuline convents in New Orleans, Louisiana. The first building for the Ursuline nuns in New Orleans was designed by Ignace François Broutin in 1727 when the arrived in New Orleans. Michael Zeringue, the Kings Master Carpenter from Franconia, Bavaria, planning, collecting material, and construction took years. Existing drawings show the building in 1733, although it was not officially finished until the following year, colombage or briquette-entre-poteaux was the major form of French Colonial construction in the colony during the 18th century. Such construction proved to be inappropriate for the climate of New Orleans. In 1745 plans for a new building of brick and protected colombage were prepared by Ignace Broutin, the contractor was Claude Joseph Villars Dubreuil, Contractor of Public Works for the King. His wife, Marie Payen de Noyan, was Bienvilles sister and this structure was completed in 1751. It is likely that Alexandre de Batz also took part in the design because several payments are listed to him for work on the new building. The new building was laid out adjacent to the site of the older structure, built of stucco-covered brick, the new building, also known as Old Ursuline Convent, is typical for the French neoclassical architecture. It is a formal, symmetrical building, severely designed in its lack of ornamentation, no applied orders of pilasters or columns relieved the plain walls. Only the slightly arched window set in shallow moldings, the quoins at the corners. The broad plain hipped roof, broken only by small low-set dormers contrasts well with the multi-windowed façade and completes the austere but not unpleasant, the ground floor was used largely for the dormitory, classrooms, refectory, and infirmary of the orphanage, maintained by the nuns. The second floor contained cells for the nuns, a library, infirmary, the winding stairway visible from the main entrance hallway is believed to be from the original convent, installed in the new building. This is the finest surviving example of French colonial public architecture in the country and it is by some accounts the oldest structure in New Orleans, built between 1748 and 1752. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960, the convent and its associated school, Ursuline Academy, moved downriver to a site on Dauphine Street in the 9th Ward in 1824, turning over the original convent to the Bishop of New Orleans. It was then referred to as the “Archbishop’s Palace, in 1912 the convent moved uptown to State Street. The Ursuline property covered two city squares, extending to Royal Street, an old ground plan shows a chapel at the corner of Ursulines and Decatur Streets, dedicated to Our Lady of Victory. Near the entrance to the grounds, along the levee, were also a house for visitors, the day school
33.
Dredging
–
Dredging is an excavation activity usually carried out underwater, in shallow seas or freshwater areas with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and disposing of them at a different location. This technique is used to keep waterways navigable. It is also used as a way to replenish sand on some public beaches, fishing dredges are used as a technique for catching certain species of edible clams and crabs. Capital, dredging carried out to create a new harbor, berth or waterway, preparatory, work and excavation for future bridges, piers or docks/wharves, often connected with foundation work. This is often carried out with a trailing suction hopper dredge, most dredging is for this purpose, and it may also be done to maintain the holding capacity of reservoirs or lakes. Land reclamation, dredging to mine sand, clay or rock from the seabed and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. The material may also be used for flood or erosion control, beach nourishment, mining sand offshore and placing on a beach to replace sand eroded by storms or wave action. This is done to enhance the recreational and protective function of the beaches and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. Harvesting materials, dredging sediment for elements like gold, diamonds or other valuable trace substances, seabed mining, a possible future use, recovering natural metal ore nodules from the seas abyssal plains. Construction materials, dredging sand and gravels from offshore licensed areas for use in construction industry, very specialist industry focused in NW Europe using specialized trailing suction hopper dredgers self discharging dry cargo ashore. Anti-eutrophication, Dredging is an option for the remediation of eutrophied water bodies. Contaminant remediation, to areas affected by chemical spills, storm water surges. Disposal becomes a large factor in these operations. Removing trash and debris, often done in combination with maintenance dredging, flood prevention, this can help to increase channel depth and therefore increase a channels capacity for carrying water. This tradition has now more or less obsolete and the tools used to do this have also changed significantly. Oyster dredging or harvesting, in Louisiana and other states with salt water estuaries that can sustain bottom oyster beds. A heavy metal rectangular scoop device is towed astern of a boat with a chain bridle attached to a cable. The device is periodically hauled aboard and the oysters in it are sorted and bagged for shipment to a processing facility
34.
