1.
Constitution
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A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i. e. constitute, some constitutions are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from states to companies. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a states rulers cannot cross, the term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments. Later, the term was used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope. The Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. Ultra vires gives a justification for the forced cessation of such action. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers they do not have. It was never law, even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, in such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered, for example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich. After that, many governments ruled by codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur, some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law. In 621 BC a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens, in 594 BC Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the class was to be based on wealth. Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a footing in 508 BC. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was the arrangement of the offices in a state
2.
Judiciary
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The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
3.
Military history of Sweden
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During the prehistoric times, modern Sweden was divided into provinces and in the Svea and Göta kingdoms. There is said that wars were fought between Svear and Götar and that the former were victors, as the Icelandic sagas tell of many family feuds, one can assume that these were not uncommon in Sweden either, as the structure of the society was similar. During the early Middle Ages, many Vikings took recruitment in the fleet, the system of Leidang was used to organize the armies in the different parts of the country. In an alliance with the Danes, the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung won the war against the Norwegians at the battle of Svolder. The Russo-Swedish War was a result of an alliance between Ivan III of Russia and Hans of Denmark, who was waging war against the Sture family of Sweden in the hope of regaining the Swedish throne. Ivan III sent Princes Daniil Shchenya and Vasily Shuisky to lay siege to the Swedish castle of Vyborg. The siege lasted for three months and ended when a castellan set his supply of powder on fire, thus scaring the Muscovites out of their wits, the following year Russian generals Vasily Kosoy and Andrey Chelyadnin severely devastated Swedish Finland as far as Hämeenlinna. Another detachment sailed along the shore, forcing the Finns into subservience, the fortress was taken but was impossible to defend it for a considerable period of time — Svante Nilsson proposed to hand it over to the Knights, an offer which they declined. Thereupon the Swedes set the fortress ablaze and sailed home, after the Swedish throne fell to Hans of Denmark, hostilities were suspended until 1508, when Sweden and Russia ratified a peace treaty for 60 years. The campaign was a result of an alliance between Charles IX of Sweden and Vasili IV of Russia, whereby the latter promised to cede the County of Kexholm to Sweden. The combined Russo-Swedish forces set out from Novgorod late in 1609 and marched towards Moscow and they dispersed the supporters of False Dmitry II, who maintained an alternative court in Tushino near Moscow and challenged the authority of Vasily IV. In June 1610, De la Gardie and Dmitry Shuisky departed from Moscow in order to lift Żółkiewskis Siege of Smolensk, the campaign ended with most of De la Gardies forces being destroyed by the Polish hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski at the Battle of Klushino in 1610. The De la Gardie Campaign can be considered a prelude to the Ingrian War and it ended with a large Swedish territorial gain in the Treaty of Stolbovo which laid an important foundation to Swedens Age of Greatness. The Kalmar War was a war between Sweden and Denmark 1611 to 1613, Sweden sought an alternative trade route to avoid paying Denmarks Sound Toll through Northern Norway. This was not to Denmarks liking and they invaded southern Sweden, england and the Netherlands were also invested in the Baltic Sea trade, and pressured to curtail Denmarks power by ending the Kalmar War before a decisive victory could be attained. The Danes, while well-equipped and strong, had relied heavily on mercenary forces and Christian IV, with Englands intercession, the Treaty of Knäred was signed on January 20,1613. Denmark reached its victory, restoring Norwegian control of Swedens land route through Lapland by incorporating Lapland into Norway, further, Sweden had to pay a high ransom for two fortresses captured by Denmark. Sweden, however, achieved a major concession — the right of trade through the Sound Strait
4.
Monarchy of Sweden
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The Monarchy of Sweden concerns the monarchical head of state of Sweden, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The Kingdom of Sweden has been a monarchy since time immemorial, Sweden in the present day is a representative democracy in a parliamentary system based on popular sovereignty, as defined in the current Instrument of Government. The monarch and the members of the Royal Family undertake a variety of official, unofficial and other duties within Sweden. Carl XVI Gustaf became King on 15 September 1973 on the death of his grandfather, Sweden has been a kingdom since prehistoric times. Originally, the Swedish king had combined powers limited to that of a war chief, a judge, the Royal Court of Sweden, however, does count Olofs father as Swedens first king. The king was elected from a favored dynasty at the Stones of Mora. The ceremonial stones were destroyed around 1515 and that dynasty formed a pre-Kalmar Union Sweden into a strong state, and finally king Magnus IV even ruled Norway and Scania. Following the Black Death, the union was weakened, and Scania was reunited with Denmark. In 1397, after the Black Death and domestic power struggles, Queen Margaret I of Denmark united Sweden, Denmark, continual tension within each country and the union led to open conflict between the Swedes and the Danes in the 15th century. The unions final disintegration in the early 16th century led to prolonged rivalry between Denmark-Norway and Sweden for centuries to come. Catholic bishops had supported the King of Denmark, Christian II, Gustav Vasa was elected King of Sweden by the Estates of the Realm, assembled in Strängnäs on 6 June 1523. Inspired by the teachings of Martin Luther, Gustav I used the Protestant Reformation to curb the power of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1527 he persuaded the Estates of the Realm, assembled in the city of Västerås, to church lands. At the same time, he broke with the papacy and established a state church. Legally Sweden has only been a monarchy since 1544 when the Riksdag of the Estates, through Västerås arvförening. Crown tax revenues increased, but more importantly the new system was perceived as fairer, a war with Lübeck in 1535 resulted in the expulsion of the Hanseatic traders, who previously had had a monopoly on foreign trade. With its own burghers in charge, Swedens economic strength grew rapidly, Sweden now built the first modern army in Europe, supported by a sophisticated tax system and an efficient bureaucracy. At the death of King Gustav I in 1560, he was succeeded by his oldest son Eric XIV and his reign was marked by Swedens entrance into the Livonian War and the Northern Seven Years War
5.
