1.
Landsat program
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The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. On July 23,1972 the Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched and this was eventually renamed to Landsat. The most recent, Landsat 8, was launched on February 11,2013, the instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. Landsat 7 data has eight spectral bands with spatial resolutions ranging from 15 to 60 meters, Landsat images are usually divided into scenes for easy downloading. Each Landsat scene is about 115 miles long and 115 miles wide, Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center initiated, designed, and fabricated the first three Multispectral Scanners in 1969, the same year man landed on the moon. The first prototype MSS was completed nine months, in the fall of 1970. It was tested by scanning Half Dome at Yosemite National Park, the program was initially called the Earth Resources Technology Satellites Program, which was used from 1966 to 1975. In 1975, the name was changed to Landsat and this occurred in 1985 when the Earth Observation Satellite Company, a partnership of Hughes Aircraft and RCA, was selected by NOAA to operate the Landsat system with a ten-year contract. EOSAT operated Landsat 4 and Landsat 5, had rights to market Landsat data. In 1989, this transition had not been completed when NOAAs funding for the Landsat program was due to run out. The head of the newly formed National Space Council, Vice President Dan Quayle, noted the situation and arranged emergency funding that allowed the program to continue with the data archives intact. Again in 1990 and 1991, Congress provided only half of the funding to NOAA. In 1992, various efforts were made to procure funding for follow on Landsats and continued operations, Landsat 6 was finally launched on October 5,1993, but was lost in a launch failure. Processing of Landsat 4 and 5 data was resumed by EOSAT in 1994, NASA finally launched Landsat 7 on April 15,1999. Timeline Landsat missions 1 through 5 carried the Landsat Multispectral Scanner and this construct ensured the secondary mirror would simply oscillate about the primary optic axis to maintain focus despite vibration inherent from the 360 mm beryllium scan mirror. This engineering solution allowed the United States to develop LANDSAT at least five years ahead of the French SPOT and this was a direct result of the commercialization efforts begun under the Carter administration, though finally completed under the Reagan administration. This main plate was assembled on a frame, then attached to the magnesium housing with helicoil fasteners. Key to the success of the multi spectral scanner was the scan monitor mounted on the underbelly of the magnesium housing, the beam struck the beryllium scan mirror seven times as it reflected seven times off the flat mirrors
2.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Lake
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A lake is an area of variable size filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons, Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams, natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers, in some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. The word lake comes from Middle English lake, from Old English lacu, from Proto-Germanic *lakō, cognates include Dutch laak, Middle Low German lāke as in, de, Moorlake, de, Wolfslake, de, Butterlake, German Lache, and Icelandic lækur. Also related are the English words leak and leach, none of these definitions completely excludes ponds and all are difficult to measure. For this reason, simple size-based definitions are used to separate ponds. One definition of lake is a body of water of 2 hectares or more in area, however, others have defined lakes as waterbodies of 5 hectares and above, or 8 hectares and above. Charles Elton, one of the founders of ecology, regarded lakes as waterbodies of 40 hectares or more. The term lake is used to describe a feature such as Lake Eyre. In common usage, many bear names ending with the word pond. One textbook illustrates this point with the following, In Newfoundland, for example, almost every lake is called a pond, whereas in Wisconsin, the majority of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the Northern Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Canada, with a drainage system has an estimated 31,752 lakes larger than 3 square kilometres and an unknown total number of lakes. Finland has 187,888 lakes 500 square metres or larger, most lakes have at least one natural outflow in the form of a river or stream, which maintain a lakes average level by allowing the drainage of excess water. Some lakes do not have an outflow and lose water solely by evaporation or underground seepage or both. Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for power generation, aesthetic purposes, recreational purposes, industrial use. Globally, lakes are greatly outnumbered by ponds, of an estimated 304 million standing water bodies worldwide, 91% are 1 hectare or less in area
5.
Estuary
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An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a zone between river environments and maritime environments. They are subject both to marine influences—such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea began to rise about 10. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns, the banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about 60% of the worlds population living along estuaries and the coast. The word estuary is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, there have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. However, this definition excludes a number of water bodies such as coastal lagoons. This broad definition also includes fjords, lagoons, river mouths, an estuary is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides. The sea water entering the estuary is diluted by the water flowing from rivers. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on the volume of water, the tidal range. Drowned river valleys are known as coastal plain estuaries. In places where the sea level is rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and this is the most common type of estuary in temperate climates. Well-studied estuaries include the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom and the Ems Dollard along the Dutch-German border, the width-to-depth ratio of these estuaries is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths rarely exceed 30 m, examples of this type of estuary in the U. S. are the Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay, and Delaware Bay along the Mid-Atlantic coast, and Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay along the Gulf Coast. They are relatively common in tropical and subtropical locations and these estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches. Formation of barrier beaches partially encloses the estuary, with only narrow inlets allowing contact with the ocean waters, bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U. S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments, barrier beaches form in shallow water and are generally parallel to the shoreline, resulting in long, narrow estuaries
6.
Seawater
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Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the oceans has a salinity of about 3. 5% This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l, seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases, at typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C. The coldest seawater ever recorded was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater, although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts precipitation, the most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still, historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the Practical Salinity Scale where salinity was measured in practical salinity units, the current standard for salinity is the Reference Salinity scale with the salinity expressed in units of g/kg. The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature, at a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity, brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C, seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies with temperature, salinity. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C, the thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater, however, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0. 14% of all seawater ions, differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes, sodium and chlorine have very long residence times, while calcium tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l
7.
Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
8.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
9.
Metairie, Louisiana
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Metairie is a census-designated place in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, United States and is a major part of the New Orleans Metropolitan Area. Metairie is the largest community in Jefferson Parish and the fifth-largest CDP in the United States and it is an unincorporated area that would be Louisianas fourth-largest city if it were incorporated. The zip codes that serve the community are 70001-70006, métairie is the French term for a small tenant farm which paid the landlord with a share of the produce, also known as sharecropping. In the 1760s, many of the original French farmers were tenants, after the US Civil War, the Acolapissa Native Americans used this ridge as a road, and it is the oldest road in the New Orleans area. Paved in the 1920s, it is called Metairie Road, an electric streetcar was installed running along Metairie Road in the late 1910s, opening the area to greater development. Upscale housing tracts were constructed off the road in the 1920s and it is today the most prestigious area of Metairie. The areas to the north and northwest of Metairie Road were not developed until after World War II, the land between Metairie Ridge and Lake Pontchartrain, which was cypress swamps and marshlands, was drained with the Wood Pump. With development of new land for residences, Metairies population grew in the 1940s as a result of cheaper land, lower taxes. In 1990, Metairie made history when one of its districts elected white supremacist David Duke to the Louisiana state legislature for a single term. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused a new migration from Orleans Parish and it has been a racially neutral migration, with equal numbers of black and white residents moving to Jefferson Parish. The 2010 Census showed that Metairie has increasingly become more diverse, Veterans Boulevard was laid out alongside a drainage canal, and became a commercial center of the region. The Central Business District of Metairie is located on Causeway Blvd near Lake Pontchartrain, Metairie also has one of the handful of major malls located in the New Orleans metro area. Lakeside Shopping Center is the mall in the New Orleans metropolitan area. In the 1970s and early 1980s, an area of bars, Fat City is now the most racially diverse area in the New Orleans Metropolitan Area and is home to a vibrant restaurant scene. Several New Orleans radio and television stations have transmitter facilities in Metairie and Jefferson Parish, Metairie has a large Mardi Gras season that touts itself as more family-friendly than the New Orleans Mardi Gras. The 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane with winds of 125 mph directly hit Metairie, much of the community was under six feet of water. Hurricane Betsy, a category three storm, hit the area in 1965, causing wind damage and moderate flooding. On August 29,2005, Metairie was hit hard by the effects of Hurricane Katrina, including widespread wind damage
10.