Governor
–
A governor is, in most cases, a public official with the power to govern the executive branch of a non-sovereign or sub-national level of government, ranking under the head of state. In federations, governor may be the title of a politician who governs a constituent state and these companies operate as a major state within a state with its own armed forces. For example, in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, there are governors, school governors. The adjective pertaining to a governor is gubernatorial, from the Latin root gubernyare, the historical female form is governess, though female officials are referred to by the gender-neutral form governor of the noun to avoid confusion with other meanings of the term. Indeed, many regions of the pre-Roman antiquity were ultimately replaced by Roman standardized provincial governments after their conquest by Rome, in Pharaonic times, the governors of each of the various provinces in the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt are usually known by the Greek word. The core function of a Roman governor was as a magistrate or judge, and the management of taxation, under the Republic and the early Empire, however, a governor also commanded military forces in his province. Republican governors were all men who had served in senior magistracies in Rome in the previous year, a special case was Egypt, a rich private domain and vital granary, where the Emperor almost inherited the theocratic status of a Pharaoh. The Emperor was represented there by a sui generis styled praefectus augustalis. Otherwise, the governors of provinces had various titles, some known as consularis, apart from Egypt and the East, each diocese was directed by a governor known as a vicarius. The prefectures were directed by praefecti praetorio and this system survived with few significant changes until the collapse of the empire in the West, and in the East, the breakdown of order with the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century. At that stage, a new kind of governor emerged, the Strategos, today, crown colonies of the United Kingdom continue to be administered by a governor, who holds varying degrees of power. Because of the different constitutional histories of the colonies of the United Kingdom. Administrators, Commissioners and High Commissioners exercise similar powers to Governors, frequently the name Government House is given to Governors residences. The term can also be used in a generic sense, especially for compound titles which include it, Governor-general. In the United Kingdoms remaining overseas territories, the governor is normally a direct appointee of the British Government, the Governors chief responsibility is for the Defence and External Affairs of the colony. In some minor overseas territories, instead of a Governor, there is an Administrator or Commissioner, in Australia, each state has the governor as its formal representative of the Queen, as head of the state government. It is not an office but a ceremonial one. Each state governor is appointed by the Queen of Australia on the advice of the Premier, State Governors have emergency reserve powers but these are rarely used
35.
John M. Parker
–
John Milliken Parker, Sr. was an American Democratic politician from Louisiana, who served as the states 37th Governor from 1920 to 1924. He was a friend and admirer of U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt, Parker was born in Washington, a village in St. Landry Parish, in south central Louisiana. He was educated at the prep school Chamberlain-Hunt Academy in Port Gibson, Mississippi, Belle View Academy. A prominent businessman, he was the president of the New Orleans Cotton Exchange, in 1891, Parker participated in the mob that lynched eleven Italian immigrants in New Orleans, avenging the murder of Police Chief David C. He refused to apologize for his role because he believed the mass lynching was justified, Parker first ran for governor in 1916 as the nominee of Roosevelts 1912 Progressive Party and polled 37.2 percent of the vote against the Democratic choice, Ruffin Golson Pleasant of Shreveport. Later in 1916, the national Progressive Party chose Parker as its candidate for vice president, the Democrats Woodrow Wilson and Thomas Marshall were nevertheless reelected to the presidency and vice presidency. Four years later, Parker returned to the Democratic fold, considered a move to win a Louisiana election at the time. Louisiana governors were then term-limited after a single term but could seek second terms after sitting out four years. As governor, Parker was known for his interest in building roads in rural areas. There were few paved highways at the time in Louisiana, Parker advocated increased oil and gas severance taxes to finance public education. Huey Pierce Long, Jr. criticized Parkers tax plan as too little for the states needs, Parker also opposed the New Orleans political machine. Like Roosevelt, Parker was a staunch conservationist of natural resources, and he was sceptical of large business combinations that tended to become monopolies. Parker led the move to draw up the Louisiana Constitution of 1921 and he also pushed for the relocation of Louisiana State University from the downtown to the southern part of Baton Rouge. His old rival Huey Long later tried to mold LSU into the Long mystique, Parker failed to increase educational funding to the level desired and to expand state civil service protection. He often found that his fiscal conservatism was in conflict with his progressive spirit, on Christmas Day 1916, the family of John Nelson Reeves, including his wife Maude and three of their four children, was bludgeoned to death by a group of axe-wielding men. The presumed motive for the killing was money that Reeves, who distrusted banks, had boasted of having stashed away in a mattress in his house. The prosecutor in the case, Harmon Caldwell Drew of Minden, had been on the job for less than a month when the crime occurred. The district judge in the case was John N. Sandlin, later a U. S. representative, Governor Parker, on Sandlins recommendation, commuted the sentences of Tyson and Peters to twenty years, and they were released in 1936
36.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
37.
