1.
Robot
–
A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer—capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. Robots can be guided by a control device or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be constructed to take on human form but most robots are designed to perform a task with no regard to how they look. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or thought of its own. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, many of todays robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. These robots have also created a branch of robotics, soft robotics. From the time of ancient civilization there have many accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even automata resembling animals and humans. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age, there appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote-control and wireless remote-control. The word robot was first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 play R. U. R. by the Czech writer, Karel Čapek but it was Karels brother Josef Čapek who was the words true inventor. Electronics evolved into the force of development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in Bristol. The first digital and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was named the Unimate, there are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising unemployment as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions, the use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction, the word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots. Closely related to the concept of a robot is the field of Synthetic Biology, the idea of automata originates in the mythologies of many cultures around the world. Engineers and inventors from ancient civilizations, including Ancient China, Ancient Greece, since circa 400 BC, myths of Crete include Talos, a man of bronze who guarded the Cretan island of Europa from pirates. In ancient Greece, the Greek engineer Ctesibius applied a knowledge of pneumatics and hydraulics to produce the first organ, in the 4th century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called The Pigeon. Hero of Alexandria, a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, the 11th century Lokapannatti tells of how the Buddhas relics were protected by mechanical robots, from the kingdom of Roma visaya, until they were disarmed by King Ashoka. Yan Shi proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork made of leather, wood, in 1066, the Chinese inventor Su Song built a water clock in the form of a tower which featured mechanical figurines which chimed the hours
Robot
–
ASIMO (2000) at the
Expo 2005, a
bipedal humanoid robot.
Robot
–
Articulated welding robots used in a factory, a type of
industrial robot.
Robot
–
The
quadrupedal military robot Cheetah, an evolution of
BigDog (pictured), was clocked as the world's fastest legged robot in 2012, beating the record set by an
MIT bipedal robot in 1989.
Robot
–
KITT (a fictitious robot) is mentally anthropomorphic
2.
Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacturing
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
3.
Robot welding
–
Robot welding is the use of mechanized programmable tools, which completely automate a welding process by both performing the weld and handling the part. Processes such as gas metal arc welding, while often automated, are not necessarily equivalent to robot welding, robot welding is commonly used for resistance spot welding and arc welding in high production applications, such as the automotive industry. Robot welding is a new application of robotics, even though robots were first introduced into US industry during the 1960s. The use of robots in welding did not take off until the 1980s, since then, both the number of robots used in industry and the number of their applications has grown greatly. In 2005, more than 120,000 robots were in use in North American industry, growth is primarily limited by high equipment costs, and the resulting restriction to high-production applications. Robot arc welding has begun growing quickly just recently, and already it commands about 20% of industrial robot applications, the major components of arc welding robots are the manipulator or the mechanical unit and the controller, which acts as the robots brain. The robot may weld a pre-programmed position, be guided by machine vision, weld quality assurance FANUC KUKA Robotic welding video FANUC welding robots FANUC arc welding robots FANUC spot welding robots Robotic Friction Stir Welding video
Robot welding
–
A set of six-axis robots used for
welding.
Robot welding
–
Main articles
4.
Pick and place
–
SMT component placement systems, commonly called pick-and-place machines or P&Ps, are robotic machines which are used to place surface-mount devices onto a printed circuit board. During this time, a typical SMT assembly line employed two different types of pick-and-place machines arranged in sequence, the unpopulated board was fed into a rapid placement machine. These machines, sometimes called chip shooters, place mainly low-precision and these high-speed P&P machines were built around a single turret design capable of mounting up to two dozen stations. As the turret spins, the passing the back of the machine pick up parts from tape feeders mounted on a moving carriage. As the station proceeds around the turret, it passes an optical station that calculates the angle at which the part was picked up, typical chip shooters can, under optimal conditions, place up to 53,000 parts per hour, or almost 15 parts per second. Because the PCB is moved rather than the turret, only parts that will not be shaken loose by the violent motion of the PCB can be placed this way. From the high speed machine, the board transits to a precision placement machine, furthermore, the precision placement machines are capable of handling larger or more irregularly shaped parts such as large package integrated circuits or packaged inductor coils and trimpots. Unlike the rapid placers, precision placers generally do not use turret mounted nozzles and these precision placers rely upon placement heads with relatively few pickup nozzles. The head sometimes has an identifier that scans a reflective marker on the PC Board to orient the head to the board. Parts are picked up from tape feeders or trays, scanned by a camera, some machines also center the parts on the head with two arms that close to center the part, the head then rotates 90 degrees and the arms close again to center the part once more. The margin of error for some components is, in many cases, the process is a little slower than rapid placement, necessitating careful line balancing when setting up a job, lest the precision placement machine become a production bottleneck. Swapping heads on placement machines required more inventory of heads and related parts for different heads to minimize the downtime. Siemens Siplace SX machine has a head that can place components ranging from 01005 to 50 mm ×40 mm. In addition to there was a new concept wherein the user could borrow performance during peak periods. There is a big change in the industry approach these days with more focus on applications for the process. With new applications like POP and wafer placement on substrate the industry is moving beyond conventional component placement, there is a big difference in the needs of SMT users. For many, the high speed machines are not suitable due to cost, with recent changes in the economic climate the requirement for SMT placement becomes focused on the machines versatility to deal with short runs and fast changeover. This means that lower cost machines with vision systems provide an option for SMT users
Pick and place
–
Internal details of a two head, gantry style pick-and-place
JUKI SMT machine. In the foreground are tape and reel feeders, then the (currently empty) conveyor belt for printed circuit boards, and in back are large parts in a tray. The gantry carries two pickup needles, flanking a camera (marked "do not touch" to avoid fingerprints on the lens).
Pick and place
–
Tape-and-reel feed mechanism used to load components into a pick-and-place machine
Pick and place
–
SMD pick-and-place machine (with simulated motion blurs)
5.