Kenner, Louisiana
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Kenner is the sixth-largest city in the U. S. State of Louisiana. It is the largest city in Jefferson Parish, United States, Louisianas second-most populous parish, the population was 66,702 at the 2010 census. Kenner is represented in the Louisiana House of Representatives by the Republican attorney Tom Willmott, the state senator is Republican Danny Martiny, a former state House member. Martinys predecessor in the House is Kernan Skip Hand, a district court judge from Kenner. Martinys predecessor in the state Senate, Metairie attorney Art Lentini, Kenner is part of Louisianas 1st Congressional district, presently represented in the U. S. House by Steve Scalise. The current mayor of Kenner is former Jefferson Parish councilman Ben Zahn, originally inhabited by the Tchoupitoulas Indians, the area along the Mississippi River was the first land in the New Orleans Metropolitan Area on which Europeans set foot. René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle landed there in 1682, in 1855, Kenner was founded by Minor Kenner on land that consisted of three plantation properties that had been purchased by the Kenner family. At the time, all north of what is now Airline Highway was swampland. In Kenner on May 10,1870, “Gypsy” Jem Mace defeated Tom Allen for the championship of the bare-knuckle boxing era. During 1915–1931 a New Orleans streetcar line operated between New Orleans and Kenner, the line ran between the intersection of Rampart and Canal in New Orleans and the intersection of Williams Blvd and Jefferson Hwy in Kenner. In 1960, Kenner had a population of 17,037, Kenners growth began in the late 1950s when developers began subdividing, draining and filling the swampland in the northern half of the city. During the 1960s, the construction of Interstate 10 and improvements to Veterans Memorial Highway aided the development of Kenner as a suburb of New Orleans. By 1979, Kenners population was 60,524 making it the 6th largest city in the state, in 1982, Pan Am Flight 759 crashed in a residential area of Kenner when a microburst forced it down. 8 people on the ground were killed, as were all 145 people on the aircraft, six houses were completely destroyed and five more substantially damaged. Kenners coordinates are 30°0′35″N 90°15′2″W and has an elevation of 0 ft. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 15.2 square miles. Kenner is located on the west side of the New Orleans Metropolitan Area and its boundaries are Lake Pontchartrain to the north, the Mississippi River to the south, the unincorporated areas of Metairie and River Ridge to the east, and St. Charles Parish to the west. As of the Census QuickFacts survey of 2013, there were 66,975 living in Kenner, the population density was 4,486.0 people per square mile
11.
Mandeville, Louisiana
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Mandeville is a small city in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 11,560 at the 2010 census, Mandeville is located on the North Shore of Lake Pontchartrain, south of Interstate 12. It is across the lake from the city of New Orleans and it is part of the New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner metropolitan area. Mandeville is the name of two villages in Normandy, France and it means big farm in medieval Norman French. The area had long been agricultural land when the town of Mandeville was laid out in 1834 by developer Bernard Xavier de Marigny de Mandeville, in 1840 Mandeville was incorporated as a town. It became a summer destination for well-to-do New Orleanians wishing to escape the citys heat. Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Papa Celestin, George Lewis, Kid Ory, Edmond Hall, Chester Zardis, in the late 19th century, Mandeville was home of the Harvey School, a college preparatory institution. Among those educated there was Andrew Querbes, then of New Orleans, two buildings from early jazz history still stand in Mandeville. Rubys Roadhouse has been in operation since the 1920s and is still a popular bar. The Dew Drop Social and Benevolent Hall, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, for years the Hall hosted some of the jazz greats and was reopened in 2000 as the Dew Drop Jazz & Social Hall, a live jazz venue. In 1956, the first span of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway opened to automobile traffic, a second span was added in 1969. The new road spurred the growth of Mandeville and the area as a suburban commuter community for people working in New Orleans. This trend increased in the 1980s and 1990s, further integrating Mandeville into the Greater New Orleans metropolitan area, Mandeville is home to Southeast Louisiana Hospital, a mental health facility. Louisiana governor Earl Long was committed here in 1959 amidst much controversy, in July 2012, the Louisiana State Department of Health announced the closure of the hospital, citing reduced federal money from Medicaid. Mandeville is also home to the largest certified southern live oak tree, Mandeville was affected by Hurricane Katrinas storm surge in August 2005 and received water and wind damage. Parts of the city also experienced less dramatic flooding when Lake Pontchartrain overflowed its banks due to Hurricane Ike in 2008, by 2009, most of the reconstruction from Katrina was completed. Many homes and businesses in areas that experienced flooding have been elevated, Mandeville was named one of the Relocate America Top 100 Places to Live in 2004,2005,2007,2008, and 2009. Mandeville was among the recipients of Googles eCity award in 2013, actress Allison Scagliotti grew up in Mandeville
12.
Lacombe, Louisiana
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Lacombe is a census-designated place in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 8,679 at the 2010 census, Lacombe is located at 30°18′54″N 89°55′53″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 27.5 square miles, of which 26.4 square miles is land and 1.0 square mile. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,518 people,2,757 households, the population density was 281.4 people per square mile. There were 3,119 housing units at a density of 116.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 69. 15% White,25. 31% African American,1. 60% Native American,0. 33% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,1. 36% from other races, and 2. 21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 58% of the population,20. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the family size was 3.09. In the CDP, the population was out with 25. 8% under the age of 18,7. 9% from 18 to 24,26. 9% from 25 to 44,27. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $37,782, and the median income for a family was $45,465. Males had an income of $37,580 versus $21,869 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $18,642, about 8. 9% of families and 11. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15. 6% of those under age 18 and 10. 2% of those age 65 or over. Lacombe is within the St. Tammany Parish Public Schools district, amahre Palmer, Actress, attended Chahta-Ima Elementary and Bayou Lacombe Middle School, http, //www. imdb. me/amahrepalmer NorthshoreDeals. org
13.
Slidell, Louisiana
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Slidell /slaɪˈdɛl/ is the largest city situated on the northeast shore of Lake Pontchartrain and St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 27,068 at the 2010 census, greater Slidell has a population of about 90,000. It is part of the New Orleans−Metairie−Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area, one of the earlier settlers to the area was John William Gause. Wesley and his family decided to remain there, while John and family decided to cross the Pearl River and he then began a lumber mill, in the fledgling town later to be known as Slidell. His traveling back and forth from lumber yard to home created a road, known today as Gause Boulevard, the lumber yard was located at the northwest area of where Gause Boulevard crosses the railroad track. The log cabin was built at the very east end of the road, the house stood until the late 1990s, and a small family burial plot still remains, where John is buried between his two wives, Lydia Russ and Johanna Frederica VanHeemskerk. Slidell was founded on the shore of Lake Pontchartrain in 1882 and 1883 during construction of the New Orleans. Line connected New Orleans to Meridian, Mississippi, around 1910, Slidell began a period of economic and industrial growth. A large creosote plant was built, and Slidell became home to the Fritz Salmen Brickyard, a lumber mill and shipyard were also built. Following the construction of Interstate 10, Interstate 59, and Interstate 12, in 1915, the creosote plant burned to the ground, killing 55 workers and 3 firefighters. The plant was rebuilt on Bayou Lane, closer to a water source, eventually, creosote polluted the bayou which was a source of drinking water for many of Slidells residents. The creosote plant was abandoned in 1986 and became an EPA Superfund site, the canal was dredged and waste incinerated until completion of the cleanup in 1996. At that time a launch was built and Heritage Park was constructed on the former site. This nearly tripled Slidells population over a period of ten years, Slidell is also the location of the National Weather Service forecast office for the New Orleans and Baton Rouge area. Slidell is the headquarters of Vesco Tennis Courts, a privately held firm specializing in construction of surfaces for outdoor sports facilities. The city hosts several parade krewes each Carnival season, in 2005, Slidell suffered extensive damage from the effects of Hurricane Katrina, as the storm made final landfall on the morning of August 29. The municipal area is located about 2 miles inland, and parts of the city experienced a surge in excess of 10 feet. The unincorporated areas of St. Tammany Parish, to the south and east, often referred to as Slidell
14.