Harbor
–
A harbor or harbour, or haven, is a body of water where ships, boats and barges seek shelter from stormy weather, or are stored for future use. Ports are often located in harbors, harbors can be natural or artificial. An artificial harbor can have deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jettys, or they can be constructed by dredging, in contrast, a natural harbor is surrounded on several sides by prominences of land. Examples of natural harbors include Sydney Harbour, Australia and Trincomalee Harbour in Sri Lanka, artificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports. The oldest artificial harbor known is the Ancient Egyptian site at Wadi al-Jarf, on the Red Sea coast, the largest artificially created harbor is Jebel Ali in Dubai. The Ancient Carthaginians constructed fortified, artificial harbors called cothons, a natural harbor is a landform where a part of a body of water is protected and deep enough to furnish anchorage. Natural harbors have long been of great strategic naval and economic importance, having a protected harbor reduces or eliminates the need for breakwaters as it will result in calmer waves inside the harbor. For harbors near the North and South Poles, being ice-free is an important advantage, the worlds southmost harbor, located at Antarcticas Winter Quarters Bay, is potentially ice-free, depending on the summertime pack ice conditions. Although the worlds busiest port is a hotly contested title, in 2006 the worlds busiest harbor by cargo tonnage was the Port of Shanghai
38.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
39.
Intracoastal Waterway
–
Some sections of the waterway consist of natural inlets, saltwater rivers, bays, and sounds, while others are artificial canals. It provides a route along its length without many of the hazards of travel on the open sea. Since the coastline represented the border and commerce of the time was chiefly by water. The improvement of the natural transportation routes was a major concern for all geographic regions. These improvements were also a source of political division about where and how improvements should be developed, who should pay, in 1802, at the request of the Senate, Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin presented an overall plan for future transportation developments of national importance and scope. Marys along the coast of South Carolina and Georgia and it is unnecessary to add any comments on the utility of the work, in peace or war, for the transportation of merchandise or the conveyance of persons. Since these 1824 acts, the United States Army Corps of Engineers has responsibility for navigation waterway improvements, over time, additional portions of other coastal improvements were authorized for development, including the Houston Ship Channel and the Delaware River in 1872. While some policy corrections were implemented over the ensuing 30 years, in the River and Harbors Appropriations Acts of 1882 and 1884, Congress signaled its intent to improve waterways to benefit the nation by promoting competition among transportation modes. In 1887, the Interstate Commerce Act established federal regulation of railroads, the invention of the diesel engine in 1892 eventually led to the conversion of fuels for transportation from coal and steam to diesel and the internal combustion engine. This was greatly enhanced by World War I military uses and the beginning of a new age of fuel usage, andrews Bay, Florida, as well as a study of the most efficient means to move cargo. Between 1910 and 1914, navigation channels were deepened, and the screw propeller proved efficient for improved steering and flanking qualities, in 1936 the continuous 9 ft ×100 ft channel was completed between the Apalachicola River and New Orleans. By 1942, the 9 ft ×100 ft ICW channel was completed between New Orleans and Corpus Christi, today, federal law provides for the waterway to be maintained at a minimum depth of 12 feet for most of its length, but inadequate funding has prevented that. Consequently, for ships, shoaling or shallow waters are encountered along several sections of the waterway. While no tolls are charged for usage, commercial users have been charged a fuel tax since 1978. That year, the Inland Waterways Revenue Act imposed a fuel tax, originally set at 4 cents per gallon in 1980. The Water Resources Development Act of 1986 was a bill regarding all water resources utilization nationally. These segments were intended to be connected via a dredged waterway from St, marks to Tarpon Springs and the Cross Florida Barge Canal across northern Florida, but these projects were never completed due to environmental concerns. Additional canals and bays extend a navigable waterway to Boston, Massachusetts, the Intracoastal Waterway has a good deal of commercial activity, barges haul petroleum, petroleum products, foodstuffs, building materials, and manufactured goods
40.