Charles XI of Sweden
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Charles XI, also Carl, was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death, in a period of Swedish history known as the Swedish Empire. Charles was the son of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden. His father died when he was five years old, so Charles was educated by his governors until his coronation at the age of seventeen, soon after, he was forced out on military expeditions to secure the recently acquired dominions from Danish troops in the Scanian War. Changes in finance, commerce, national maritime and land armaments, judicial procedure, church government, Charles XI was succeeded by his only son Charles XII, who made use of the well-trained army in battles throughout Europe. The fact that Charles was crowned as Charles XI does not mean that he was the 11th king of Sweden who had the name Charles. His fathers name was due to his great-grandfather, King Charles IX of Sweden and this descendant was actually the 5th King Charles. The numbering tradition thus begun still continues, with the present king of Sweden being Carl XVI Gustaf, Charles was born in the Stockholm Palace Tre Kronor in November 1655. His father, Charles X of Sweden, left Sweden in July to fight in the war against Poland, after several years of warfare, the king returned in the winter of 1659 and gathered his family and the Riksdag of the Estates in Gothenburg. In mid-January 1660 he fell ill and one month later he wrote his last will, per Brahe was one member of the council. In addition, Charles X Gustav left command of the army and these provisions among others led to the remainder of the council immediately challenging the will. February 14, the day after King Charles Xs death, Hedwig Eleonora sent a message to the council stating that she knew that they contested the will and that she demanded that it should be respected. The council answered that the will must first be discussed with the parliament, and at the council in Stockholm on May 13. The parliament questioned whether it would be good for her health or suitable for a widow to attend council, and her reply that the council would be allowed to meet without her and only inform her when they considered it necessary was met with satisfaction from the council. Hedwig Eleonoras ostensible indifference to politics came as a relief to the lords of the guardian government. His mother, Queen Hedvig Eleonora, remained the regent until Charles XI attained his majority on 18 December 1672. During his first appearances in parliament, Charles spoke to the government through her and he would whisper the questions he had in her ear, and she would ask them aloud and clearly for him. As an adolescent, Charles devoted himself to sports, exercise and he appeared ignorant of the very rudiments of statecraft and almost illiterate. His main difficulties are now seen as evident signs of dyslexia, according to many contemporary sources, the king was considered poorly educated and therefore not qualified to conduct himself effectively in foreign affairs
6.
Absolute monarchy
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Absolute monarchy, or despotic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority that is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs. These are often, but not always, hereditary monarchies, in contrast, in constitutional monarchies, the head of states authority derives from and is legally bounded or restricted by a constitution or legislature. Some monarchies have weak or symbolic legislatures and other bodies that the monarch can alter or dissolve at will. Countries where a monarch still maintains absolute power are Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, Swaziland, in Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh wielded absolute power over the country and was considered a living god by his people. In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well, in ancient and medieval India, rulers of the Maurya, Satahavana, Gupta and Chalukya Empires, as well as other major and minor empires, were considered absolute monarchs. In the Khmer Empire, the kings were called Devaraja and Chakravartin, in Kingdom of Siam, the kings were esestablished Somburanaya-sittiraj. Throughout Chinese history, many emperors and one empress wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven, in pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Throughout much of European history, the right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs, such as those of Russia, claimed supreme autocratic power by right. James VI of Scotland and his son Charles I of Scotland and England tried to import this principle, there is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, a widely held story about Louis XIV of France is that he proclaimed Létat, cest moi. What Louis did say was, The interests of the state come first, when one gives these priority, one labors for ones own good. These advantages to the state redounds to ones glory, although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period, and some historians consider him a successful absolute monarch. More recently, revisionist historians have questioned whether Louis reign should be considered absolute, the King of France concentrated in his person legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He was the judicial authority. He could condemn men to death without the right of appeal and it was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them and this law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm and his actions largely originated the militaristic streak of the Hohenzollern
7.
Riksdag of the Estates
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Riksdag of the Estates was the name used for the Estates of Sweden when they were assembled. Until its dissolution in 1866, the institution was the highest authority in Sweden next to the king, the actual first meeting is likely the one that took place at Uppsala in 1436 after the death of rebel leader Engelbrekt. At the Riksdag in 1517, regent Sten Sture the Younger, at Västerås in 1527 Lutheranism was adopted as the new state religion instead of Roman Catholicism. At Arboga in 1561, the term Riksdag was used for the first time, at Söderköping in 1595, duke Charles was elected regent of Sweden instead of king Sigismund, who was a Catholic and the king of both Sweden and Poland. In 1612 the Riksdag gave the nobility the privilege and right to all higher offices of government. The first open conflict between the different estates happened in 1650, at the Riksdag in 1680 a large scale reduction was enacted, and Sweden became an absolute monarchy. In 1719, the Riksdag elected Ulrika Eleonora as heir in place of her sisters son. In 1809, the Riksdag elected Charles XIII king after his nephew Gustav IV Adolf had been deposed, at the sessions in 1634,1719,1720,1772 and 1809 new constitutions were adopted. The constitution of 1809 divided the powers of government between the monarch and the Riksdag of the Estates, and after 1866 between the monarch and the new Riksdag. In 1866 all the Estates voted in favor of dissolution and at the time to constitute a new assembly. The four former estates were abolished, the House of Nobility, Swedish, Riddarhuset, remains as a quasi-official representation of the Swedish nobility. The modern Centre Party which grew out of the Swedish farmers movement, following the Finnish War in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastmost provinces to the Russian Empire. Comprising much of present-day Finland, these became a Grand Duchy under the Emperor, the Finnish estates assembled in 1809 at Porvoo to confirm the change in their allegiance. This Diet of Finland followed the forms of the Swedish Riksdag, however, during the reigns of Alexander I and Nicholas I it was not assembled and no new legislation was enacted. The diet was next assembled by tsar Alexander II in 1863, after this the Diet met regularly until 1905, when it passed an act forming a new unicameral parliament. That assembly has been Finlands legislative body since then, the Finnish House of Nobility — Finnish, Ritarihuone, Swedish, Riddarhuset — carries on the tradition of the Estate of Nobility, but no new families have been ennobled since 1906. History of Sweden History of Finland History of the Riksdag Riksdagsmusiken
8.