Madisonville, Louisiana
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Madisonville is a town in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 748 at the 2010 census and it is part of the New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area. Madisonville is located at 30°24′26″N 90°9′42″W, on the banks of the Tchefuncte River, near where the river enters Lake Pontchartrain. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 2.51 square miles, of which 2.49 square miles is land and 0.02 square miles. The town was renamed in honor of President James Madison circa 1811, Madisonville was an important port, providing bricks and other products of the towns along the Tchefuncte River to New Orleans, in the decades before the Civil War. The opening of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway and associated highways gradually brought Madisonville into the sphere of Greater New Orleans, much of the town flooded with the Lake Pontchartrain storm surge of Hurricane Katrina, in 2005. The police station was destroyed by the waters, along with the lower floors of the fire station. A temporary police substation was built by a Madisonville-based company, T. Sturdevant Inc/dba Barnstormers, the ruined police station was repaired by town workers and reopened for use, while the substation was left intact and is still used as the main office of the Chief of Police. Frederick Jahncke emigrated to New Orleans from Hamburg, Germany in 1870, after working as a mason he started a business that built the first sidewalks in New Orleans. He expanded and using a rented steam-driven hydraulic suction dredge was the first to pull sand and shell from the Tchefuncte, fritz purchased a half interest in the Baham Shipyard entering into shipbuilding. In 1905 he purchased the remaining interest acquiring land for yards, as well as warehouses, docks, storage facilities and he died in 1911 and the company passed to Ernest Lee, Paul F. and Walter F. Jahncke. In 1917 the company started building five ships for the US Navy for World War I. Two ships were completed, the The SS Bayou Teche was launched in March 1918, the war ended Nov.11,1918, less than two years after US involvement, and three of the ships were not completed. The SS Abbeville was completed on Jan,19,1919, and the SS Pontchartrain on April 6,1919. The last ship was hauled across the river and burned, part of the hull is still visible at low tide. Madisonville hosts the Lake Pontchartrain Basin Maritime Museum, which puts on the Wooden Boat Festival each fall, the Tchefuncte River Lighthouse was placed on the National Register of Historic Places July 14,1986. John Neely Kennedy, the current Louisiana State Treasurer, is a resident of Madisonville, as of the census of 2000, there were 677 people,302 households, and 186 families residing in the town. The population density was 277.0 people per square mile, there were 346 housing units at an average density of 141.6 per square mile
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Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
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The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, sometimes only the Causeway, is a causeway composed of two parallel bridges crossing Lake Pontchartrain in southern Louisiana, United States. The longer of the two bridges is 23.83 miles long, the southern terminus of the Causeway is in Metairie, Louisiana, a suburb of New Orleans. The northern terminus is at Mandeville, Louisiana, Lake Pontchartrain Causeway then became the longest bridge over water while Jiaozhou Bay Bridge the longest bridge over water. The bridges are supported by 9,500 concrete pilings, the two bridges feature a bascule, which spans the navigation channel 8 miles south of the north shore. The idea of a bridge spanning Lake Pontchartrain dates back to the early 19th century and Bernard de Marigny and he started a ferry service that continued to operate into the mid-1930s. In the 1920s, a called for the creation of artificial islands that would then be linked by a series of bridges. The financing for this plan would come from selling home sites on the islands, the modern Causeway started to take form in 1948 when Ernest M. Loeb Jr. envisioned the project. Due to his lobbying and vision, the Louisiana Legislature created what is now the Causeway Commission, the Louisiana Bridge Company was formed to construct the bridge, which in turn appointed James E. Walters Sr. to direct the project. The original Causeway was a span, measuring 23.86 miles in length. It opened in 1956 at a cost of $30.7 million, a parallel two-lane span, 1/100th of a mile longer than the original, opened on May 10,1969, at a cost of $26 million. Since its construction, the Causeway has operated as a toll bridge, until 1999, tolls were collected from traffic going in each direction. To alleviate congestion on the shore, toll collections were eliminated on the northbound span. The standard tolls for cars changed from $1.50 in each direction, after Hurricane Katrina on August 29,2005, videos collected showed damage to the bridge. The storm surge was not as high under the Causeway as it was near the I-10 Twin Span Bridge, a total of 17 spans were lost. The causeways have never sustained major damage of any sort from hurricanes or other natural occurrences, the existing fiber optic cable plant was blown out of its tray but remained intact per optical time domain reflectometer analysis. With the I-10 Twin Span Bridge severely damaged, the Causeway was used as a route for recovery teams staying in lands to the north to get into New Orleans. The Causeway reopened first to emergency traffic and then to the general public – with tolls suspended – on September 19,2005, tolls were reinstated by mid-October of that year. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway is one of seven spans in Louisiana with a total length of 5 miles or more. S
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Fontainebleau State Park
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Fontainebleau State Park is located in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain. The park is 2,800 acres in size and was once the site of a sugar plantation and brickyard operated by Bernard de Marigny. The park has a multitude of habitats for birds, Marigny operated a sugar mill that was built in 1829. He named his large holding Fontainebleau after the beautiful forest near Paris, Fontainebleau State Park is surrounded on three sides by water, Lake Pontchartrain, Bayou Cane, and Bayou Castine. The state originally named the park Tchefuncte State Park and Conservation Reservation,12 cabins, six are handicapped-accessible including two that are ADA-compliant. 163 RV and tenting campsites, many with utilities Comfort stations with showers Playground Three group camps, the nature trail includes a boardwalk into the marsh. Beach, fishing pond, and fishing pier, visitor center with museum displays, interpretive programs, and gift shop. The Tammany Trace crosses Fontainebleau State Park and this is a rail-trail conversion of the old Illinois Central corridor, and is a 31 miles paved trail for hiking, inline skating, and bicycling, with a parallel equestrian trail
17.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
18.
Brackish water
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Brackish water or briny water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, the word comes from the Middle Dutch root brak. Brackish water is also the primary product of the salinity gradient power process. Because brackish water is hostile to the growth of most terrestrial plant species, without appropriate management it is damaging to the environment. Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 and 30 grams of salt per litre—more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand, thus, brackish covers a range of salinity regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time, brackish water condition commonly occurs when fresh water meets seawater. In fact, the most extensive brackish water habitats worldwide are estuaries, the River Thames flowing through London is a classic river estuary. A similar pattern of replacement can be observed with the aquatic plants and this type of ecological succession from a freshwater to marine ecosystem is typical of river estuaries. Salmon are anadromous, meaning live in the sea but ascend rivers to spawn, eels are catadromous, living in rivers and streams. Besides the species migrate through estuaries, there are many other fish that use them as nursery grounds for spawning or as places young fish can feed. Herring and plaice are two commercially important species that use the Thames Estuary for this purpose, estuaries are also commonly used as fishing grounds, and as places for fish farming or ranching. Another important brackish water habitat is the swamp or mangal. Many, though not all, mangrove swamps fringe estuaries and lagoons where the salinity changes with each tide, like estuaries, mangrove swamps are extremely important breeding grounds for many fish, with species such as snappers, halfbeaks, and tarpon spawning or maturing among them. Mangroves represent important nesting site for numerous birds groups such as herons, storks, spoonbills, ibises, kingfishers, the Sundarbans and Bhitarkanika Mangroves are two of the large mangrove forests in the world, both on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Some seas and lakes are brackish, the Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea. Because the salt water coming in from the sea is denser than freshwater, limited mixing occurs because of the lack of tides and storms, with the result that the fish fauna at the surface is freshwater in composition while that lower down is more marine. Cod are an example of a species found in deep water in the Baltic. The Caspian Sea is the worlds largest lake and contains brackish water with a salinity about one-third that of normal seawater, the Caspian is famous for its peculiar animal fauna, including one of the few non-marine seals and the great sturgeons, a major source of caviar
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Channel (geography)
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In physical geography, a channel is a type of landform consisting of the outline of a path of relatively shallow and narrow body of fluid, most commonly the confine of a river, river delta or strait. The word is cognate to canal, and sometimes shows in this form, most examples of this are fjords in the Pacific Northwest, a notable exception is the Casiquiare canal. All likely share borrowing from Spanish, Portuguese or French, channels can be either natural or human-made. A channel is typically outlined in terms of its bed and banks, Channel initiation refers to the site on a mountain slope where water begins to flow between identifiable banks. This site is referred to as the head and it marks an important boundary between hillslope processes and fluvial processes. The channel head is the most upslope part of a network and is defined by flowing water between defined identifiable banks. A channel head forms as overland flow and/or subsurface flow accumulate to a point where shear stress can overcome resistance of the ground surface. Channel heads are associated with colluvium, hollows and landslides. Overland flow is a factor in channel initiation where saturation overland flow deepens to increase shear stress. Overland flows converge in topographical depressions where channel initiation begins, soil composition, vegetation, precipitation, and topography dictate the amount and rate of overland flow. The composition of a soil determines how quickly saturation occurs and cohesive strength retards the entrainment of material from overland flows, vegetation slows infiltration rates during precipitation events and plant roots anchor soil on hillslopes. Subsurface flow destabilizes soil and resurfaces on hillslopes where channel heads are often formed and this often results in abrupt channel heads and landslides. Natural channels are formed by fluvial process and are found across the Earth and these are mostly formed by flowing water from the hydrological cycle, though can also be formed by other fluids such as flowing lava. Channels also describe the course through a reef, sand bar, bay. One example is the Columbia River, a located in the US states of Washington and Oregon. A stream channel is the confine of a stream consisting of a bed. Stream channels exist in a variety of geometries, Stream channel development is controlled by both water and sediment movement. There is a difference between low gradient streams and high gradient streams, a wide variety of stream channel types can be distinguished
20.