Printed circuit board
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Components are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, PCBs can be single sided, double sided or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density. FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate, a basic building block of the PCB is an FR-4 panel with a thin layer of copper foil laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of material are laminated together, printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, PCBs require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part. A minimal PCB with a component used for easier prototyping is called a breakout board. When the board has no embedded components it is correctly called a printed wiring board or etched wiring board. However, the printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly, the IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly, and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used both for bare and assembled boards. The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $60.2 billion in 2014, initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar. Rub-on dry transfers of common component footprints increased efficiency, traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout, to fabricate the board, the finished photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards. Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated software, generally in the following steps. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB, the positions of the components and heat sinks are determined
Printed circuit board
–
Part of a 1983
Sinclair ZX Spectrum computer board; a populated PCB, showing the conductive traces,
vias (the through-hole paths to the other surface), and some mounted electronic components
Printed circuit board
–
A board designed in 1967; the sweeping curves in the traces are evidence of freehand design using self-adhesive tape.
Printed circuit board
–
PCB copper electroplating line in the process of pattern plating copper.
Printed circuit board
–
PCBs in process of having copper pattern plated, notice the blue dry film resist.
6.
Packaging and labeling
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Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering
Packaging and labeling
–
UK Risperdal Tablets 2000 in a
blister pack, which was itself packaged in a folding
carton made of
paperboard.
Packaging and labeling
–
Shrink wrapped frozen pork
Packaging and labeling
–
1914 magazine advertisement for
cookware with instructions for home canning.
Packaging and labeling
–
Packing folding cartons of salt.
7.
Palletizer
–
A palletizer or palletiser is a machine which provides automatic means for stacking cases of goods or products onto a pallet. Manually placing boxes on pallets can be time consuming and expensive, the first mechanized palletizer was designed, built, and installed in 1948 by a company formerly known as Lamson Corp. Lamson is currently owned by ARPAC who provides both robotic and mechanical palletizers with complete end of line packaging equipment systems, there are specific types of palletizers including the row-forming which were introduced in the early 1950s. In row-forming palletizing applications loads are arranged on a row forming area and this process repeats until a full layer of goods and products are configured to be placed on a pallet. The in-line palletizer was developed in the 1970s when higher speeds were needed for palletizing and this palletizer type utilizes a continuous motion flow divider that guides the goods into the desired area on the layer forming platform. Robotic palletizers were introduced in the early 1980s and have an end of arm tool to grab the product from a conveyor or layer table, both conventional and robotic palletizers can receive product at a high elevation or low “floor level” elevation. Unit load Pallet inverter Stretch wrap Yam, K. L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6
Palletizer
–
In-line palletizer
Palletizer
–
Palletizer using robotics
8.
Welding
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In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten material that cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the base material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such as friction welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt. Some of the best known welding methods include, Oxy-fuel welding - also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy welding, uses fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals. Shielded metal arc welding – also known as stick welding or electric welding, the electrode holder holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric contamination, gas tungsten arc welding – also known as TIG, uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from contamination by an inert shielding gas such as argon or helium. Flux-cored arc welding – almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a special tubular wire filled with flux, it can be used with or without shielding gas, submerged arc welding – uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from contamination by being submerged under the flux blanket. Electroslag welding – a highly productive, single pass welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch and 12 inches in a vertical or close to vertical position. Electric resistance welding - a welding process that produces coalescence of laying surfaces where heat to form the weld is generated by the resistance of the material. In general, an efficient method, but limited to relatively thin material, many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often a process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, under water. Welding is an undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes. Until the end of the 19th century, the welding process was forge welding. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as the world wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Developments continued with the invention of laser welding, electron beam welding, magnetic pulse welding. Today, the continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods, the history of joining metals goes back several millennia
Welding
–
Gas metal arc welding (MIG welding)
Welding
–
The iron pillar of Delhi
Welding
–
Bridge of Maurzyce
Welding
–
Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, 1918
9.
Articulated robot
–
An articulated robot is a robot with rotary joints. Articulated robots can range from simple two-jointed structures to systems with 10 or more interacting joints and they are powered by a variety of means, including electric motors. Some types of robots, such as arms, can be articulated or non-articulated. An articulated robot is one which uses rotary joints to access its work space, usually the joints are arranged in a “chain”, so that one joint supports another further in the chain. Continuous Path, A control scheme whereby the inputs or commands specify every point along a path of motion. The path is controlled by the motion of the manipulator joints. Degrees Of Freedom, The number of independent motions in which the end effector can move, gripper, A device for grasping or holding, attached to the free end of the last manipulator link, also called the robot’s hand or end-effector. Payload, The maximum payload is the amount of weight carried by the robot manipulator at reduced speed while maintaining rated precision, nominal payload is measured at maximum speed while maintaining rated precision. These ratings are highly dependent on the size and shape of the payload, pick And Place Cycle, See Figure. Reach, The maximum horizontal distance from the center of the base to the end of its wrist. The difference between the point that a robot is trying to achieve and the resultant position. The ability of a system or mechanism to repeat the motion or achieve the same points when presented with the same control signals. The cycle-to-cycle error of a system when trying to perform a specific task Resolution, the smallest increment of motion or distance that can be detected or controlled by the control system of a mechanism. The resolution of any joint is a function of encoder pulses per revolution and drive ratio, robot Program, A robot communication program for IBM and compatible personal computers. Provides terminal emulation and utility functions and this program can record all of the user memory, and some of the system memory to disk files. Maximum Speed, The compounded maximum speed of the tip of a robot moving at full extension with all joints moving simultaneously in complimentary directions and this speed is the theoretical maximum and should under no circumstances be used to estimate cycle time for a particular application. A better measure of real world speed is the twelve inch pick. For critical applications, the best indicator of achievable cycle time is a physical simulation, servo Controlled, Controlled by a driving signal which is determined by the error between the mechanisms present position and the desired output position
Articulated robot
–
A six-axis articulated welding robot reaching into a fixture to weld.
Articulated robot
–
Robots palletizing food (Bakery)
Articulated robot
–
Manufacturing of steel bridges, cutting steel
Articulated robot
–
Flat-glass handling, heavy duty robot with 500 kg payload
10.