Rigolets
–
The Rigolets is a 12.9 kilometer long strait in Louisiana. Rigolets comes from the word rigole, French for trench or gutter, the name is now locally pronounced RIG-uh-leez. It begins at 30°10′40″N 89°44′40″W and follows a generally eastward course to Lake Borgne, a lagoon in the Gulf of Mexico, and finally to the Gulf of Mexico, where it ends at 30°09′16″N 89°37′31″W. Along with nearby Chef Menteur Pass, the Rigolets connects Lake Pontchartrain and Lake St. Catherine to Lake Borgne and it forms the boundary between New Orleans and St. Tammany Parish. As a deepwater tidal pass, the Rigolets helps supply salt water from the Gulf to Lake Pontchartrain, tidal scouring has produced a deep pit in the lake at the western mouth of the strait. Since the Rigolets is a channel through which Gulf storm surges can approach the New Orleans area, the United States constructed Fort Pike following the War of 1812 to protect passage on the Rigolets. The fort was abandoned in 1890, the Rigolets is spanned by two bridges. The western terminus of the U. S. Route 90 Rigolets Bridge is located north of Fort Pike. It was damaged by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, which required major repairs, farther south, the CSX Railroad crosses the Rigolets on a 1, 388-meter railroad bridge. Hurricane damage there included shifted spans and the loss of timber decking
41.
Levee
–
A levee, dike, dyke, embankment, floodbank or stopbank is an elongated naturally occurring ridge or artificially constructed fill or wall, which regulates water levels. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlines, the word levee, from the French word levée, is used in American English. It originated in New Orleans a few years after the founding in 1718 and was later adopted by English speakers. The name derives from the trait of the ridges being raised higher than both the channel and the surrounding floodplains. The modern word dike or dyke most likely derives from the Dutch word dijk, the 126 kilometres long Westfriese Omringdijk was completed by 1250, and was formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus even mentions that the rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land, the word dijk originally indicated both the trench and the bank. It is closely related to the English verb to dig, in Anglo-Saxon, the word dic already existed and was pronounced as dick in northern England and as ditch in the south. Similar to Dutch, the English origins of the lie in digging a trench. This practice has meant that the name may be given to either the excavation or the bank, thus Offas Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench though it once had raised banks as well. In the midlands and north of England, and in the United States, a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property boundary marker or small drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a dike as in Rippingale Running Dike. The Weir Dike is a dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the River Glen. In the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, a dyke may be a ditch or a narrow artificial channel off a river or broad for access or mooring, some longer dykes being named. In parts of Britain, particularly Scotland, a dyke may be a field wall, Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders. Furthermore, levees have been built for the purpose of empoldering, the latter can be a controlled inundation by the military or a measure to prevent inundation of a larger area surrounded by levees. Levees have also built as field boundaries and as military defences. More on this type of levee can be found in the article on dry-stone walls, Levees can be permanent earthworks or emergency constructions built hastily in a flood emergency. When such a bank is added on top of an existing levee it is known as a cradge
42.