Swedish Empire
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The Swedish Empire refers to the Kingdom of Swedens territorial control of much of the Baltic region during the 17th and early 18th centuries, a time when Sweden was one of the great European powers. The beginning of the Empire is usually taken as the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, who ascended the throne in 1611, in Swedish history, the period is referred to as stormaktstiden, literally meaning the Great Power era. The interests of the high nobility contrasted with the uniformity policy, in territories acquired during the periods of de facto noble rule, serfdom was not abolished, and there was also a trend to set up respective estates in Sweden proper. The Great Reduction of 1680 put an end to efforts of the nobility. However, in the course of this war as well as in the subsequent Scanian War, Sweden was able to maintain her empire only with support of her closest ally. Charles XI of Sweden consolidated the empire and ensured a period of peace, before Russia, Saxony and Denmark started an attack on his successor. Sweden emerged as a great European power under Axel Oxenstierna and King Gustavus Adolphus, during the Thirty Years War, Sweden managed to conquer approximately half of the member states of the Holy Roman Empire. After France had intervened on the side as Sweden, the fortunes would shift again. As the war continued, it turned more and more grim, although exact population estimates do not exist, historians estimate that as many as one-third of the people in the Holy Roman Empire may have died as a result of the war. At the same time, Sweden joined the other important northern European nations in founding overseas colonies, New Sweden was founded in the valley of the Delaware River in 1638, and Sweden later laid claim to a number of Caribbean islands. A string of Swedish forts and trading posts was constructed along the coast of West Africa as well, at the conclusion of the Thirty Years War, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 granted Sweden territories as war reparations. Sweden demanded Silesia, Pomerania pay a sum of 200,000 Riksdaler out of the lands they would receive, or 2) surrender a fourth of the property itself. Against this, the over-taxed lower estates protested, and the Diet had to be suspended, the king intervened, not to quell the commons, as the senate insisted, but to compel the nobility to give way. He proposed a committee to investigate the matter before the meeting of the next Riksdag. Charles X Gustav had done his best to recover from the extravagance of Christina. However, his own desire for military glory may have caused problems for his country, in three days, he persuaded the Swedish estates of the potential of his attack on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, when he left Stockholm for Warsaw on July 10,1654, the Polish-Swedish War expanded into a general European war. He achieved passage over the Belts and emerged triumphant, only to die of sheer exhaustion, immediately after his death, a regency was appointed to govern Sweden during the minority of his only son and successor, Charles XI of Sweden, who was four years old
9.
Instrument of Government (1772)
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King Gustav III also cherished other Enlightenment ideas and repealed torture, liberated agricultural trade, diminished the use of death penalty etc. The somewhat later Freedom of the Press Act of 1774, a part of the constitutional law, the earlier first Freedom of the Press Act of 1766 was repealed by the Constitution in 1772. In 1789 it was amended in a more autocratic direction by the Union. Leading members of the Caps party who sat in the Privy Council were arrested, as they were locked up in the Privy Council Room and released shortly after the adoption of the constitution. Largely the content of the Constitution was the following, The King governed the civil service and Parliaments were assembled only at the Kings will when the King had to raise taxes, an offensive war also had to be approved by Parliament and also new taxation. The Privy Councils justice department, functioned as a fairly independent Supreme Court, the King however had to listen to the advice of the Privy Council in cases concerning treaties about peace, armistice and alliances with foreign powers and visits to other countries. In these cases the Council also could veto the King, if all members of the Council shared this view unanimously. In the Grand Duchy of Finland, created in 1809 from the third of Sweden as part of the Russian Empire. In Sweden, the loss of Finland resulted in both a new dynasty and a rewriting of the constitution, resulting in a new Instrument of Government. Gustav III Constitution of Sweden Constitution of Finland Diet of Porvoo Grand Duchy of Finland Russification of Finland Corsican Constitution Walhalla-orden Text of the Constitution
10.
Instrument of Government (1809)
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The Instrument of Government adopted on 6 June 1809 by the Riksdag of the Estates was one of the fundamental laws that made up the constitution of Sweden from 1809 to 1974. The coup enabled Gustav III to rule as an enlightened despot and this provided momentum for the Swedish nobility and other forces to depose the king and restore political power to the Estates. The aged and childless brother of Gustav III, Charles XIII was made king in 1809, but he was a puppet in the hands of the Estates. The rights of Bernadottes successors to accede to the Swedish throne were codified in an amendment to the constitution in the form of the Act of Succession, the Instrument of Government of 1809 replaced the Instrument of Government of 1772. It established a separation of powers between the branch and the legislative branch. The King and Riksdag possessed joint power over legislation, while the Riksdag had sole power over the budget, originally, ministers were politically responsible solely to the king, who appointed and dismissed them. However, they were responsible to the Riksdag and a special court according to a special statute. As the Riksdags authority grew, it increasingly difficult for a government to stay in office solely with the Crowns support. This culminated in 1907, when a government was chosen that was dependent more on the confidence of the Riksdag than on that of the King. After a great victory in 1917, it was obvious that the King could no longer pick a government entirely of his choosing. At that time, it was established that ministers were politically responsible to the Riksdag. From then on, while ministers were formally appointed by the King, convention required him to ensure they had the support of a majority in the Riksdag. In 1975, it was replaced by a new Instrument of Government, during the period when it was in force several important reforms took place without affecting its status. In 1866 the Four Estates were replaced by a bicameral parliament, in the early 20th century universal suffrage was introduced and the country became a de facto parliamentary monarchy. In 1970 the parliament was transformed from a bicameral legislature to a unicameral one, history of Sweden Politics of Sweden Constitution of Sweden King in Council Privy Council of Sweden Gustavian Party Regeringsform 1809 - at Wikisource Historiska dokument - at Wikisource
11.
Basic Laws of Sweden
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The most important of the fundamental laws is the Instrument of Government. It sets out the principles for political life in Sweden defining rights. The Prime Minister appoints members of the Government, including heads of ministries, the government collectively decides on issues after hearing the report of the head of the ministry concerned. At least five members of the government need to be present for a quorum to be made. In practice, reports are written and discussions very rare during formal cabinet meetings and it stripped the Swedish monarch of almost all of their powers, leaving them perhaps second only to the Emperor of Japan and the President of Israel in their lack of constitutional authority. The King is to be briefed on governmental issues—in the Council of State or directly by the Prime Minister. The first constitutional Instrument of Government was enacted in 1719, marking the transition from autocracy to parliamentarism, swedens bloodless coup détat of 1772 was legitimized by the Riksdag of the Estates in new versions of the Instrument of Government, making the king a constitutional autocrat. In Sweden, the loss of half the realm led to another bloodless revolution, a new royal dynasty. The councillor had to countersign a royal decision, unless it was unconstitutional, the councillor was legally responsible for his advice and was obliged to note his dissension in case he did not agree with the kings decision. This constitution put a de jure power in the king. From 1917, the king adhered to principles of parliamentarism by choosing councillors possessing direct or indirect support from a majority of the Riksdag. In 2009, the Riksdag approved Proposition 2009/10,80, A Reformed Constitution, making amendments to the Instrument of Government. The amendment modernized and simplified the text in general, and strengthened several fundamental rights, protection against unfair discrimination was extended to include discrimination based on sexual orientation. It also strengthens judicial powers to make it easier to determine whether new laws contravene the constitution or the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union and these amendments took effect on 1 January 2011. Accordingly, the current 1810 Act of Succession is a treaty between the old Riksdag of the Estates and the House of Bernadotte regulating the right to accede to the Swedish throne and this meant that the throne will be inherited by the eldest child without regard to sex. Thereby Princess Victoria, the eldest child of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, was created heiress apparent to the Swedish throne over her younger brother, the other two acts define the freedom of the press and other forms of expression. Publisher Lars Johan Hierta solved this by adding a different numeral to the name Aftonbladet, the right to revoke was finally abolished in 1844. The 1766 Act held for example that freedom of expression was to be uninhibited, except for violations and it also states that all public authorities must provide information promptly upon request
12.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
13.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
14.