SCARA
–
The SCARA acronym stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm or Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm. In 1981, Sankyo Seiki, Pentel and NEC presented a new concept for assembly robots. The robot was developed under the guidance of Hiroshi Makino, a professor at the University of Yamanashi, the robot was called Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm, SCARA. Its arm was rigid in the Z-axis and pliable in the XY-axes, by virtue of the SCARAs parallel-axis joint layout, the arm is slightly compliant in the X-Y direction but rigid in the Z direction, hence the term, Selective Compliant. This is advantageous for many types of operations, i. e. inserting a round pin in a round hole without binding. The second attribute of the SCARA is the jointed two-link arm layout similar to our arms, hence the often-used term. This feature allows the arm to extend into confined areas and then retract or fold up out of the way and this is advantageous for transferring parts from one cell to another or for loading/ unloading process stations that are enclosed. SCARAs are generally faster and cleaner than comparable Cartesian robot systems and their single pedestal mount requires a small footprint and provides an easy, unhindered form of mounting. On the other hand, SCARAs can be more expensive than comparable Cartesian systems and this software typically comes with the SCARA though and is usually transparent to the end-user. Most SCARA robots are based on serial architectures, which means that the first motor should carry all other motors, there also exists a so-called double-arm SCARA robot architecture, in which two of the motors are fixed at the base. The first such robot was commercialized by Mitsubishi Electric, another example of a dual-arm SCARA robot is Mecademics DexTAR educational robot. Articulated robot Gantry robot Schoenflies displacement Why SCARA, a Case Study – A Comparison between 3-axis r-theta robot vs. 4-axis SCARA robot by Innovative Robotics, a division of Ocean Bay and Lake Company
SCARA
–
Main articles
SCARA
–
Kinematic diagram of SCARA configuration
11.
Delta robot
–
A delta robot is a type of parallel robot. It consists of three connected to universal joints at the base. The key design feature is the use of parallelograms in the arms, by contrast, a Stewart platform can change the orientation of its end effector. Delta robots have popular usage in picking and packaging in factories because they can be quite fast, the delta robot was invented in the early 1980s by a research team led by professor Reymond Clavel at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. The purpose of new type of robot was to manipulate light and small objects at a very high speed. In 1987, the Swiss company Demaurex purchased a license for the delta robot, also in 1999, ABB Flexible Automation started selling its delta robot, the FlexPicker. By the end of 1999 delta robots were sold by Sigpack Systems. In 2009, FANUC released the newest version of the Delta robot, the FANUC M-1iA Robot, FANUC released the M-3iA in 2010 for heavier payloads, and most recently the FANUC M-2iA Robot for medium-sized payloads in 2012. The delta robot is a robot, i. e. it consists of multiple kinematic chains connecting the base with the end-effector. The robot can also be seen as a generalisation of a four-bar linkage. The key concept of the robot is the use of parallelograms which restrict the movement of the end platform to pure translation. The robots base is mounted above the workspace and all the actuators are located on it, from the base, three middle jointed arms extend. The ends of these arms are connected to a triangular platform. Actuation of the links will move the triangular platform along the X, Y or Z direction. Actuation can be done with linear or rotational actuators, with or without reductions, since the actuators are all located in the base, the arms can be made of a light composite material. As a result of this, the parts of the delta robot have a small inertia. This allows for high speed and high accelerations. Having all the arms connected together to the end-effector increases the robot stiffness, the version developed by Reymond Clavel has four degrees of freedom, three translations and one rotation
Delta robot
–
The
FANUC M-1iA Delta Robot, released in 2009.
Delta robot
–
Sketchy, a portrait-drawing delta robot
Delta robot
–
Commercial
pick and place robots
Delta robot
–
Large delta-style 3D printer
12.
Cartesian coordinate robot
–
Among other advantages, this mechanical arrangement simplifies the Robot control arm solution. Gantry robots are quite large. A popular application for this type of robot is a numerical control machine. The simplest application is used in milling and drawing machines where a pen or router translates across an x-y plane while a tool is raised and lowered onto a surface to create a precise design. Pick and place machines and plotters are also based on the principal of the cartesian coordinate robot
Cartesian coordinate robot
–
a plotter is an implemention of the cartesian coordinate robot
Cartesian coordinate robot
–
Kinematic diagram of cartesian coordinate robot
Cartesian coordinate robot
–
Main articles
13.
Gantry cranes
–
Gantry cranes are a type of crane built atop a gantry, which is a structure used to straddle an object or workspace. Gantry cranes for marine application are imposing, multi-story structures prominent at most container terminals, used to load intermodal containers on and they are also called portal cranes, the portal being the empty space straddled by the gantry. The terms gantry crane and overhead crane are used interchangeably. The usual distinction drawn between the two is that with gantry cranes, the structure is usually wheeled. They operate along two rails spaced based on the size of crane to be used, ship-to-Shore Crane Elements Lateral movement system, A combination of two sets of typically ten rail wheels. The lateral movement is controlled by a cabin along the landside wheel, during any lateral movement, lights and sirens operate to ensure safety of the crew operating adjacent to the crane. The wheels are mounted to the bottom of the vertical frame/bracing system, vertical frame and braces, A structurally designed system of beams assembled to support the boom, cabin, operating machinery, and the cargo being lifted. They display signage describing restrictions, requirements and identifiers, Crane boom, A horizontal beam that runs transversely to the berth. It spans from landside of the rail wheels to a length over the edge of the berth. The waterside span is based on the size of ship that it can successfully load/unload, beams also have the ability to be raised for storage purposes. Hook, Device which moves vertically to raise and lower cargo as well as horizontally along the booms length, for container cranes, a spreader is attached to span the container and lock it safely in place during movement. Operating cabin, Encased setup with glass paneled flooring for operator to view the cargo being moved, elevators which are located along vertical frame members are used to get crew up and down from the cabin. Storage Equipment, For temporary storage options between vessel operations, one pin is inserted into anchorage arm dropped from each wheel set into a stow pin assembly. This setup is designed to prevent lateral movement along the rails, during hurricanes and other emergency shut down situations, tie down assemblies are used. Two angled arms are anchored at each end of set of wheels. This setup prevents longitudinal movement along the rails as well as prevents tipping of the due to uplift from high velocity winds. Ship-to-shore gantry cranes are used in pairs or teams of cranes in order to minimize the time required to load and unload vessels. One example are systems where specialized berths built that accommodate one vessel at a time with ship-to-shore gantry cranes on both sides of the vessel and this allows for more cranes and double the workspace under the cranes to be used for transporting cargo off dock
Gantry cranes
–
Side-view of
Super-PostPanamax portainer crane at the
APM Terminal in the
Port of Rotterdam
Gantry cranes
–
A
ZPMC gantry crane used for construction of the British aircraft carrier
HMS Queen Elizabeth
Gantry cranes
–
Taisun, the world's strongest gantry crane, at
Yantai Raffles Shipyard,
Yantai,
China
Gantry cranes
–
Rubber tyred gantry cranes in the foreground, ship-to-shore gantries background right, at
Port of Shanghai
14.