Dredging
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Dredging is an excavation activity usually carried out underwater, in shallow seas or freshwater areas with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and disposing of them at a different location. This technique is used to keep waterways navigable. It is also used as a way to replenish sand on some public beaches, fishing dredges are used as a technique for catching certain species of edible clams and crabs. Capital, dredging carried out to create a new harbor, berth or waterway, preparatory, work and excavation for future bridges, piers or docks/wharves, often connected with foundation work. This is often carried out with a trailing suction hopper dredge, most dredging is for this purpose, and it may also be done to maintain the holding capacity of reservoirs or lakes. Land reclamation, dredging to mine sand, clay or rock from the seabed and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. The material may also be used for flood or erosion control, beach nourishment, mining sand offshore and placing on a beach to replace sand eroded by storms or wave action. This is done to enhance the recreational and protective function of the beaches and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. Harvesting materials, dredging sediment for elements like gold, diamonds or other valuable trace substances, seabed mining, a possible future use, recovering natural metal ore nodules from the seas abyssal plains. Construction materials, dredging sand and gravels from offshore licensed areas for use in construction industry, very specialist industry focused in NW Europe using specialized trailing suction hopper dredgers self discharging dry cargo ashore. Anti-eutrophication, Dredging is an option for the remediation of eutrophied water bodies. Contaminant remediation, to areas affected by chemical spills, storm water surges. Disposal becomes a large factor in these operations. Removing trash and debris, often done in combination with maintenance dredging, flood prevention, this can help to increase channel depth and therefore increase a channels capacity for carrying water. This tradition has now more or less obsolete and the tools used to do this have also changed significantly. Oyster dredging or harvesting, in Louisiana and other states with salt water estuaries that can sustain bottom oyster beds. A heavy metal rectangular scoop device is towed astern of a boat with a chain bridle attached to a cable. The device is periodically hauled aboard and the oysters in it are sorted and bagged for shipment to a processing facility
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County (United States)
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In the United States, an administrative or political sub-division of a state is a county, which is a region having specific boundaries and usually some level of governmental authority. The term county is used in 48 U. S. states, while Louisiana and Alaska have functionally equivalent subdivisions called parishes, most counties have subdivisions which may include municipalities and unincorporated areas. Others have no divisions, or may serve as a singular consolidated city-county. Some municipalities are in multiple counties, New York City is uniquely partitioned into multiple counties/boroughs, the U. S. federal government uses the term county equivalent to describe non-county administrative or statistical areas that are comparable to counties. Alaskas Unorganized Borough is divided into 11 census areas that are equivalent to counties. As of 2013, the United States has 3,007 counties and 137 county equivalents for a total of 3,144 counties, the number of counties per state ranges from the 3 counties of Delaware to the 254 counties of Texas. Counties have significant governmental functions in all states except Rhode Island and Connecticut, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts has removed most government functions from eight of its 14 counties. The county with the largest population, Los Angeles County, counties were among the earliest units of local government established in the Thirteen Colonies that would become the United States. Virginia created the first counties in order to ease the workload in Jamestown. Americas oldest intact county court records can be found at Eastville, Virginia, in Northampton County, maryland established its first county, St. Marys, in 1637, and Massachusetts followed in 1643. When independence came, the framers of the Constitution did not provide for local governments, rather, they left the matter to the states. Subsequently, early state constitutions generally conceptualized county government as an arm of the state, in some states, these powers are partly or mostly devolved to the counties smaller divisions usually called townships, though in New York, New England and Wisconsin they are called towns. The county may or may not be able to override its townships on certain matters, the newest county in the United States is the city and county of Broomfield, Colorado, established in 2001 as a consolidated city-county. The newest county-equivalents are the Alaskan boroughs of Skagway established in 2007, Wrangell established in 2008, there are 40 consolidated city-counties in the U. S. Similarly, some of Alaskas boroughs have merged with their principal cities creating unified city-boroughs. Some such consolidations and mergers have created cities that rank among the geographically largest cities in the world, see also, #County names, regarding Louisiana. Independent cities, These are cities that legally belong to no county, Washington, D. C. outside the jurisdiction of any state, has a special status. The city of Washington comprises the entirety of the District of Columbia, when founded in 1801, the District consisted of two counties and three cities. In 1846, Alexandria County – including the then–City of Alexandria – was given back to Virginia, in 1871, the three remaining entities – the City of Washington, Georgetown City, and Washington County – were merged into a consolidated government by an act of Congress
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St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana
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St. Tammany Parish is a parish located in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 233,740, the parish was founded in 1810. St. Tammany Parish is included in the New Orleans–Metairie, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area, St. Tammany Parish is one of the fastest-growing parishes in the state, along with Livingston and Ascension. St. Tammany Parish is colloquially referred to as part of the Northshore or North Shore throughout metropolitan New Orleans and it is the most affluent parish in the state, has a nationally-recognized system of public schools, and is the most politically conservative parish in the New Orleans region. In 1699, Pierre Le Moyne dIberville, a French explorer, was the first European to visit the area of present-day St. Tammany Parish. While exploring lakes Pontchartrain and Maurepas, Iberville wrote in his journal, The place where I am is one of the prettiest I have seen, the land north of the lakes is a country of pine trees mixed with hard woods. The soil is sandy and many tracks of buffalo and deer can be seen, St. Tammany was originally inhabited by numerous Indian peoples, including the Colapissas, Bayou Goulas, Chickasaw, Biloxi, Choctaw and Pensacola nations. After the 18th-century founding and development of New Orleans, French settlers began to enter the region, the primary industry was the production of pitch, tar, turpentine and resin from the forests. After France was defeated in the French and Indian War, St. Tammany became part of British West Florida, during this period, the area comprising todays St. Tammany attracted British loyalists who wanted to escape persecution in the Thirteen Colonies. After Great Britain was defeated in the American Revolutionary War, West Florida was governed by the Spanish, the West Florida period ended with the West