Constitution of Armenia
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The Constitution of Armenia was adopted by a nationwide Armenian referendum on July 5,1995. This constitution established Armenia as a democratic, sovereign, social, yerevan is defined as the states capital. Power is vested in its citizens, who exercise it directly through the election of government representatives, decisions related to changes in constitutional status or to an alteration of borders are subject to a vote of the citizens of Armenia exercised in a referendum. There are 117 articles in the 1995 constitution, on November 27,2005, a nationwide constitutional referendum was held and an amended constitution was adopted. The constitution was amended again in a referendum on December 6,2015 that changed the political structure from a semi-presidential system to a parliamentary republic. The President also appoints the members of the Government upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister, given the constitutional powers of the president, Armenia can be regarded as a semi-presidential republic. Immediately after independence, the 1978 constitution, a replica of the Soviet Unions 1977 document, at the end of 1992, the president and the APM parliamentary delegates presented a draft constitution. They put forward a revised version in March 1993, as 1994 began, observers expected a long struggle before parliament adopted a final version. The 117 articles of the Constitution are divided into nine chapters, chapters 2-5 concern Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, the President of the Republic, the National Assembly, the Government, and the Judicial Power. Their main provisions are summarized here, content here The Presidents role is to uphold the constitution and ensure the functioning of the branches of state. Directly elected for 5-year term Must receive a majority of votes to be elected, if no candidate wins a majority, must be at least 35 years old. Can serve no more than two consecutive terms, can return legislation to the National Assembly, with objections and recommendations. Supervises foreign policy Appoints 4 members of Constitutional Court Commander-in-Chief of armed forces No type Politics of Armenia Constitutional economics Constitutionalism Media of Armenia
15.
Constitution of Austria
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The Austrian Federal Constitution is the body of all constitutional law of the Republic of Austria on the federal level. It is split up over many different acts and its centerpiece is the Federal Constitutional Law, which includes the most important federal constitutional provisions. Apart from the B-VG, there are a number of other constitutional acts. For example, the B-VG does not include a bill of rights, over time, both the B-VG and the numerous pieces of constitutional law supplementing it have undergone literally hundreds of minor and major amendments and revisions. The B-VG was based on a draft by Hans Kelsen and first enacted on October 1,1920. Since political agreement over a bill of rights could not be reached, originally, the B-VG was very parliamentarian in character. The prerogative to enact law was to lie with a strong parliament. The responsibility for implementing law was to reside with a cabinet headed by a chancellor, a relatively weak president, who was elected by both houses, was to serve as head of state. In 1929, the constitution underwent a revision significantly broadening the prerogatives of the president, in particular, the president from then on was to be elected directly by the people rather than by the members of the legislature. The president was also to be vested with the authority to dissolve the parliament and he also had the authority to formally appoint the chancellor and the cabinet. Although the president was vested with powers comparable to those of the President of the United States, the Austrofascist constitution was in force until Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938, ceasing to exist as a sovereign state. The Constitution of Austria was eventually reinstated on May 1,1945, the modifications enacted in 1929 were not then rescinded, and essentially remain in effect until this day, although the constitution has been heavily modified and amended since then. In area, the Republic of Austria is slightly smaller than Maine, Scotland, or Hokkaidō and home to an ethnically and culturally homogeneous population of eight and a half million people. Given that more than one fifth of its inhabitants are concentrated in the city of Vienna and its suburbs, the state constitutions congruently define the states to be unicameral parliamentary democracies, each state has a legislature elected by popular vote and a cabinet appointed by its legislature. The federal constitution defines Austria itself as a parliamentary democracy with near-complete separation of powers. Austrias government structure is highly similar to that of incomparably larger federal republics such as Germany or the United States. This is also true for the system, which is exclusively federal in Austria. Federal legislative powers are vested with a body the constitution refers to as a parliament, as a practical matter, however, it continues to function as a parliament anyway
16.
Constitution of Azerbaijan
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The Constitution of Azerbaijan was adopted on 12 November 1995 by popular referendum. It was amended on 24 August 2002 and again on 18 March 2009 and it carries the highest legal force in Azerbaijan as per article 147. It also bans the usurpation of power, section 2 establishes the basic principles, aims and role of the state of Azerbaijan, as well as state symbols, principles of foreign relations and the official language. Section 5 establishes the National Assembly of Azerbaijan, its powers, section 6 establishes the post of President of Azerbaijan and the Presidents requirements, duties, capacities and powers, as well as those of his Cabinet. Section 7 establishes the Azerbaijani judicial system and Constitutional and Supreme Courts, section 8 establishes the autonomous government of the Nakhichivan region and its legislature. Section 9 establishes the structure of municipalities in Azerbaijan. Section 11 establishes the process of amending the Constitution through referendum, section 12 establishes the process of adding provisions to the Constitution through referendum. Constitution Constitutional law Constitutional economics Constitutionalism English translation of the Constitution on Presidential website Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan at www. WIPO. int
17.
Constitution of Belarus
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The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus is the ultimate law of Belarus. The Constitution was drafted by the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the legislative body of the country. The contents of the Constitution include the preamble, nine sections, the structure and substance of the Constitution were heavily influenced by constitutions of Western powers and by Belarus experiences during the Soviet era. While much of the Constitution establishes the governments functions and powers, the Constitution has been amended twice since the original adoption, in 1996 and in 2004. Belarus adopted its first temporary constitution on October 11,1918, in 1919, after the occupation of the country by the Russian Bolsheviks, Belarus became a Soviet Republic, and a new constitution was adopted. Belarus continued to use this constitution until it – along with Russia, Ukraine, now the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, the country adopted its first Soviet-era constitution in 1927, complementing the recently adopted Soviet Constitution. After a re-adoption in 1937, the Byelorussian SSR adopted its last Soviet-era constitution in 1978, soon afterwards, the government established a Constitution Commission to facilitate the adoption of a post-Soviet constitution. In November 1991, the commission sent the first of three drafts to the Supreme Soviet, upon approval from the Supreme Soviet, the first draft was published in December 1991 in order for the Belarusian populace to make comments and suggestions. The commission submitted the third and final draft to the Supreme Soviet, the gazette Zvezda officially published the Constitution fifteen days later. The law, passed during the session of the Supreme Soviet, also provided transitional phases for office holders. Every year since 1994, March 15 has been commemorated in Belarus as Constitution Day, the Constitution introduces separation of powers. According to Belarusian law, each office is separate but must work together to serve the people, the Constitution also makes Belarus a presidential democracy, significantly reducing the role of the prime minister. Of the fifteen former Soviet republics, Belarus was the one of latest to create, a delay occurred due to debates among Supreme Soviet deputies, who were also trying to stave off the opposition and democratic forces who wanted to close the Supreme Soviet down for good. A power struggle to determine the relationship between the new branch and the legislature caused much of the debate in 1992 and 1993. The former chairman of the Supreme Soviet, Stanislau Shushkevich, criticized the early drafts due to the amount of power granted to the president, internally, the Constitution was influenced by the period of Soviet domination and a desire to bring back traditions brushed aside by the Soviet Government. The structure of the Constitution is similar to the Russian Federation, for example, in the preamble of the Constitution, Belarus assumes the responsibility for its destiny as a member of the international community. Belarus also pledges to honor the rights and freedoms of its citizens and to maintain a government that is run by the people. Section One of the Constitution sets up the framework and specifies that the government is run by the people of Belarus
18.