Robotic arm
–
A robotic arm is a type of mechanical arm, usually programmable, with similar functions to a human arm, the arm may be the sum total of the mechanism or may be part of a more complex robot. The links of such a manipulator are connected by joints allowing either rotational motion or translational displacement, the links of the manipulator can be considered to form a kinematic chain. The terminus of the chain of the manipulator is called the end effector. The end effector, or robotic hand, can be designed to any desired task such as welding, gripping, spinning etc. depending on the application. For example, robot arms in automotive assembly lines perform a variety of such as welding and parts rotation. In some circumstances, close emulation of the hand is desired, as in robots designed to conduct bomb disarmament. Cartesian robot / Gantry robot, Used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations, handling machine tools and its a robot whose arm has three prismatic joints, whose axes are coincident with a Cartesian coordinator. Cylindrical robot, Used for assembly operations, handling at machine tools, spot welding and its a robot whose axes form a cylindrical coordinate system. Spherical robot / Polar robot Used for handling tools, spot welding, diecasting, fettling machines, gas welding. Its a robot whose axes form a coordinate system. SCARA robot, Used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations and this robot features two parallel rotary joints to provide compliance in a plane. Articulated robot, Used for assembly operations, diecasting, fettling machines, gas welding, arc welding and its a robot whose arm has at least three rotary joints. Parallel robot, One use is a mobile platform handling cockpit flight simulators and its a robot whose arms have concurrent prismatic or rotary joints. Anthropomorphic robot, It is shaped in a way that resembles a hand, i. e. with independent fingers. The Curiosity rover on the planet Mars also uses a robotic arm, in the decade of 2010 the availability of low-cost robotic arms increased substantially. Although such robotic arms are mostly marketed as hobby or educational devices, applications in laboratory automation have been proposed, robot Arm Types How to build your printed robot arm assistant
Robotic arm
–
The SRMS while deploying a payload from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle
Robotic arm
–
Phenoptix MeArm Robot Arm Download
Robotic arm
–
Humans+ exhibit
Robotic arm
–
Main articles
15.
Autonomous robot
–
Some modern factory robots are autonomous within the strict confines of their direct environment. It may not be that every degree of freedom exists in their surrounding environment, the exact orientation and position of the next object of work and even the type of object and the required task must be determined. One important area of research is to enable the robot to cope with its environment whether this be on land, underwater, in the air, underground. Like other machines, autonomous robots still require regular maintenance, the first requirement for complete physical autonomy is the ability for a robot to take care of itself. Many of the robots on the market today can find and connect to a charging station. Self-maintenance is based on proprioception, or sensing ones own internal status, in the battery charging example, the robot can tell proprioceptively that its batteries are low and it then seeks the charger. Another common proprioceptive sensor is for heat monitoring, increased proprioception will be required for robots to work autonomously near people and in harsh environments. Common proprioceptive sensors include thermal, optical, and haptic sensing, exteroception is sensing things about the environment. Autonomous robots must have a range of sensors to perform their task. Common exteroceptive sensors include the spectrum, sound, touch, chemical, temperature, range to various objects. The next step in autonomous behavior is to perform a physical task. A new area showing commercial promise is domestic robots, with a flood of small vacuuming robots beginning with iRobot, while the level of intelligence is not high in these systems, they navigate over wide areas and pilot in tight situations around homes using contact and non-contact sensors. Both of these robots use proprietary algorithms to increase coverage over simple random bounce, the next level of autonomous task performance requires a robot to perform conditional tasks. For instance, security robots can be programmed to detect intruders, for a robot to associate behaviors with a place requires it to know where it is and to be able to navigate point-to-point. Such navigation began with wire-guidance in the 1970s and progressed in the early 2000s to beacon-based triangulation, current commercial robots autonomously navigate based on sensing natural features. The first commercial robots to achieve this were Pyxus HelpMate hospital robot and these robots originally used manually created CAD floor plans, sonar sensing and wall-following variations to navigate buildings. Their control system changes its path on the fly if something blocks the way, at first, autonomous navigation was based on planar sensors, such as laser range-finders, that can only sense at one level. The most advanced systems now fuse information from sensors for both localization and navigation
Autonomous robot
–
Robot GUI display showing battery voltage and other proprioceptive data in lower right-hand corner. The display is for user information only. Autonomous robots monitor and respond to
proprioceptive sensors without human intervention to keep themselves safe and operating properly.
Autonomous robot
–
The Seekur and MDARS robots demonstrate their autonomous navigation and security capabilities at an airbase. (Courtesy of MobileRobots Inc)
Autonomous robot
–
Main articles
16.
Machine vision
–
Machine vision is a term encompassing a large number of technologies, software and hardware products, integrated systems, actions, methods and expertise. Machine vision as an engineering discipline can be considered distinct from computer vision. It attempts to integrate existing technologies in new ways and apply them to real world problems. The term is used in a broader sense by trade shows and trade groups. This field encompasses a number of technologies, software and hardware products, integrated systems, actions, methods. The term is used in a broader sense by trade shows and trade groups such as the Automated Imaging Association. This broader definition also encompasses products and applications most often associated with image processing, the primary uses for machine vision are automatic inspection and industrial robot/process guidance. The primary uses for machine vision are imaging-based automatic inspection and robot guidance, in this section the former is abbreviated as automatic inspection. The larger scale process includes includes defining and creating a solution and this section describes the technical process that occurs during the operation of the solution. The components of an inspection system usually include lighting, a camera or other imager, a processor, software. The imaging device can either be separate from the image processing unit or combined with it in which case the combination is generally called a smart camera or smart sensor. When separated, the connection may be made to specialized intermediate hardware, MV implementations also have used digital cameras capable of direct connections to a computer via FireWire, USB or Gigabit Ethernet interfaces. While conventional imaging is most commonly used in MV, alternatives include hyperspectral imaging, imaging various infrared bands, line scan imaging, 3D imaging of surfaces and X-ray imaging. Though the vast majority of machine vision applications are solved using two-dimensional imaging, the most commonly used method for 3D imaging is scanning based triangulation which utilizes motion of the product or image during the imaging process. A laser is projected onto the surfaces of an object and viewed from a different angle, in machine vision this is accomplished with a scanning motion, either by moving the workpiece, or by moving the camera & laser imaging system. The line is viewed by a camera from a different angle, lines from multiple scans are assembled into a depth map or point cloud. Stereoscopic vision is used in cases involving unique features present in both views of a pair of cameras. Other 3D methods used for machine vision are time of flight, grid based, one method is grid array based systems using pseudorandom structured light system as employed by the Microsoft Kinect system circa 2012
Machine vision
–
Early
Automatix (now part of Microscan) machine vision system Autovision II from 1983 being demonstrated at a trade show. Camera on tripod is pointing down at a light table to produce backlit image shown on screen, which is then subjected to
blob extraction.