Hurricane Betsy
–
For other storms of the same name, see Tropical Storm Betsy. Hurricane Betsy was an intense and destructive tropical cyclone brought widespread damage to areas of Florida. While the storm affected areas of southern Florida and Louisiana. Betsy began as a tropical depression north of French Guiana on August 27, after executing a slight anticyclonic loop north of the Bahamas, Betsy proceeded to move through areas of South Florida on September 8, causing extensive crop damage. Once inland, Betsy was slow to weaken, and persisted for two days before degenerating into an extratropical storm, these remnants lasted until September 13. As a developing cyclone, Betsy tracked over the northern Leeward Islands, producing moderate gusts and slight rainfall. After tracking over open waters for several days, Betsy had significantly strengthened upon moving through the Bahamas, there, considerable damage occurred, particularly to crops on the archipelagos islands. For the island chain, Betsy was considered the worst hurricane since a cyclone impacted the region in 1929. Widespread power outage and property damage ensued due to the strong winds. Overall, damage on the Bahamas amounted to at least $14 million, from there Betsy tracked westward and made landfall on southern Florida, where it was considered the worst tropical cyclone since a hurricane in 1926. Betsys strong storm surge inundated portions of the Florida Keys, flooding streets. The only route out of the Keys onto the mainland was cut off by the storm, in the state alone, Betsy caused $139 million in damage and five deaths. Further inland, effects wrought by Betsy were considerably weaker, though precipitation caused by the storm extended as far northeast as Pennsylvania, rainfall was primarily beneficial in Arkansas, though localized flooding impacted rice and cotton crops. In Kentucky and Illinois, strong winds caused moderate property damage, in addition the hurricane caused 81 deaths, primarily in Louisiana. After the season, the United States Weather Bureau retired the name Betsy from their lists of tropical cyclone names. The origins of Hurricane Betsy can be traced back to an area of disturbed weather southwest of Cape Verde that first identified via TIROS satellite imagery on August 23. Based on information from the flight, it was estimated that the system had organized into a depression by 0000 UTC on August 27,350 mi east-southeast of Barbados. Nonetheless, the cyclone was given the name Betsy for a period of time as a tropical depression
43.
Claiborne Avenue
–
Claiborne Avenue is a major thoroughfare in New Orleans, Louisiana. It is called South Claiborne Avenue upriver from Canal Street and North Claiborne Avenue from Canal to St. Bernard Parish, New Orleans longest street was named in honor of William C. C. Claiborne, the first United States governor of Louisiana, serving during both the period and as the first governor under statehood. New Orleans was the city in those days of the early 19th century. Claiborne Avenue can be divided into three sections as it winds through the city, following the curves of the Mississippi River. For the first few miles in the city coming from Jefferson Parish, Claiborne Avenue is part of U. S. Highway 90, Highway 90 shifts to Broad Street as it meanders its way out of New Orleans toward Slidell, while Claiborne continues towards the Central Business District. For this stretch, the street is six lanes, three in each direction, with a ground in the middle. It passes through a mix of residential and commercial districts, the wide neutral ground was lined with Southern live oak trees, and the public green space served as a center of congregation for the areas primarily African-American residents. The Claiborne intersection at Orleans Avenue, in the heart of Treme and this stretch of Claiborne is primarily commercial, with residential neighborhoods throughout the adjacent blocks. It traditionally served as an important African-American shopping district, a counterweight to Canal Street, for three blocks, Claiborne also passes the old Saint Louis Cemetery Number 2 in this section. The History of Claiborne Avenue and Controversy of the I-10 Claiborne Avenue was once a ground and main street for Tremé. In the 1950s, this served as a community space lined with large oak trees. During Carnival season, families would camp out, barbecue, due to racial segregation and Jim Crow laws in the South, African-Americans were not permitted to shop at white-owned stores. This resulted in the birth of the African American business district on Claiborne Avenue and this historic strip included a plethora of booming African American-owned businesses such as, theaters, drug stores, insurance companies, restaurants, and toy stores that occupied the space. At the cross section of St. Bernard Avenue and Claiborne was the St. Bernard Circle, the intersection bustled with activity around the famous Circle Food Store in New Orleans historic Seventh Ward. This store was incorporated in 1938 and was New Orleans first African American-owned full-service grocery store for 77 years, the Circle Food Store provided groceries, a pharmacy, a doctor, a dentist, a chiropractor, check cashing and banking, and a place to buy school uniforms. To much opposition from the residents, a six-lane elevated Interstate-10 was constructed on Claiborne Avenue in 1969. The famous oak trees were removed from the avenue, nearly 500 homes in the area were destroyed, families were displaced, now over fifty years later, the only oak trees that line Claiborne Avenue are the ones painted on the concrete columns that support the interstate
44.