Florida revolt, which precipitated annexation by the United States. In 1810, President James Madison claimed West Florida as part of Louisiana, Claiborne established the boundaries of the Florida Parishes. He created St. Tammany Parish and named it after the Delaware Indian Chief Tamanend, in fact, Tamanend is not known to have been a Christian, and was certainly not a Roman Catholic. However, he became revered as an American patron saint in the post-Revolutionary period. Under Spanish rule, the area east of the Tangipahoa River, due to the fact that Ferdinand was also the name of the disputed King of Spain at the time, it was deemed that the new parish should have a more American sounding name. In the early 1830s, there were two towns in St. Tammany, Covington, a retreat with summer homes and hotels, and Madisonville. The area south of Covington to Lake Pontchartrains northern shore and extending eastwards to the Pearl River border with the state of Mississippi was known as the Covington Lowlands and this region included the present-day towns of Mandeville, Abita Springs, Lacombe, Slidell, and Pearl River. Regular ferry service commenced across Lake Pontchartrain, and shortly thereafter another resort community was founded, with the completion of high-speed road connections to St. Tammany from New Orleans and its older suburbs, the parish began to develop as a bedroom community. Suburban sprawl first took root in and around Slidell, Louisiana, while St. Tammany was sparsely populated and almost wholly rural in the 1950s, its population exceeded 200,000 in the wake of Hurricane Katrinas landfall in 2005
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Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
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Jefferson Parish is a parish in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 432,552, Jefferson Parish is included in the New Orleans-Metairie, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area. Jefferson Parish was less affected by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and has rebounded at a rapid pace than neighboring Orleans Parish. Jefferson Parish was named in honor of US President Thomas Jefferson of Virginia when the parish was established by the Louisiana Legislature on February 11,1825, a bronze statue of Jefferson stands at the entrance of the General Government Complex on Derbigny Street at the parish seat in Gretna. The parish seat was in the City of Lafayette, until that city was annexed by New Orleans in 1854, originally, this parish was larger than it is today, running from Felicity Street in New Orleans to the St. Charles Parish line. However, as New Orleans grew, it absorbed the cities of Lafayette, Jefferson City, Carrollton and these became part of Orleans Parish. The present borders between Jefferson Parish and Orleans Parish were set in 1874, the Jefferson Parish seat was moved to Gretna at the same time. NOTE, The City of Lafayette in Jefferson Parish, as it was recorded in U. S. Census records until 1870, should not be confused with the present city of Lafayette, Louisiana, in Lafayette Parish. From the 1940s to the 1970s, Jeffersons population swelled with an influx of white families from Orleans Parish. The completion of Veterans Highway in the late 1950s, following a parallel to Airline but further north. Terrytown, within the city limits of Gretna, was the first large subdivision to be developed, subsequent development has been extensive, taking place within Harvey, Marrero, Westwego and Avondale. In East Jefferson, the Causeway Boulevard corridor grew into a commercial office node, while the Elmwood neighborhood developed as a center for light manufacturing, by the mid-1990s, Jefferson Parish was exhibiting some of the symptoms presented by inner-ring suburbs throughout the United States. St. Tammany Parish and, to an extent, St. Charles Parish began to attract migrants from New Orleans. These trends were catalyzed by Hurricane Katrina, which destroyed much of New Orleans low-income housing, despite these challenges, Jefferson Parish still contains the largest number of middle class residents in metropolitan New Orleans and acts as the retail hub for the entire metro area. Even though Jefferson Parish was affected by Hurricane Katrina, it has rebounded more quickly than Orleans Parish, the parish has a current population of 432,000, which is 15,000 fewer people than was recorded by the 2000 U. S. Census. New Orleans Katrina-provoked population loss has resulted in Jefferson Parish becoming the second most populous parish behind East Baton Rouge Parish, with the landfall of Hurricane Katrina on August 29,2005, Jefferson Parish took a hard hit. On the East Bank, widespread flooding occurred, especially in the part of the parish. Schools also were reported to have severely damaged
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St. John the Baptist Parish, Louisiana
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St. John the Baptist Parish is a parish located in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 45,924, the parish seat is Edgard, an unincorporated area, and the largest city is LaPlace, which is also unincorporated. St. John the Baptist Parish was established in 1807 as one of the original 19 parishes of the Territory of Orleans, St. John the Baptist Parish is part of the New Orleans–Metairie, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area. This was considered part of the German Coast in the 18th and 19th centuries, on January 8,1811, the largest slave insurrection in US history, known as the German Coast Uprising, started here. It was short-lived, but more than 200 slaves gathered from plantations along the river, the parish includes three nationally significant examples of 19th-century plantation architecture, Evergreen Plantation, Whitney Plantation Historic District, and San Francisco Plantation House. The area was settled in the early 1720s by a group of German colonists, many families established towns close to the Mississippi River in the areas now known as Lucy, Garyville, and Reserve. The area was under the French regime until 1763, when France ceded Louisiana to Spain after the Seven Years War, the first Acadian village was established in what is now Wallace, Louisiana. The German and French cultures thrived alongside one another, but French came to be the dominant language and they developed a culture known as Cajun. The early settlers in the area received land grants from the Spanish or French royal governments and these grants generally included some narrow frontage on the river for access to transportation of goods to and from New Orleans and world markets. The remaining property extended away from the river deeply into the wetlands and this was a French style of property allotment. Most transportation was done by boat, mainly on the bayous and lakes, St. John, with its fertile land being nine feet above sea level, proved to be an excellent settlement for farming and agriculture. In the late 18th century, planters began to invest more in labor-intensive sugar cane cultivation, sugar production meant prosperity for the planters and New Orleans. With the sugar wealth, some wealthy planters built elaborate houses, three survive in St. John parish, each is recognized for its national architectural and historic significance. On the west bank are the complex of house and outbuildings designated Whitney Plantation Historic District. San Francisco Plantation House, also a designated NHL, is on the east bank, San Francisco and Evergreen plantations are open to the public for tours. The Whitney plantation house is planned for renovation, Whitney and Evergreen plantations are both included among the first 26 sites on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail. In January 1811, the German Coast Uprising started in this parish and it was the largest slave insurrection in US history, but it was short-lived. The slaves killed two whites, but suffered 96 deaths among their forces at the hands of the militia and they attacked five plantations and burned three houses to the ground
25.