17.
Artificial intelligence
–
Artificial intelligence is intelligence exhibited by machines. Colloquially, the artificial intelligence is applied when a machine mimics cognitive functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as learning. As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition, for instance, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of artificial intelligence, having become a routine technology. AI research is divided into subfields that focus on specific problems or on specific approaches or on the use of a tool or towards satisfying particular applications. The central problems of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, general intelligence is among the fields long-term goals. Approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI, Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, the field was founded on the claim that human intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly, while thought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices in antiquity, the idea of actually trying to build a machine to perform useful reasoning may have begun with Ramon Llull. With his Calculus ratiocinator, Gottfried Leibniz extended the concept of the calculating machine, since the 19th century, artificial beings are common in fiction, as in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein or Karel Čapeks R. U. R. The study of mechanical or formal reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity, in the 19th century, George Boole refined those ideas into propositional logic and Gottlob Frege developed a notational system for mechanical reasoning. Around the 1940s, Alan Turings theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 and this insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the Church–Turing thesis. Along with concurrent discoveries in neurology, information theory and cybernetics, the first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullouch and Pitts 1943 formal design for Turing-complete artificial neurons. The field of AI research was born at a conference at Dartmouth College in 1956, attendees Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and Arthur Samuel became the founders and leaders of AI research. At the conference, Newell and Simon, together with programmer J. C, shaw, presented the first true artificial intelligence program, the Logic Theorist. This spurred tremendous research in the domain, computers were winning at checkers, solving problems in algebra, proving logical theorems. By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U. S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around the world. AIs founders were optimistic about the future, Herbert Simon predicted, machines will be capable, within twenty years, Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, within a generation. The problem of creating artificial intelligence will substantially be solved and they failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks
Artificial intelligence
–
Kismet, a robot with rudimentary social skills
Artificial intelligence
–
An ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.
Artificial intelligence
–
Main articles
18.
Meccano Magazine
–
Meccano Magazine was an English monthly hobby magazine published by Meccano Ltd between 1916 and 1963, and by other publishers between 1963 and 1981. The magazine was created for Meccano builders, but it soon became a general hobby magazine aimed at boys of all ages. The magazine was launched by Frank Hornby, the inventor of Meccano, as a publication in 1916 in the United States as Meccano Engineer. The first copies were given away free but in 1918 readers had to pay two pence for postage for four issues, in 1917 and again in 1932, Hornby published a history of Meccano, its manufacture and marketing in the magazine. In 1919 it doubled its size to eight pages and now cost one penny, new Meccano parts were advertised for the first time in 1920 and in 1922 the magazine became a monthly publication. From the May 1924 issue, the magazine had full-colour covers, by the 1930s Meccano Magazine had a circulation of 70,000. During the Second World War the content and quality of the magazine was reduced greatly, the A5 pocket-size format remained until 1961 when it was increased again to A4. In 1963 the magazine started reporting a loss and Meccano Ltd handed its publishing over to its printers, in August 1967 Thomas Skinner terminated production of the magazine and passed the magazine on to Model & Allied Publications of Hemel Hempstead in 1968. At the end of 1972 publication stopped due to a decline in popularity, in April 1973 it was resurrected again, this time as a quarterly magazine, and from 1977 it incorporated Meccano Engineer and the Meccanomans Journal. Meccano Magazines last issue was Spring 1981, Meccano Magazine was originally aimed at Meccano builders and featured articles on Meccano construction and new Meccano developments. When Frank Hornby launched the Meccano Guild in 1919, the magazine carried regular Guild news to keep Meccano clubs informed of each others activities, but over time Meccano Magazine became a general hobby magazine aimed at boys of all ages. Commonwealth countries always featured strongly in articles as Meccano Ltd exported its products to these countries, the magazines today are an excellent source of historic information and an invaluable aid to collectors of toys from those years. They have also become collectors items and there is a trade in them at auctions
Meccano Magazine
–
First issue cover, Sep–Oct 1916, Vol. 1 No. 1.
19.
Meccano
–
Meccano is a model construction system created in Liverpool, United Kingdom, by Frank Hornby. The brand now maintains a facility in Calais, France. Meccano consists of metal strips, plates, angle girders, wheels, axles and gears. It enables the building of working models and mechanical devices, although Meccano has always been seen as an engaging education toy, today the brand focuses on promoting engineering and robotics through fun play to support STEM learning. The ideas for Meccano were first conceived by Hornby in 1898, the name was later changed to Meccano and manufactured by the British company, Meccano Ltd, between 1908 and 1980. It is now manufactured in France and China by Meccano S. N. of France, in the United States, a competitive toy with a similar play pattern was launched in 1913 under the Erector Set brand. Erector was purchased by the Meccano company in 2000 and continued to be sold under Erector Sets in the US through early 2015, after August 2015, the Erector brand was relaunched under the global brand name Meccano. In 1901 Frank Hornby, a clerk from Liverpool, England, the perforations were at a standard ½ inch spacing, the axles were 8-gauge, and the nuts and bolts used 5/32 inch BSW threads. The only tools required to assemble models were a screwdriver and spanners and it was more than just a toy, it was educational, teaching basic mechanical principles like levers and gearing. The parts for Hornbys new construction kit were supplied by outside manufacturers. As the construction kits gained in popularity they soon became known as Meccano, in September 1907, Hornby registered the Meccano trade mark, and in May 1908, he formed Meccano Ltd. To keep pace with demand, a new Meccano factory was built in Binns Road, Liverpool in 1914, Hornby also established Meccano factories in France, Spain and Argentina. The word Meccano was thought to have derived from the phrase Make. The first construction sets had parts that were rather crudely made, the first sets under the new Meccano name were numbered 1 to 6. In 1922 the No.7 Meccano Outfit was introduced, which was the largest set of its day, in 1926, to mark the 25th anniversary of his patent, Hornby introduced Meccano in Colours with the familiar red and green coloured Meccano pieces. Initially plates were a red and items like the braced girders were a pea-green. However, the following year strips and girders were painted dark green and this new colour scheme was only available in the United Kingdom until the end of the Second World War in 1945. The old red and green sets were produced for the export market and were re-introduced in the UK after the war
Meccano
–
Meccano
Meccano
–
An early Meccano set on display in the
Edinburgh Museum of Childhood
Meccano
–
A model
steam locomotive built with Meccano.