ING 4727
–
ING4727 was built in 1990. It was a dry cargo cover-top barge with a steel hull and it had an overall length of 200 feet, a beam of 35 feet and a height of 12 feet, plus a coaming height of approximately 4 feet above the deck. The fiberglass covers atop the hopper added another approximately 5 feet of height, the cargo hopper yielded 84659 cubes of volume. Fully loaded to a draft of 10 feet, the barge could carry 1877 tons of cargo, light draft was 1 foot 4 & 1/2 inches. Shortly before Katrina, ING4727 was under charter by Lafarge North America, having delivered a load of cement. ING4727 was reportedly in the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet Canal in New Orleans when the storm hit, evidently not secured adequately for hurricane conditions, the barge found its way into the Industrial Canal where it went through a breach into the Lower 9th Ward neighborhood. While many other vessels in southeast Louisiana broke their moorings during the storm, although its dimensions are standard for barges in commerce on the Mississippi River System, it is larger than most houses. During and right after the storm, ING4727 was moved around by currents in the neighborhood, smashing houses. Many locals blame the barge for the inundation of the area. Some lawyers have blamed the barge, including its owners and the cement terminal that had moored the barge and which had the barge in its care, custody, the LSU report subsequently found that overtopping did not occur, rather, design failures precipited the levee failures. Another group of investigators, funded by the State of Louisiana, as the Lower 9th Ward was dewatered, ING4727 at first came to rest atop a number of house sites on the east side of Jourdan Avenue. Hurricane Rita, however, subsequently raised the level in the Industrial Canal sufficiently to top the still-incomplete levee repairs, reflooding the area. In the months after Katrina, the became a morbid tourist attraction for those interested in the devastation. A number of pieces were under order to be preserved as evidence in pending lawsuits. Removal of the pieces of the barge from the Lower 9th Ward was completed the week of March,2006. On 4 June 2007, a Federal trial looking into possible liability of Ingram, effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans Levee failures in Greater New Orleans,2005 Ingram Barge Company
45.