Constitution of Belgium
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The Constitution of Belgium dates back to 1831. Since then Belgium has been a monarchy that applies the principles of ministerial responsibility for the government policy. The Constitution established Belgium as a unitary state. However, since 1970, through successive state reforms, Belgium has gradually evolved into a federal state, the last radical change of the constitution was carried out in 1993 after which it was published in a renewed version in the Belgian Official Journal. The Court therefore developed into a court and in May 2007 it was formally redesignated Constitutional Court. This court has the authority to examine whether a law or a decree is in compliance with Title II, in 1831 Belgium was a unitary state organised at three levels, the national level, provinces and municipalities. State reform in Belgium added a level to the existing structure. Since 1993, the first article of the Constitution stipulates that Belgium is a state composed of Communities. This means that there are two types of devolved entities at the level, with neither taking precedence over the other. Article 4 divides Belgium into four areas, The Dutch language area, the French language area, the bilingual area of Brussels-Capital. Each municipality of the Kingdom is part of one of four language areas only. The borders of the areas can be changed or corrected only by a law supported by specific majorities of each language group of each Chamber. Article 5 divides the Flemish Region and the Walloon Region into five provinces each, Article 6 determines that the provinces can be subdivided only by Law. The borders of the State, provinces and municipalities can be changed or corrected only by Law, the act inserting this article was published in the Belgian Official Journal on 26 April 2007. Title II of the Belgian Constitution is titled The Belgians and their rights, in this title a number of rights and freedoms are enumerated. Although the Constitution speaks of the rights of the Belgians, in principle apply to all persons on Belgian soil. In addition to the rights enumerated in Title II of the Constitution, Articles 8 and 9 determine how the Belgian nationality can be obtained. Article 10 determines that all Belgians are equal before the law, Article 11 determines that all rights and freedoms must be guaranteed without discrimination
19.
Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the highest legal document of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The current Constitution is the Annex 4 of The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, also known as the Dayton Agreement, the Constitution saw the end of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, however it has seen a large amount of criticism. The Preamble states, among other things, the commitment of Bosnia and Herzegovina to freedom, equality, tolerance,1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 2. 1949 Geneva Conventions I-IV on the Protection of the Victims of War,1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1966 Protocol thereto 4. 1957 Convention on the Nationality of Married Women 5,1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness 6. 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 7,1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1966 and 1989 Optional Protocols thereto 8. 1966 Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 9,1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 10. 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 11,1987 European Convention on the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 12. 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child 13,1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families 14. 1992 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages 15, the Constitution also states that no amendment to the Constitution can eliminate or diminish any of the rights and freedoms referred to in Article II of the Constitution. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina has made several decisions in the interpretation of these provisions. However, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declined this position in its decision number U-5/04, the Constitution does not say who has the right, and under what rules, to present the amendments to the Parliamentary Assembly. Also, in the paragraph 2 of the Article X, the Constitution states that the rights and freedoms, as seen in the Article II, cannot be derogated, sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina
20.
Constitution of Bulgaria
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The Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria is the supreme and basic law of the Republic of Bulgaria. The current constitution was adopted on 12 July 1991 by the 7th Grand National Assembly of Bulgaria and it has been amended five times and is chronologically the fourth constitution of Bulgaria, the first being the Tarnovo Constitution of 1879. Constitution Constitutional economics Rule according to higher law Rechtsstaat Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria
21.
Constitution of Croatia
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The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia is promulgated by the Croatian Parliament. While it was part of the socialist Yugoslavia, the Socialist Republic of Croatia had its own Constitution under the Constitution of Yugoslavia, following the first multi-party parliamentary elections held in April 1990, the Parliament made various constitutional changes. On December 22,1990, they rejected the communist one-party system, the document is sometimes known as the Christmas Constitution. The Constitution was amended in early 1998, the Constitution of 1990 used the semi-presidential model of the French Fifth Republic, with broad Presidential executive powers shared with the Government. In 2000, and again in 2001, the Croatian Parliament amended the Constitution changing bicameral parliament back into historic unicameral, the Constitution was most recently amended in 2013. This constitutional amendment defines marriage within Croatia as a union between a man and a woman and this is the preamble of the Constitution. It explains how the Croats managed to preserve their national identity throughout centuries in various forms of states from the formation of Croatian principalities in 7th century until present days. This chapter defines Croatia as unitary and indivisible democratic and social state in which derives from the people and belongs to the people as a community of free. The people exercises this power through the election of representatives and through direct decision-making and this chapter deals with general human rights, Personal and Political Freedoms and Rights and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Article 21 states that human being has the inalienable right to live. Entrepreneurial and market freedom is the basis of the economic system, in this chapter Croatian National Bank is defined as central bank which is independent in its work of monetary policy making and responsible to the Croatian Parliament. The Croatian parliament is defined as a body of the people and is vested with the legislative power. The most important function of the parliament is to make laws and he is elected by the parliament for a term of 8 years. The President of the Republic of Croatia shall represent and stand for the Republic of Croatia at home and he shall take care of regular and harmonized functioning and stability of the state government and is responsible for the defense of independence and territorial integrity. He is elected directly by the people for a term of 5 years and is limited on 2 mandates maximum. The most important task of the President is to be Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and he is impeachable for any violation of the Constitution. Croatian parliament decides whether to proceed impeaching the President and that is decided by the Constitutional Court, the Government of the Republic of Croatia exercise executive power. The Government consists of Prime Minister, one or more Deputy Prime Minister, the Government shall assume its duty if the vote of confidence is passed by a majority vote of all members of the Croatian Parliament
22.