Meccano
–
Instruction book for the 1956 Meccano No. 7 and 8 Outfits, showing a model of a walking
drag line excavator built with the red and green Meccano pieces of the time.
20.
George Devol
–
George Charles Devol, Jr. was an American inventor known for developing Unimate, the first material handling robot employed in industrial production work. Born in Louisville, Kentucky in 1912, Devol was interested from boyhood in all electrical and mechanical such as boats, airplanes. He got some experience at Riordan Prep, where, in addition to studying traditional subjects, he helped construct some buildings. Choosing to forego higher education, in 1932 Devol went into business, however, he later learned that companies like RCA and Western Electric were working in the same area, and decided to discontinue the product. At that time, Devol asked himself what else can we do all these photocells. Devol decided that United Cinephone needed inventions in order to sell its photoelectric switches, one of Devols first inventions was the automatic door. United Cinephone licensed Devols invention to Yale & Towne who manufactured the Phantom Doorman photoelectric door and this was the first automatic opening door, now ubiquitous in grocery stores and elsewhere. United Cinephone also manufactured many of its own products using photoelectric cells, among these was a very early bar code system that was used for sorting packages at the Railway Express Agency, years before others would separately come up with similar technology. United Cinephone also manufactured Orthoplane lighting, another product Devol patented, United Cinephone also invented the first optical registration controls for color offset printing presses and packaging machinery. The company also manufactured phonograph arms and amplifiers, in fact, Devol installed amplifiers at the Cotton Club and enjoyed watching Count Basie, Fred Waring and others, occasionally taking in the after-hours jam sessions. In 1939 United Cinephone installed automated photoelectric counters at New York Worlds Fair to count customers entering the fairgrounds, in 1939, Devol applied for a patent for proximity controls for use in laundry press machines, based on a radio frequency field. This control would automatically open and close laundry presses when workers approached the machines, once the war began, Devol was advised by the patent office that his patent application would be placed on hold for the duration of the conflict. Around the time the World War II began, Devol sold his interest in United Cinephone and he was retained by Sperry as manager of the Special Projects Department that developed radar devices and microwave test equipment. Later in the war, he approached Auto-Ordnance Company regarding products that company could produce aside from their product line. Devol told them that the field of radar counter-measures was about to emerge as an urgently needed defense technology, in 1943, he organized General Electronics Industries in Greenwich, Connecticut, as a subsidiary of the Auto Ordinance Corporation. General Electronics produced counter-radar devices until the end of the War, General Electronics was one of the largest producers of radar and radar counter-measure equipment for the U. S. Navy, U. S. Army Air Force and other government agencies. The companys radar counter-measure systems were on allied planes on D-Day, over a difference of opinion regarding the future of certain projects, Devol resigned from Auto Ordinance and joined RCA. In 1946 he applied for a patent on a recording system for controlling machines
George Devol
–
George Devol in 1982
George Devol
–
Phantom Doorman Automatic Door
George Devol
–
Orthoplane Lighting
George Devol
–
The first static magnetic recorder that used a saw blade to record information
21.
Patent
–
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
Patent
–
U.S patent
Patent
–
James Puckle 's 1718
early autocannon was one of the first inventions required to provide a specification for a patent.
Patent
–
The plate of the Martin
ejector seat of a military aircraft, stating that the design is covered by multiple patents in Britain, South Africa, Canada and "others".
Dübendorf Museum of Military Aviation.
22.
Unimation
–
Unimation was the worlds first robotics company. It was founded in 1962 by Joseph F. Engelberger and George Devol and was located in Danbury, Devol had already applied for a patent an industrial robotic arm in 1954, U. S. Patent 2,988,237 was issued in 1961, Devol collaborated with Engelberger, who served as president of the company, to engineer and produce an industrial robot under the brand name Unimate. They introduced their new robot in 1961 at a show at Chicagos Cow Palace. The first Unimate prototypes were controlled by vacuum tubes used as digital switches though later versions used transistors and they also invented a variety of new technologies, including a unique rotating drum memory system with data parity controls. In 1960, Devol personally sold the first Unimate robot, which was shipped in 1961 to General Motors, GM first used the machine for die casting handling and spot welding of car bodies. The first Unimate robot was installed at GMs Inland Fisher Guide Plant in Ewing Township, New Jersey in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die-casting machine, soon companies such as Chrysler, Ford, and Fiat saw the necessity for large Unimate purchases. The PUMA was developed by Victor Scheinman at Unimation in 1978, initially developed for General Motors, the PUMA was based on the earlier Vicarm design Scheinman invented while at Stanford University. Unimation produced PUMAs for years until being purchased by Westinghouse, and later by Swiss company Stäubli
Unimation
–
George Devol in 1982
Unimation
–
Phantom Doorman Automatic Door
Unimation
–
Orthoplane Lighting
Unimation
–
The first static magnetic recorder that used a saw blade to record information
23.