St. Charles Parish, Louisiana
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St. Charles Parish is a parish located in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 52,780, the parish was formed in 1807. It was originally part of the German Coast, an area along the east bank of the Mississippi River that was settled by numerous German pioneers in the 1720s, St. Charles Parish is included in the New Orleans-Metairie, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the parish has an area of 411 square miles. The executive branch is headed by the Parish President, currently Larry Cochran, the legislative branch consists of a nine-member council. The parish is divided into seven districts which are represented by a council member. In addition to the seven seats, there are also two at-large seats which are elected on a parish-wide basis. The at-large seats are divided into an A seat and a B seat, the A seat representative must be a resident of the parishs east bank while the B seat must be held by a resident of the west bank. The last parish council election was in October 2015, members of the St. Charles Parish Council as of September 2015, As of the census of 2000, there were 48,072 people,16,422 households, and 13,088 families residing in the parish. The population density was 170 people per square mile, there were 17,430 housing units at an average density of 62 per square mile. The racial makeup of the parish was 72. 40% White,25. 23% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 55% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 64% from other races, and 0. 91% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 80% of the population,16. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.90 and the family size was 3.27. In the parish the population was out with 30. 30% under the age of 18,8. 30% from 18 to 24,31. 40% from 25 to 44,21. 00% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 95.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.70 males, the median income for a household in the parish was $45,139, and the median income for a family was $50,562. Males had an income of $40,651 versus $24,780 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $19,054, about 9. 30% of families and 11. 40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14. 20% of those under age 18 and 12. 40% of those age 65 or over
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Tangipahoa Parish, Louisiana
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Tangipahoa Parish is a parish located in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 121,097, the parish seat is Amite City, but the largest city is Hammond. Tangipahoa comes from an Acolapissa word meaning ear of corn or those who gather corn, the parish was founded in 1869. Tangipahoa Parish comprises the Hammond, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the New Orleans-Metairie-Hammond. It is one of the Florida Parishes, Tangipahoa Parish began in 1869, when it was carved from Livingston Parish, St. Helena Parish, St. Tammany Parish, and Washington Parish. The name comes from the Tangipahoa River and the historic Tangipahoa Native American people, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the parish has a total area of 823 square miles, of which 791 square miles is land and 32 square miles is water. Lake Pontchartrain lies on the southeast side of the parish, most of the parish south of Ponchatoula consists of Holocene coastal swamp and marsh—gray-to-black clays of high organic content and thick peat beds underlying freshwater marsh and swamp. It serves about 15,000 riders a year, and Hammond-Chicago is the ninth busiest city pair on the route, the historic main line of the Illinois Central that carries freight through the parish is now part of CN, and it is as busy as ever. As of the census of 2000, there were 100,588 people,36,558 households, the population density was 127 people per square mile. There were 40,794 housing units at a density of 52 per square mile. 1. 53% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the family size was 3.19. In the parish the population was out with 27. 70% under the age of 18,12. 70% from 18 to 24,27. 70% from 25 to 44,21. 20% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 93.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.60 males, the median income for a household in the parish was $29,412, and the median income for a family was $36,731. Males had an income of $31,576 versus $20,066 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $14,461, about 18. 00% of families and 22. 70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28. 60% of those under age 18 and 20. 10% of those age 65 or over. The parish is part of Louisianas 1st congressional district, which is heavily Republican, the parish government is governed by the Louisiana State Constitution and the Tangipahoa Parish Home Rule Charter
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
28.
Chancellor of France
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In France, under the Ancien Régime, the officer of state responsible for the judiciary was the Lord Chancellor of France. The Lord Chancellor was responsible for seeing that royal decrees were enrolled and registered by the sundry parlements, the last Chancellor died in 1790, by which time the French Revolution was well underway, and the position was left vacant. The modern Minister of Justice is ceremonially known by both titles, see also Royal Administration of Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties. 989 –991, Renaud de Vendôme, bishop of Paris 991 –998, Gerbert dAurillac, later Pope Sylvester II998 –1005, Roger de Blois 1005 –1015, Francon 1018, Arnoul, Chancellor for Henry VI position as king of France
29.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
30.
Louisiana (New France)
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Louisiana or French Louisiana was an administrative district of New France. Under French control 1682 to 1762 and 1802 to 1803, the area was named in honor of King Louis XIV, by French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Louisiana was divided into two regions, known as Upper Louisiana, which began north of the Arkansas River, and Lower Louisiana. The U. S. state of Louisiana is named for the historical region, although French exploration of the area began during the reign of Louis XIV, French Louisiana was not greatly developed, due to a lack of human and financial resources. France regained sovereignty of the territory in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800. But strained by obligations in Europe, Napoleon Bonaparte decided to sell the territory to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the United States ceded part of the Louisiana Purchase to the United Kingdom in the Treaty of 1818. This section lies above the 49th parallel north in a portion of present-day Alberta, in the 18th century, Louisiana included most of the Mississippi River Valley, from what is now the Midwestern United States south to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Both areas were dominated numerically by Native American tribal populations, at times, fewer than two hundred soldiers were assigned to all of the colony, on both sides of the Mississippi. In the mid-1720s, Louisiana Indians numbered well over 35,000, to the east was territory disputed with the British colonies on the Atlantic seaboard, the French claim extended to the Appalachian Mountains. The Rocky Mountains marked the extent of the French claim. The general flatness of the land aided movement through the territory, the topography becomes more mountainous towards the west, with the notable exception of the Ozark Mountains, which are located in the mid-south. A colonial government soon emerged, with its capital originally at Mobile, later at Biloxi, the government was led by a Governor-general, and Louisiana became an increasingly important colony in the early 18th century. French exploration of the area began with the 1673 expedition of Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette, as noted above, Upper Louisiana was primarily settled by colonists from French Canada. There was further substantial intermarriage and integration with the local Illinois peoples, French settlers were attracted by the availability of arable farmland as well as by the forests, abundant with animals suitable for hunting and trapping. Genevieve across the river in todays Missouri, the region was initially governed as part of Canada, but was declared to be part of Louisiana in 1712, with the grant of the Louisiana country to Antoine Crozat. Thus, Vincennes and Peoria were the limit of Louisianas reach, the outposts at Ouiatenon, Chicago, Fort Miamis, and Prairie du Chien operated as dependencies of Canada. Those fleeing British control founded outposts such as the important settlement of St. Louis and this became a French fur-trading center, connected to trading posts on the Missouri and Upper Mississippi rivers, leading to later French settlement in that area. In the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, France ceded Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain, its ally in the war, even after France had lost its claim to Louisiana, settlement of Upper Louisiana by French-speakers continued for the next four decades. French explorers and frontiersmen, such as Pedro Vial, were employed as guides and interpreters by the Spanish
31.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
32.
Rigolets
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The Rigolets is a 12.9 kilometer long strait in Louisiana. Rigolets comes from the word rigole, French for trench or gutter, the name is now locally pronounced RIG-uh-leez. It begins at 30°10′40″N 89°44′40″W and follows a generally eastward course to Lake Borgne, a lagoon in the Gulf of Mexico, and finally to the Gulf of Mexico, where it ends at 30°09′16″N 89°37′31″W. Along with nearby Chef Menteur Pass, the Rigolets connects Lake Pontchartrain and Lake St. Catherine to Lake Borgne and it forms the boundary between New Orleans and St. Tammany Parish. As a deepwater tidal pass, the Rigolets helps supply salt water from the Gulf to Lake Pontchartrain, tidal scouring has produced a deep pit in the lake at the western mouth of the strait. Since the Rigolets is a channel through which Gulf storm surges can approach the New Orleans area, the United States constructed Fort Pike following the War of 1812 to protect passage on the Rigolets. The fort was abandoned in 1890, the Rigolets is spanned by two bridges. The western terminus of the U. S. Route 90 Rigolets Bridge is located north of Fort Pike. It was damaged by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, which required major repairs, farther south, the CSX Railroad crosses the Rigolets on a 1, 388-meter railroad bridge. Hurricane damage there included shifted spans and the loss of timber decking
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Strait
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A strait is a naturally formed, narrow, typically navigable waterway that connects two larger bodies of water. Most commonly it is a channel of water that lies between two land masses, some straits are not navigable, for example because they are too shallow, or because of an unnavigable reef or archipelago. The terms channel, pass or passage, can be synonymous and used interchangeably with strait, in Scotland firth or kyle are also sometimes used as synonyms for strait. Straits can be important shipping routes, and wars have been fought for control of them, numerous artificial channels, called canals, have been constructed to connect two bodies of water over land, such as the Suez Canal. Although rivers and canals often provide passage between two large lakes or a lake and a sea, and these seem to suit the formal definition of strait, the term strait is typically reserved for much larger, wider features of the marine environment. There are exceptions, with straits being called canals, Pearse Canal, Straits are the converse of isthmuses. That is, while a strait lies between two masses and connects two larger bodies of water, an isthmus lies between two bodies of water and connects two larger land masses. Some straits have the potential to generate significant tidal power using tidal stream turbines, tides are more predictable than wave power or wind power. The Pentland Firth may be capable of generating 10 GW, cook Strait in New Zealand may be capable of generating 5. There may be no suspension of innocent passage through such straits, list of straits Media related to Straits at Wikimedia Commons
34.