Constitution of Cyprus
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The Constitution of Cyprus is a document, ratified on August 16,1960, that serves as the framework for the Cypriot government. It was drafted after the country won its independence in 1959 and is Cypruss first, the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus has been in force for 57 years and it has been amended 10 times and 20 Articles of the 199 were modified since 1960. The 10th Amendment concerned Article 7 and came into effect on September 16th 2016 with its publication in the Official Journal, the constitution put methods in place to protect Turkish Cypriots, due to the restrictions placed in Article 6 of the document. That article ensures the Cypriot government has no right to discriminate against either Turkish or Greek Cypriots, the constitution also ensures, in Article 1, that the Vice-President of the country is a Turk and the President is a Greek. In 1964, however, the Cypriot government became dominated by Greeks, the constitution of the country collapsed, however, in 1963 due to dispute between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The running of the republic by the Greek community alone has been defined in what is called Justice of need. Following the Turkish invasion of 1974 the state acts as a surrogate for the properties of Turkish Cypriots that moved to the Turkish occupied north, the separation occurred because the two ethnic groups continued to distrust each other after the constitution was signed. In addition, President Makarios proposed a change that year to remove most of the rights given to Turkish Cypriots. The first five articles of the constitution discuss General Provisions, Article One asserts that Cyprus is an independent republic with a President and that the President and Vice President must be Greeks and Turks respectively. Article three asserts that the languages of the Republic of Cyprus are Greek and Turkish. Articles 6–35 of the deal with Fundamental Rights and Liberties. Article eight banks the issuing inhumane or degrading punishment, and prevents torture, Article ten prohibits slavery and forced labour, in all cases other than in cases of compulsory military service or work while being imprisoned lawfully by the state. It also allows for any service exacted in case of an emergency or calamity threatening the life or well-being of the inhabitants, Article eleven contains several limits on who can be imprisoned. The article also ensures that every person who has been the victim of arrest or detention in contravention of the provisions of this Article shall have a right to compensation. Article fifteen defines the right to privacy, is states that every individual has a right to a private life except when infringing on someones privacy is in accordance of the law and in the national interest. Article sixteen prohibits entering someones property without their prior consent without an arrest warrant, Article seventeen also discusses privacy, with its main focus being an individuals right to privacy in all lawful communication. Articles eighteen, nineteen and 21 secure freedom of speech, religion and assembly respectively, while twenty and 22 deal with the right to free education and marriage. Article 23 adds to the laid out in article sixteen, by allowing citizens of Cyprus to purchase property
23.
Constitution of the Czech Republic
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The current Constitution of the Czech Republic was adopted by the Czech National Council on 16 December 1992. It entered into force on 1 January 1993, replacing the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia, 143/1968 Col. when Czechoslovakia gave way to the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic in a peaceful dissolution. The Constitution is an act, and together with other constitutional acts constitutes the so-called constitutional order of the Czech Republic. The Constitution is divided into a preamble and 8 chapters, as of April 2013, the Constitution has been amended 8 times. The most important amendments are Act No, providing the legal framework for the accession to the EU in 2004, and Act No. 71/2011 Coll. which came into force on 1 October 2012, the bill was enacted the same day as Constitutional Act No. On its entry into force on 1 January 1969, it created the Czech Socialist Republic, the Act stipulated in article 142, paragraph 2, that both republics would in due course enact their own constitutions, and also envisaged the creation of three constitutional courts. The plan, however, was not followed due to the onset of normalization. De facto, Czechoslovakia only functioned as a federation until the enactment of Constitutional Act No and its explanatory notes clearly and openly articulate the need for strengthening of the structural role of the central government of the federation. This act introduced 37 direct changes and additions, which undid the original plan for federation, thus in 1970 Czechoslovakia became essentially a centrally governed country, with only prima facie attributes of a federation. The need for a new constitution was first announced officially at the 17th Congress of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in spring 1986. A working group fronted by Marián Čalfa was set up in 1987 to draft this, and in November 1988, a 153-strong committee of the Communist Party, the constitution was expected to be enacted after the 18th Congress of the Communist Party, during the course of 1990. 123/1989 Coll. the resolution of the Slovak National Council as Act No and this constitutional act was intended as a prerequisite for the enactment of a single three-in-one constitution, serving the federation and both republics. Through the consent of both councils, both republics waived their entitlement to their own constitutions. But very soon, the events of the Velvet Revolution in 1989 changed everything, in its next session on 6 December 1989, the Slovak National Council has withdrawn its consent of 31 October 1989 in Resolution No. The Czech National Council enacted a similar provision as Resolution No, 166/1989 Coll. on 19 December 1989. Subsequently, several acts were enacted, which were supposed to pave the way towards the creation. Both republics have passed constitutional acts on their symbols, and have had a number of powers devolved to them, however, neither the Constitution of the federation, neither the constitutions of either of the republics had been enacted prior to election of 1992
24.
Constitution of Denmark
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The Constitutional Act of Denmark, or simply the Constitution, forms a part of the supreme law of Kingdom of Denmark, applying equally in Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles of governance and establishes the structure, procedures, powers, later sections set out fundamental rights and the duties of citizens, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion and compulsory military service. The Kingdom is governed on the basis of this Constitutional Act but it is complemented by Royal Law, the Act of Succession and devolution arrangements in Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The government of Denmark, as described in Part One of the Constitutional Act, is a system under a constitutional monarchy. In its present form, the Constitutional Act is from 1953 and its adoption ended an absolute monarchy and introduced democracy. Denmark celebrates the adoption of the Constitution on 5 June—the date in which the Constitution was ratified—every year as Constitution Day, the Danish Parliament cannot make any laws which may be repugnant or contrary to the Constitutional Act. However, Denmark has no court, and establishing such a court would require a constitutional amendment. Changes to the Act must be confirmed by a majority in two parliamentary terms and the approval of the electorate through a national referendum. The Danish Constitution differs from all other Danish laws by virtue of its superseding status, as such, these laws are not permitted to contravene the provisions of the Constitution Act. The main principle of the Constitutional Act was to limit the Kings power and it creates a comparatively weak constitutional monarch who is dependent on Ministers for advice and Parliament to draft and pass legislation. The Constitution of 1849 established a parliament, the Rigsdag, consisting of the Landsting. The most significant change in the Constitution of 1953 was the abolishment of the Landsting, leaving the unicameral Folketing and it also enshrined fundamental civil rights, which remain in the current constitution, such as habeas corpus, private property rights and freedom of speech. The Constitutional Act has been changed very few times, but always with the consent of Danish citizens, the wording in the Act is so general that it can still be applied today, despite major changes in society and political life in the intervening years. However, since Denmark lacks a Constitutional Court, scrutiny of legislation for compatibility with the Constitution is a matter for ordinary courts, significantly this means that the actual testing of compatibility can only be instigated by a citizen or company who is affected by the question. When reading the Danish Constitution, it is important to bear in mind that the King is meant to be read as the government because of the symbolic status. This is a consequence of sections 12 and 13, by which the King executes his power through his ministers, an implication of these sections is that the monarch cannot act alone in disregard of the ministers, so the Danish monarch does not interfere in politics. The Danish Parliament is the power, enacting the laws of the country. The Cabinet is the power, formally acting out the role of the Monarch
25.