Hydraulics
–
Hydraulics is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids or fluids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the version of pneumatics. Fluid mechanics provides the foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In fluid power, hydraulics are used for the generation, control, hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry, pumps. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the body within the heart. Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with surface flow, such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries. Its sub-field open channel flow studies the flow in open channels, the word hydraulics originates from the Greek word ὑδραυλικός which in turn originates from ὕδωρ and αὐλός. Early uses of water power date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, other early examples of water power include the Qanat system in ancient Persia and the Turpan water system in ancient Central Asia. The Greeks constructed sophisticated water and hydraulic power systems, an example is the construction by Eupalinos, under a public contract, of a watering channel for Samos, the Tunnel of Eupalinos. An early example of the usage of hydraulic wheel, probably the earliest in Europe, is the Perachora wheel, notable is the construction of the first hydraulic automata by Ctesibius and Hero of Alexandria. Hero describes a number of working machines using hydraulic power, such as the force pump, in ancient China there was Sunshu Ao, Ximen Bao, Du Shi, Zhang Heng, and Ma Jun, while medieval China had Su Song and Shen Kuo. Du Shi employed a waterwheel to power the bellows of a blast furnace producing cast iron, Zhang Heng was the first to employ hydraulics to provide motive power in rotating an armillary sphere for astronomical observation. In ancient Sri Lanka, hydraulics were used in the ancient kingdoms of Anuradhapura. The discovery of the principle of the tower, or valve pit. By the first century AD, several irrigation works had been completed. The coral on the rock at the site includes cisterns for collecting water. They were among the first to use of the siphon to carry water across valleys. They used lead widely in plumbing systems for domestic and public supply, hydraulic mining was used in the gold-fields of northern Spain, which was conquered by Augustus in 25 BC
Hydraulics
–
Moat and gardens at Sigirya.
Hydraulics
–
An open channel, with a uniform depth, Open Channel Hydraulics deals with uniform and non-uniform streams.
Hydraulics
–
Aqueduct of Segovia, a 1st-century AD masterpiece.
24.
Actuator
–
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. An actuator requires a signal and a source of energy. The control signal is low energy and may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure. The supplied main energy source may be current, hydraulic fluid pressure. When the control signal is received, the actuator responds by converting the energy into mechanical motion, an actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple, software-based, a human, the history of the pneumatic actuation system and the hydraulic actuation system dates to around the time of World War II. A hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotatory or oscillatory motion, as liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert a large force. The drawback of this approach is its limited acceleration, the hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide. The term single acting is used when the pressure is applied to just one side of the piston. The piston can move in one direction, a spring being frequently used to give the piston a return stroke. The term double acting is used when pressure is applied on each side of the piston, a pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure into either linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine controls because it can respond in starting and stopping as the power source does not need to be stored in reserve for operation. Pneumatic actuators enable considerable forces to be produced relatively small pressure changes. These forces are used with valves to move diaphragms to affect the flow of liquid through the valve. An electric actuator is powered by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical torque, the electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves. It is one of the cleanest and most readily available forms of actuator because it does not directly involve oil or other fossil fuels, actuators which can be actuated by applying thermal or magnetic energy have been used in commercial applications. They tend to be compact, lightweight, economical and with high power density and these actuators use shape memory materials, such as shape memory alloys or magnetic shape-memory alloys
Actuator
–
Pneumatic
rack and pinion actuators for valve controls of water pipes
25.
Joint
–
A joint or articulation is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement, other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis, joints are classified both structurally and functionally. Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally, structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications, a facet joint is the joint between two articular processes between two vertebrae. Structural classification names and divides joints according to the type of binding tissue that connects the bones to each other, joints can also be classified functionally according to the type and degree of movement they allow, Joint movements are described with reference to the basic anatomical planes. Synarthrosis – permits little or no mobility, most synarthrosis joints are fibrous joints. Most amphiarthrosis joints are cartilaginous joints, Synovial joints can in turn be classified into six groups according to the type of movement they allow, plane joint, ball and socket joint, hinge joint, pivot joint, condyloid joint and saddle joint. Joints can also be classified, according to the number of axes of movement they allow, another classification is according to the degrees of freedom allowed, and distinguished between joints with one, two or three degrees of freedom. A further classification is according to the number and shapes of the surfaces, flat, concave. Types of articular surfaces include trochlear surfaces, joints can also be classified based on their anatomy or on their biomechanical properties. Swimming is a way to exercise the joints with minimal damage. A joint disorder is termed arthropathy, and when involving inflammation of one or more joints the disorder is called arthritis, most joint disorders involve arthritis, but joint damage by external physical trauma is typically not termed arthritis. Arthropathies are called polyarticular when involving many joints and monoarticular when involving only a single joint, arthritis is the leading cause of disability in people over the age of 55. There are many different forms of arthritis, each of which has a different cause, furthermore, there is emerging evidence that abnormal anatomy may contribute to early development of osteoarthritis. Other forms of arthritis are rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are diseases in which the body is attacking itself. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection, gouty arthritis is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joint that results in subsequent inflammation. Additionally, there is a common form of gout that is caused by the formation of rhomboidal-shaped crystals of calcium pyrophosphate
Joint
–
Diagram of a typical synovial (diarthrosis) joint
26.
Coordinate system
–
The order of the coordinates is significant, and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in the x-coordinate. The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, the use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa, this is the basis of analytic geometry. The simplest example of a system is the identification of points on a line with real numbers using the number line. In this system, an arbitrary point O is chosen on a given line. The coordinate of a point P is defined as the distance from O to P. Each point is given a unique coordinate and each number is the coordinate of a unique point. The prototypical example of a system is the Cartesian coordinate system. In the plane, two lines are chosen and the coordinates of a point are taken to be the signed distances to the lines. In three dimensions, three perpendicular planes are chosen and the three coordinates of a point are the distances to each of the planes. This can be generalized to create n coordinates for any point in n-dimensional Euclidean space, depending on the direction and order of the coordinate axis the system may be a right-hand or a left-hand system. This is one of many coordinate systems, another common coordinate system for the plane is the polar coordinate system. A point is chosen as the pole and a ray from this point is taken as the polar axis, for a given angle θ, there is a single line through the pole whose angle with the polar axis is θ. Then there is a point on this line whose signed distance from the origin is r for given number r. For a given pair of coordinates there is a single point, for example, and are all polar coordinates for the same point. The pole is represented by for any value of θ, there are two common methods for extending the polar coordinate system to three dimensions. In the cylindrical coordinate system, a z-coordinate with the meaning as in Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and θ polar coordinates giving a triple. Spherical coordinates take this a further by converting the pair of cylindrical coordinates to polar coordinates giving a triple. A point in the plane may be represented in coordinates by a triple where x/z and y/z are the Cartesian coordinates of the point
Coordinate system
–
The
spherical coordinate system is commonly used in physics. It assigns three numbers (known as coordinates) to every point in
Euclidean space: radial distance r, polar angle θ (
theta), and azimuthal angle φ (
phi). The symbol ρ (
rho) is often used instead of r.
27.