Chef Menteur Pass
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The Chef Menteur Pass is a narrow natural waterway which, along with the Rigolets, connects Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Borgne in New Orleans, Louisiana. It begins at 30°5′45″N 89°48′52″W and follows a generally southeastward course, in the days of sailing ships, much commerce from the Gulf of Mexico sailed through here and the Rigolets into Lake Pontchartrain to New Orleans and surrounding communities. Chef Menteur Pass was long guarded by Fort Macomb, now a ruin on the western side of the Pass. Portions are still known as Chef Menteur Highway, the CSX railroad bridge also spans Chef Menteur Pass a short distance south of the highway bridge. The Lake Catherine neighborhood of New Orleans is to the east side of the pass, the Venetian Isles neighborhood of New Orleans is to the west of the pass. This area was hit hard by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the Highway 90 bridge was closed for nearly a year, from the day that the hurricane struck on 29 August 2005 until repairs allowed it to reopen on 11 August 2006
35.
Lake Borgne
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Lake Borgne is a lagoon of the Gulf of Mexico in southeastern Louisiana. Due to coastal erosion, it is no longer actually a rather an arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Its name comes from the French word borgne, which means one-eyed, the three large lakes -- Maurepas, Pontchartrain, and Borgne—cover 55% of the Pontchartrain Basin. A brackish marsh land bridge and Lake St. Catherine separate Lake Pontchartrain from Lake Borgne, the Rigolets and Chef Menteur Pass are the two open water connections between Pontchartrain and Borgne. Since 1932, more than 66,000 acres of marsh have converted to water in the Pontchartrain Basin — over 22% of the marsh that existed in 1932. The project cost approximately $1.1 billion and was built at the confluence of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway and it is the largest design-build civil works project in the history of the Corps. The Mississippi River levees significantly limit the input of water, sediment. This reduction in freshwater input plays a role in the problem of the Pontchartrain Basin — increased salinity. Relative sea level rise of up to 0.96 feet per century also gives saltier waters greater access to surrounding wetlands, as a result, mean monthly salinities have increased since the construction of the MRGO and other canals. In recent years, salinities have stabilized, the heightened salinity has stressed wetlands, especially freshwater marshes and swamps. Since 1932, approximately 24% of the Borgne Land Bridge has been lost to severe shoreline retreat and rapid tidal fluctuations, during the same time, 17% of the Maurepas Land Bridge marshes disappeared due to subsidence and spikes in lake salinity. These land bridges prevent estuarine processes, such as increased salinity and tidal scour, from pushing further into the middle, additionally, from 1968 to 1988, 32% of the cypress swamp on the land bridge had either converted to marsh or became open water. If these buffers are not preserved, the loss rates around Lakes Pontchartrain. Several marshes in the basin are vulnerable to loss if adequate protection is not quickly provided. Media related to Lake Borgne at Wikimedia Commons
36.
Tide
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Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide—two nearly equal high and low tides each day, other locations experience a diurnal tide—only one high and low tide each day. A mixed tide—two uneven tides a day, or one high, Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time, gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the level usually called mean sea level. Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field varies in time. For example, the part of the Earth is affected by tides. Tide changes proceed via the following stages, Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone, the water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide. Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone, the water stops falling, reaching low tide. Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams, the moment that the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction and is said to be turning, slack water usually occurs near high water and low water. But there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ significantly from those of high, Tides are commonly semi-diurnal, or diurnal. The two high waters on a day are typically not the same height, these are the higher high water. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is small when the Moon is over the equator. From the highest level to the lowest, Highest Astronomical Tide – The highest tide which can be predicted to occur, note that meteorological conditions may add extra height to the HAT. Mean High Water Springs – The average of the two high tides on the days of spring tides, mean High Water Neaps – The average of the two high tides on the days of neap tides. Mean Sea Level – This is the sea level
37.
Tchefuncte River
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The Tchefuncte River drains into Lake Pontchartrain in Louisiana in the United States. It is about 70.0 miles long, Tammany Parishes before turning southeastward into St. Tammany Parish, where it passes the city of Covington and the town of Madisonville. It collects its largest tributary, the Bogue Falaya, at Covington and flows into Lake Pontchartrain about 2 miles south of Madisonville, the Tchefuncte has been designated by the government of Louisiana as a Natural and Scenic River. Fairview-Riverside State Park is located along the river, upstream of Madisonville, list of Louisiana rivers Fairview-Riverside State Park
38.
Amite River
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The Amite River is a tributary of Lake Maurepas in Mississippi and Louisiana in the United States. It is about 117 miles long and it starts as two forks in southwestern Mississippi and flows south through Louisiana, passing Greater Baton Rouge, to Lake Maurepas. The lower 37 miles of the river is navigable, a portion of the river is diverted via the Petite Amite River and Amite Diversion Canal to the Blind River, which also flows to Lake Maurepas
39.
Gulf Coast of the United States
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The Gulf Coast of the United States is the coastline along which the Southern United States meets the Gulf of Mexico. The coastal states that have a shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico are Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, the economy of the Gulf Coast area is dominated by industries related to energy, petrochemicals, fishing, aerospace, agriculture, and tourism. The Gulf Coast is made of many inlets, bays, the coast is also intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the Mississippi River. Much of the land along the Gulf Coast is, or was and these landforms protect numerous bays and inlets providing as a barrier to oncoming waves. The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, the eastern part of the Gulf Coast, predominantly Florida, is dotted with many bays and inlets. The Gulf Coast climate is humid subtropical for the most part, although the tip of Florida. Much of the year is warm to hot along the Gulf Coast, while the 3 winters months bring periods of cool, the area is vulnerable to hurricanes as well as floods and severe thunderstorms. Tornadoes are infrequent at the coast but do occur, however the frequency at which they occur in inland portions of Gulf Coast states is much greater. Earthquakes are extremely rare to the area, but a surprising 6.0 earthquake in the Gulf of Mexico on September 10,2006, the Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity. The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds, the Port of South Louisiana and the Port of Houston are two of the ten busiest ports in the world by cargo volume. As of 2004, seven of the top ten busiest ports in the U. S. are on the Gulf Coast. The discovery of oil and gas deposits along the coast and offshore, the coast contains nearly 4,000 oil platforms. S. Before Europeans arrived in the region, the region was home to several kingdoms that had extensive trade networks with empires such as the Aztecs. Shark and alligator teeth and shells from the Gulf have been found as far north as Ohio, the first Europeans to settle the Gulf Coast were primarily the French and the Spanish. The Louisiana Purchase and the Texas Revolution made the Gulf Coast a part of the United States during the first half of the 19th century. As the U. S. population continued to expand its frontiers westward, the development of sugar and cotton production allowed the South to prosper. Two major events were turning points in the history of the Gulf Coast region. The first was the American Civil War, which caused damage to some economic sectors in the South
40.
Salinity
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Salinity is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water. This is usually measured in g salt k g sea water, a contour line of constant salinity is called an isohaline – or sometimes isohale. Salinity in rivers, lakes, and the ocean is conceptually simple, conceptually the salinity is the quantity of dissolved salt content of the water. Salts are compounds like sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, potassium nitrate, the concentration of dissolved chloride ions is sometimes referred to as chlorinity. Operationally, dissolved matter is defined as that which can pass through a fine filter. Salinity can be expressed in the form of a mass fraction, Seawater typically has a mass salinity of around 35 g/kg, although lower values are typical near coasts where rivers enter the ocean. Rivers and lakes can have a range of salinities, from less than 0.01 g/kg to a few g/kg. The Dead Sea has a salinity of more than 200 g/kg, whatever pore size is used in the definition, the resulting salinity value of a given sample of natural water will not vary by more than a few percent. A bottled seawater product known as IAPSO Standard Seawater is used by oceanographers to standardize their measurements with enough precision to meet this requirement, measurement and definition difficulties arise because natural waters contain a complex mixture of many different elements from different sources in different molecular forms. The chemical properties of some of these depend on temperature and pressure. Many of these forms are difficult to measure with high accuracy, different practical definitions of salinity result from different attempts to account for these problems, to different levels of precision, while still remaining reasonably easy to use. For many purposes this sum can be limited to a set of eight major ions in natural waters, the major ions dominate the inorganic composition of most natural waters. Exceptions include some pit lakes and waters from some hydrothermal springs, the concentrations of dissolved gases like oxygen and nitrogen are not usually included in descriptions of salinity. However, carbon dioxide gas, which when dissolved is partially converted into carbonates and bicarbonates, is often included. Silicon in the form of acid, which usually appears as a neutral molecule in the pH range of most natural waters. The term salinity is, for oceanographers, usually associated with one of a set of measurement techniques. As the dominant techniques evolve, so do different descriptions of salinity, the distinctions between these different descriptions are important to physical oceanographers but are obscure and confusing to nonspecialists. Salinities were largely measured using titration-based techniques before the 1980s, titration with silver nitrate could be used to determine the concentration of halide ions to give a chlorinity
41.
Interstate 10 in Louisiana
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Interstate 10, a major transcontinental Interstate Highway in the Southern United States, runs across the southern part of Louisiana for 274.42 miles. It passes through Lake Charles, Lafayette, and Baton Rouge before dipping south of Lake Pontchartrain to serve the New Orleans metropolitan area before leaving the state, in August 2005, the I-10 Twin Span Bridge was severely damaged by Hurricane Katrina, rendering it unusable. Initially, the bridge was repaired through a $30.9 million contract with Boh Brothers Construction Company, however, Louisiana has since replaced the bridge with two higher elevation spans in 2009 and 2010. From Texas to Lafayette, I-10 parallels the older U. S. Route 90 corridor, from Lafayette, the highway heads east-northeast toward Baton Rouge via the Atchafalaya Swamp Freeway, an 18. 2-mile bridge across the Atchafalaya River and its accompanying swamp. Between the two cities, I-10 parallels U. S. Route 190, from Opelousas to Baton Rouge. This route has signs and is designated as an alternate I-10 by-pass that runs from I-10/I-49 north to U. S.190 then east across to Baton Rouge and back down to I-10 via I-110 south. Traffic can be diverted both ways along this route should there be the necessity to close I-10 across the Atchafalaya Swamp Freeway and is used as a hurricane evacuation route. In the capital of Baton Rouge, U. S.190 continues east alongside Interstate 12 to Hammond and Slidell while I-10 turns southeastward, in the Crescent City, I-10 rejoins U. S.90 as it heads toward Slidell. In Slidell, U. S.11 continues northeastward toward Hattiesburg, Mississippi while I-10, by the beginning of planning for the Interstate Highway System in 1939, the Houston-New Orleans-Mobile corridor was part of the system. Preliminary plans took it along U. S.90 all the way through Louisiana, serving Lake Charles and Lafayette but not Baton Rouge. 1943, it had shifted to the north west of New Orleans, using the Louisiana Highway 12, U. S.190 and US61 corridors. The 1947 plan shifted it to roughly the current alignment, including the stretch of new corridor across the Atchafalaya Swamp. The corridor was assigned the Interstate 10 designation in mid-1957 and this would have provided a shorter route than I-10, bypassing Baton Rouge to the south. The Gramercy Bridge was later built along its alignment, with LA3125 connecting to Gramercy. Interstate 12, serving as a bypass of New Orleans around the side of Lake Pontchartrain, was not added until October 17,1957. By the mid-1960s, the routes had been realigned to their current configuration, with I-12, Construction of the Interstate Highway System in Louisiana began in 1957. Early I-10 contracts were done under the route designation LA3027, much of the early construction on the I-10 corridor was concentrated on relieving traffic problems in urban centers. Several such projects were underway and were incorporated into the route of I-10 during construction
42.
Lake Maurepas
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Lake Maurepas is located in southeastern Louisiana approximately halfway between New Orleans and Baton Rouge directly west of Lake Pontchartrain. Lake Maurepas was named for Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas, Jean-Frédéric was the son of Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain for whom Lake Pontchartrain is named. Lake Maurepas is a round-shaped, shallow, brackish tidal estuarine system and it is approximately 240 km2. in area and has a mean depth of about 3.0 meters. The lake receives freshwater input through four river systems, Blind River, Amite River, Tickfaw River, the average freshwater input to Lake Maurepas from these rivers and other minor terrestrial sources is less than 3,400 cubic feet per second. At the northeast, Lake Maurepas is connected to Lake Pontchartrain by Pass Manchac, the land between these two passes forms Jones Island and the passes converge on the eastern side of the island into one unified Pass Manchac. Tidal exchange with Lake Pontchartrain through Pass Manchac is a significant influence on Lake Maurepas’s volumetric. This results in interesting patterns of exchange and, presumably. The lake’s salinity is directly influenced by exchange with Lake Pontchartrain, salinities in Lake Maurepas have been observed to range between 0 and 3 parts per thousand. Typically, salinities are higher along the shore, near Pass Manchac. Initially the Richard King Mellon Foundation donated 61,633 acres to the Louisiana Department of Wildlife, subsequent acquisitions and donations brought the total to 122,098 acres
43.
Pass Manchac Light
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The fourth and last tower on this particular site was constructed in 1857 and was in service for 130 years. The first three had built in 1838,1842, and 1846, in each case requiring replacement due to poor construction and/or encroaching lake waters. The 1857 lighthouse, a cylinder with attached house, was damaged in the Civil War and during tropical storms in 1888,1890,1915,1926. The station was automated in 1941, and the house was removed in 1952. Pass Manchac Light was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986, the light was functionally replaced in 1987 by the U. S. Coast Guard, which established a skeleton tower on the south side of the pass entrance. On August 28,2012, Louisiana was struck by Hurricane Isaac, destroying the lighthouse
44.
Industrial Canal
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The Industrial Canal is a 5.5 mile waterway in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. The waterways proper name, as used by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the more common Industrial Canal name is used locally, both by commercial mariners and by landside residents. The canal connects the Mississippi River to Lake Pontchartrain and it separates New Orleans East from the rest of the city of New Orleans, and the Lower 9th Ward from the Upper 9th Ward. The entirety of the passes through the 9th Ward of the city. Along the riverfront, the canal constitutes the boundary of the Upper 9th Ward on the side of the canal. Near the lake, it is considered to be the eastern boundary of the Gentilly neighborhood. The dream of a canal connecting the Mississippi River to Lake Pontchartrain goes back to Spanish colonial times. Engineers confirmed that canal locks would be necessary, a canal proposed in the early 19th century was never built, but the right-of-way for the proposed waterway gave its name to the citys Canal Street. In July 1914 the Louisiana State Government authorized the Port of New Orleans to build a shipping canal between the river and lake. Considerable land was expropriated in the portion of the city. Toward the lake this was mostly little-developed swamp, along the riverfront, though, buildings demolished to make room for the canal included homes and the Ursuline Convent, whose Dauphine Street facility was nearly a century old at that time. Dredging of the canal began on 6 June 1918, the length from the lake to the lock near the river was constructed with a 30 foot depth, with a width of 300 feet at the top of the canal and at least 150 feet at the bottom. The original lock system had 5 gates, a width of 74 feet, the opening dedication ceremony was presided over by Louisiana Governor John M. Parker on 5 May 1923. The cost was 19 million dollars, the original length of the canal was 5.3 miles with a 1,600 foot right-of way. The longer current length of 5.5 miles is due to the extension of the lakeshore by dredging in the late 1920s. After the opening of the canal, slips and docks were added along its length, allowing it to function as a harbor and industrial zone in addition to serving as a transit canal. In 1944, the government leased the Industrial Canal lock. In the 1960s the Industrial Canal/Intracoastal Waterway junction was enlarged, in expectation of the surge in traffic resulting from the completion of the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet
listen)) is a brackish estuary located in southeastern Louisiana in the United States. It covers an area of 630 square miles (1,600 km2) with an average depth of 12 to 14 feet (3.7 to 4.3 m). Some shipping channels are kept deeper through dredging, it is roughly oval in shape, about 40 miles (64 km) from west to east and 24 miles (39 km) from south to north.