Hurricane Rita
–
Hurricane Rita was the fourth-most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded and the most intense tropical cyclone ever observed in the Gulf of Mexico. Rita formed near The Bahamas from a wave on September 18 that originally developed off the coast of West Africa. It moved westward, and after passing through the Florida Straits, moving west-northwest, it rapidly intensified to reach peak winds of 180 mph, achieving Category 5 status on September 21st. Rapidly weakening over land, Rita degenerated into a large area over the lower Mississippi Valley by September 26th. Parishes in Southwest Louisiana and counties in Southeast Texas where Rita made landfall suffered from catastrophic-to-severe flooding, according to an October 25,2005 Disaster Center report,4,526 single-family dwellings were destroyed in Orange and Jefferson counties located in Southeast Texas. Major damage was sustained by 14,256 additional single-family dwellings, mobile homes and apartments also sustained significant damage or total destruction. In all, nine Texas counties and five Louisiana Parishes were declared disaster areas after the storm, electric service was disrupted in some areas of both Texas and Louisiana for several weeks. Texas reported the most deaths from the hurricane, where 113 deaths were reported,107 of which were associated with the evacuation of the Houston metropolitan area, moderate to severe damage was reported across the lower Mississippi Valley. Rainfall from the storm and its associated remnants extended from Louisiana to Michigan, rainfall peaked at 16.00 in in Central Louisiana. Several tornadoes were also associated with the hurricane and its subsequent remnants, throughout the path of Rita, damage totaled about $12 billion. As many as 120 deaths in four U. S. states were directly related to the hurricane, on September 7,2005, a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa and moved westward into the Atlantic Ocean. Failing to produce organized, deep convection, the disturbance was not monitored by the National Hurricane Center for tropical cyclogenesis. Convection associated with the system increased briefly late on September 13 before dissipating shortly thereafter, at roughly the same time, a remnant surface trough had developed from a dissipating stationary front and began to drift westward north of the Lesser Antilles. Meanwhile, the wave slowly became better organized and was first noted in the NHCs Tropical Weather Outlooks on September 15 while northeast of Puerto Rico. The wave merged with the surface trough two days later, triggering an increase in activity and organization. At the time, the disturbance, classified as Tropical Depression Eighteen, was roughly 80 mi east of Grand Turk Island in the Turks, as a result, the tropical storm was named Rita. Once the upper-level low weakened, Ritas center of circulation reformed to the north, consequently, the tropical storm resumed its previous strengthening trend as it was steered westward across The Bahamas along the south periphery of a ridge. Upon entering the Straits of Florida on September 20, Rita strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane by 1200 UTC, six hours later, Rita intensified further into Category 2 before subsequently passing approximately 45 mi south of Key West, Florida
46.
Seabrook Floodgate
–
The Inner Harbor Navigation Canal Seabrook Floodgate Structure is a flood barrier in the Industrial Canal in New Orleans, Louisiana. The floodgate is designed to protect the Industrial Canal and the areas from a storm surge from Lake Ponchartrain. It consists of two 50 ft wide vertical lift gates and a 95 ft wide sector gate, simon Drive, and raising the Hayne Boulevard ramps on both the east and west sides of the canal. When complete, the Seabrook structure will close the remaining gap on the East Bank of the Hurricane. The US Army Corps of Engineers awarded the construction of the project to Alberici Constructors, the floodgate structure opened to marine traffic in August 2012. The same month it was closed for the first time, in order to protect the city from Hurricane Isaac
47.
Dam
–
A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity, a dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, the first known appearance of dam occurs in 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be related to the Greek word taphos, so the word should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40 places from the Middle Dutch era such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the level, for Mesopotamias weather affected the Tigris. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan,100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman and this gravity dam featured an originally 9-metre-high and 1 m-wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC, the Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC as a dam for flood control. During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 and is today as Berkat Qaroun. One of the wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most important around 750 BC and these extensive works were not actually finalized until 325 AD and allowed the irrigation of 25,000 acres. By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern-day India was built, the system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it. Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya and it is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC
48.
Storm surge
–
Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges. The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, the low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones. The deadliest storm surge in the twenty-first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis, the next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan, which killed more than 6,000 people in the central Philippines in 2013 and resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion. Louis, Diamondhead and Pass Christian in Mississippi, a high storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, with a high tide of 14 ft. The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will counteract the low pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a 10 mm increase in sea level for every millibar drop in atmospheric pressure, strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45° angle to the wind direction, by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral. Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as wind set-up, which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore, intuitively, this is caused by the storm simply blowing the water towards one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is proportional to depth. The pressure effect and the wind set-up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the way as the astronomical tide. The Earths rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more contact with the shore it can amplify the surge. The effect of waves, while powered by the wind, is distinct from a storms wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement, although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a more or less parallel to the beach. The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries, Hurricanes may dump as much as 12 in of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas, and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result, watersheds can quickly surge water into the rivers that drain them and this can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing from the estuary. This situation well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida