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
–
/kaʊ. əˈsɑːki/ is a Japanese public multinational corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of motorcycles, heavy equipment, aerospace and defense equipment, rolling stock and ships. It is also active in the production of industrial robots, gas turbines, boilers, the company is named after its founder Shōzō Kawasaki, and has dual headquarters in Chūō-ku, Kobe and Minato, Tokyo. KHI is known as one of the three major industrial manufacturers of Japan, alongside Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and IHI. Prior to World War II, KHI was part of the Kobe Kawasaki zaibatsu, after the war, KHI became part of the DKB Group. Kawasaki is active in a range of the aerospace industry. It is currently developing two large, next-generation aircraft, the XP-1 maritime patrol airplane and the XC-2 transport aircraft, Kawasaki also builds helicopters, including the BK117, jointly developed and manufactured with MBB. It also produces the CH-47J / JA helicopter, in the commercial aviation business, the company is involved in the joint international development and production of large passenger aircraft. It is involved in joint development and production of the Boeing 767, Boeing 777 and Boeing 787 with The Boeing Company, and the 170,175,190 and 195 jets with Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica. It is also involved in the joint international development and production of engines for passenger aircraft such as the V2500, the RB211/Trent, the PW4000. Kawasaki also works for the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, the Company was responsible for the development and production of the payload fairings, payload attach fittings and the construction of the launch complex for the H-II rocket. It continues to provide services for the H-IIA rocket, main products Aircraft Space systems Helicopters Simulators Jet engines Missiles Electronic equipment Kawasaki is Japan’s largest manufacturer of rolling stock. It began operations in the industry in 1906 and it manufactures express and commuter trains, subway cars, freight trains, locomotives, monorails and new transit systems. Kawasaki is also involved in the development and design of high-speed trains such as Japan’s Shinkansen and its product range include high-performance LNG and LPG carriers, container ships, bulk carriers and VLCCs, as well as submarines. The Company is also involved in the development of offshore structures, Kawasaki also produces marine machinery and equipment, including main engines, propulsion systems, steering gears, deck and fishing machinery. It also offers industrial plant engineering from design to sales, main products Industrial plants Industrial robots Aerodynamic machinery Hydraulic equipment Kawasaki is involved in the development of equipment that prevents pollution in a wide range of industries. Among the leading products are fuel gas desulfurization and denitrification systems, the Company also supplies municipal refuse incineration plants, gasification and melting systems, sewage treatment and sludge incineration plants. Kawasaki has also been developing systems that enable a range of municipal and industrial waste to be recovered, recycled. The company offers of storage solutions for LNG, Kawasaki’s portfolio also includes retractable roofs, floors and other giant structures, for construction, Kawasaki produces products such as wheel loaders, tunnel machines, rollers, snowplows and purpose specific loaders
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
–
Kawasaki Heavy Industries' Kobe head offices are located in the Kobe Crystal Tower
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
–
Japanese Experiment Module "Kibō"
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
–
Kawasaki XC-2
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
–
Lineup of
JR East Shinkansen trains, October 2009
28.
GKN
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GKN plc is a British multinational automotive and aerospace components company headquartered in Redditch, Worcestershire. The company was known as Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds and can trace its origins back to 1759. GKN is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, the origins of GKN lie in the founding of the Dowlais Ironworks in the village of Dowlais, Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, by Thomas Lewis and Isaac Wilkinson. John Guest was appointed manager of the works in 1767, having moved from Broseley, in 1786, John Guest was succeeded by his son, Thomas Guest, who formed the Dowlais Iron Company with his son-in-law William Taitt. Guest introduced many innovations and the works prospered, under Guests leadership, alongside his manager John Evans, the Dowlais Ironworks gained the reputation of being one of the Worlds great industrial concerns. Though the Bessemer process was licensed in 1856, nine years of detailed planning, the company thrived with its new cost-effective production methods, forming alliances with the Consett Iron Company and Krupp. By 1857 G. T. Clark and William Menelaus, his manager, had constructed the Goat Mill, by the mid-1860s, Clarks reforms had borne fruit in renewed profitability. Clark delegated day-to-day management to Menelaus, his trusteeship terminating in 1864 when ownership passed to Sir Ivor Guest, however, Clark continued to direct policy, in particular, building a new plant at the docks at Cardiff and vetoing a joint-stock company. On 9 July 1900, the Dowlais Iron Company and Arthur Keens Patent Nut and Bolt Company merged to form Guest, in 1920 John Lysaght and Co. was acquired. Steel production remained at the core of the company, but under increasing profit margin pressure, due to a resultant global shortage of pig iron, in 1937 the company fired-up the single remaining blast furnace at Dowlais. In 1961 the companys name changed again to GKN Steel Company and these mergers heralded half a century in which GKN became a major manufacturer of screws, nuts, bolts and other fasteners. The company reflected the vertical integration fashionable at the time embracing activities from coal and ore extraction, after the First World War it became apparent that Britain was likely to follow France and more recently the United States in developing a large scale auto-industry. GKN acquired another fastener manufacturer, F. W. Cotterill Ltd. in 1919, in 1920, GKN purchased steel company John Lysaght and their subsidiary, Joseph Sankey and Sons Ltd. After training as an engineer, Sankey founded a tea tray producer. A pioneer motorist, he became friends with Herbert Austin. By 1914, the customers for sheet steel bodies included Austin, Daimler, Humber, Rover, Star. Production started in 1908, with customers including Herbert Austin and, later, in addition to his original factory at Bilston a new plant was established near Wellington, Shropshire, which was devoted to wheel production. By the time the business was acquired by GKN, the plant was supplying wheels to many UK manufacturers, by 1969 the highly automated Wellington plant was turning out over 5½ million wheels a year at a maximum rate of approximately 30,000 per day
GKN
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Dowlais Ironworks by George Childs (1840)
GKN
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Display panel showing products of Guest Keen & Nettlefold Ltd. in decorative form
29.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
Ohio
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The Ohio coast of
Lake Erie.
Ohio
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Flag
Ohio
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Columbus Cleveland
Ohio
30.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
Stanford University
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Leland Stanford, the university's founder, as painted by
Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier in 1881 and now on display at the
Cantor Center
Stanford University
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Seal of Stanford University
Stanford University
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Statue of the Stanford family, by
Larkin G. Mead (1899)
Stanford University
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The ruins of the unfinished Stanford Library after the
1906 San Francisco earthquake