Constitution of Estonia
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The Constitution of Estonia is the fundamental law of the Republic of Estonia and establishes the state order as that of a democratic republic where the supreme power is vested in its citizens. The first Constitution was adopted by the freely elected Estonian Constituent Assembly on 15 June 1920, the second Constitution was adopted on 24 January 1934, following a referendum in 1933, and was in force until the third Constitution was enacted on 1 January 1938. The first Constitution was a reflection of Jean-Jacques Rousseaus idea of national sovereignty, power was split between the judiciary, the executive and the legislature according to the principles of Montesquieu. The Constitution provided for a degree of public initiative and for referendums. The head of state and the head of government were combined in the post of State Elder, due to the instability of the government, attempts were made to redraft the Constitution. This second Constitution established an authoritarian state order by introducing an executive head of state. The President could exercise supreme power via presidential decrees with the force of law. In order to prevent the Vaps Movement coming to power under this new Constitution, Konstantin Päts and he then suspended the Constitution and initiated the preparation of a third Constitution. The third Constitution, enacted on 1 January 1938, created a bicameral National Assembly, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the National Council. A Soviet-style constitution was introduced illegally, not having been subjected to referendum as required by the third Constitution and it was based on the 1936 Soviet constitution. The Soviet Estonian 1940 constitution was replaced by another constitution in 1978, the present Constitution was enacted after a referendum on 28 June 1992. It incorporates elements of the Constitutions of 1920 and 1938, while retaining the presidency created in 1938, it restores the unicameral legislature established in 1920. It explicitly asserts its continuity with the Estonian state as it existed between 1920 and 1940, and thus provides a basis for Estonia’s independence. The current Constitution contains a preamble and several chapters, the current Constitution contains fifteen chapters. The first chapter makes general provision for the nature of the state, the second chapter sets out the peoples rights, liberties and duties. Chapter 3 defines the people and citizenship of Estonia, chapter 4 deals with the Estonian Parliament. Chapter 5 pertains to the President of Estonia, and his or her duties, responsibilities, chapter 7 addresses the process of legislation. Chapter 8 addresses financial issues and the budget, chapter 9 addresses international relations and treaties
26.
Constitution of France
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The current Constitution of France was adopted on 4 October 1958. It is typically called the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, Charles de Gaulle was the main driving force in introducing the new constitution and inaugurating the Fifth Republic, while the text was drafted by Michel Debré. Since then the constitution has been amended twenty-four times, most recently in 2008 and it provides for the election of the President and the Parliament, the selection of the Government, and the powers of each and the relations between them. It ensures judicial authority and creates a High Court, a Constitutional Council, and it was designed to create a politically strong President. It enables the ratification of treaties and those associated with the European Union. It is unclear whether the wording is compatible with European Union law, the Constitution also sets out methods for its own amendment either by referendum or through a Parliamentary process with Presidential consent. However, president Charles de Gaulle bypassed the legislative procedure in 1962 and directly sent an amendment to a referendum. This was highly controversial at the time, however, the Constitutional Council ruled that since a referendum expressed the will of the sovereign people, on 21 July 2008, Parliament passed constitutional reforms championed by President Nicolas Sarkozy by a margin of two votes. Prior to 1971, though executive, administrative and judicial decisions had to comply with the principles of law. It was assumed that unelected judges and other appointees should not be able to overrule laws voted for by the directly elected French parliament, in practice, the political opposition sends all controversial laws before it. The Constitution defines in Article 89 the rules for amending itself, first, a constitutional bill must be approved by both houses of Parliament. Then, the bill must be approved by the Congress, a joint session of both houses, alternatively, the bill can be submitted to a referendum. This permitted the establishment of an elected presidency, that would otherwise have been vetoed by the Parliament. Article 11 was used for changes for the second and last time in 1969. France has had numerous past constitutions, the ancien régime was an absolute monarchy and lacked a formal constitution, the régime essentially relied on custom. Journal Officiel de la République Française, 9151–9173, lélaboration de la Constitution de la Ve République. Frédéric Monera, Lidée de République et la jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel – Paris, martin A. Rogoff, French Constitutional Law, Cases and Materials – Durham, North Carolina, Carolina Academic Press,2010. Texte intégral de la Constitution du 4 octobre 1958 en vigueur, Constitutional council of the French Republic
27.
Constitution of Georgia (country)
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The Constitution of Georgia is the supreme law of Georgia. It was approved by the Parliament of Georgia on 24 August 1995, the Constitution replaced the Decree on State Power of November 1992 which had functioned as an interim basic law following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The first post-communist parliament amended that document extensively, in February 1992, the Georgian National Congress formally designated the Georgian constitution of 21 February 1921 as the effective constitution of Georgia. That declaration received legitimacy from the signatures of Jaba Ioseliani and Tengiz Kitovani, in February 1993, Eduard Shevardnadze called for extensive revisions of the 1921 constitution. Characterizing large sections of that document as wholly unacceptable, Shevardnadze proposed forming a commission to draft a new version by December 1993. On 4 January, Mikhail Saakashvili won the Georgian presidential election,2004 with a majority of 96 percent of the votes cast. Constitutional amendments were rushed through Parliament in February strengthening the powers of the president to dismiss parliament, zurab Zhvania was appointed prime minister and Nino Burjanadze, the interim president, became speaker of parliament. The new constitution went into force upon the 17 November 2013 inauguration of Giorgi Margvelashvili, constitutional economics Constitutionalism Constitution of Georgia
28.
Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
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The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany is the constitutional law of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Basic Law was approved on 8 May 1949 in Bonn and its original field of application comprised the states of the Trizone that were initially included in the then West German Federal Republic of Germany, but not West Berlin. As part of the Two Plus Four Agreement of 1990 between the two parts of Germany and all four Allied Powers, a series of amendments were agreed to be implemented. In the subsequent Unification Treaty of 1990, this amended Basic Law was adopted as the constitution for a united Germany, the German word Grundgesetz may be translated as either Basic Law or Fundamental Law. Nevertheless, although the amended Basic Law was finally to be approved in 1990 by the full Allied Powers, the authors of the Basic Law sought to ensure that a potential dictator would never again have the chance to come into power in the country. Although some of the Basic Law is based on the Weimar republic constitution, Fundamental rights are guaranteed in Germany by the Federal Constitution and in some state constitutions. In the Basic Law, most fundamental rights are guaranteed in the first section of the same name and they are subjective public rights with constitutional rank which bind all authorities of the state. Hence, these rights are called the rights identical to fundamental rights, since initially the Basic Law did not apply for all of Germany, its legal provisions were only valid in its field of application. This legal term was used in West German legislation when West German laws did not apply to the entirety of Germany. Article 23 of the Basic Law provided other de jure German states, initially not included in the field of application of the Basic Law, therefore, although the Basic Law was considered provisional, it allowed more parts of Germany to join its field of application. In other parts of Germany it shall be put into force on their accession, the Saar held no separate referendum on its accession. The Communist regime in East Germany fell in 1990, East Germanys declaration of accession included the East German territories into the field of application of the Basic Law. After the changes of the Basic Law, mostly pertaining to the accession in 1990, the negotiations ended with the conclusion that a democratic and federal West German state was to be established. These papers—amongst other points—summoned the Ministerpräsidenten to arrange a constitutional assembly, with the specific request of a federal structure of a future German state the Western Powers followed German constitutional tradition since the foundation of the Reich in 1871. The Ministerpräsidenten were reluctant to fulfill what was expected from them, a few days later they convened a conference of their own on Rittersturz ridge near Koblenz. They decided that any of the Frankfurt requirements should only be implemented in a formally provisional way, so the constitutional assembly was to be called Parlamentarischer Rat and the constitution given the name of Grundgesetz instead of calling it a constitution. The Ministerpräsidenten prevailed and the Western Powers gave in concerning this highly symbolic question, the draft was prepared at the preliminary Herrenchiemsee convention on the Herreninsel in the Chiemsee, a lake in southeastern Bavaria. The delegates at the Convention were appointed by the leaders of the newly formed Länder, on 1 September 1948 the Parlamentarischer Rat began working on the exact wording of the Grundgesetz
29.
Constitution of Greece
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The Constitution of Greece, was created by the Fifth Revisional Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into force in 1975. It has been revised three times since, most significantly in 1986, and also in 2001 and in 2008, the Constitutional history of Greece goes back to the Greek War of Independence, during which the first three revolutionary Greek constitutions were adopted. Syntagma Square in Athens is named after the first constitution adopted in the modern Greek State, the second part concerns individual and social rights, whose protection has been reinforced after the Revision of 2001. The new provisions regulate subjects such as the protection of personal data, the third part describes the organization and function of the State. Article 28 formally integrates international laws and international conventions into Greek law, the fourth part comprises special, final and transitory provisions. The Constitution of 1975 has been revised three times, in 1986, in 2001 and in 2008, in this case, the business of revision is transferred to the next term of Parliament, i. e. after the following legislative elections. Parliament may then ratify the revision by a 50% plus one majority, if the initial motion for revision has only achieved a 50% plus one majority, then a three fifths supermajority of the new Parliament is required. A Parliament thus endowed by its predecessor with the powers of revising the Constitution is officially named a Revisional Parliament and is enumerated separately from Ordinary Parliamentary terms. In recent years, the 1974 Parliament was titled 5th Revisional, as it operated under, and amended, nevertheless, it was officially deemed a revision of the 1952 one. A minimum of five years must elapse after the conclusion of the revision process. During the modern history of Greece, the Constitution of 1975/1986/2001/2008 is the last in a series of democratically adopted Constitutions, the first of these Constitutions was adopted in 1822. The current constitution is formally a major revision of the constitution of 1952, as effected by the 5th Revisional Parliament Eleftheriadis, Constitutional Reform and the Rule of Law in Greece. The official text of the Greek Constitution as of May 27,2008, source, the official English language translation of the Greek Constitution as of May 27,2008, source, Hellenic Parliament An English translation with a link to the Greek text
30.
Constitution of Hungary
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The Fundamental Law of Hungary, the countrys constitution, was adopted on 18 April 2011, promulgated a week later and entered into force on 1 January 2012. It is Hungarys first constitution adopted within a framework and following free elections. The document succeeded the 1949 Constitution, originally adopted at the creation of the Hungarian Peoples Republic on 20 August 1949, both domestically and abroad, the 2011 constitution has been the subject of controversy. The government that enacted the charter has dismissed such assertions, saying it was enshrined lawfully, the constitution is divided into sections and articles as outlined below. Described as socially and fiscally conservative, the initiates a number of changes. In an effort to push the public debt below 50% of gross domestic product, the President is allowed to dissolve Parliament if a budget is not approved, and only companies with transparent activities and ownership structures are allowed to bid for government contracts. The powers of the head of the Hungarian National Bank are also limited, the life of a fetus is protected from the moment of conception, and although the move is seen as opening the possibility for a future ban or restrictions on abortion, existing laws were unaffected. Same-sex couples may register their partnerships, but marriage is defined as being between one man and one woman. A ban on discrimination does not mention age or sexual orientation, the constitution lowers judges mandatory retirement age from 70 to the general retirement age, which was 62 at the time of adoption and is set to rise to 65 by 2022. The provision also covers prosecutors, while the Prosecutor General and the head of the Curia are exempt, for centuries, the Hungarian constitution was unwritten, based upon customary law. There was no civil code either, lawyers worked with the Corpus Iuris Hungarici, following the advent of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, the Revolutionary Governing Council adopted a Provisional Constitution on 2 April 1919, providing for a Soviet-style political system. On 23 June, the National Assembly of Allied Councils adopted Hungarys first charter-like constitution, however, that regime was crushed two months later and Hungary returned to its historical, unwritten pre-1918 constitution. Despite the lack of a constitution, several constitutional laws were passed during the interwar period of the Kingdom of Hungary. Statute I of 1920 confirmed the monarchical form of government and vested legislative power in a diet, Statute XLVII dethroned the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. A second chamber was established by Statute XXII of 1926, successive constitutional acts increased the power of the regent, who was empowered to nominate forty senators at first, and during World War II, eighty-seven. Its basic features remained in place until 1989, although a number of important amendments were made, while the constitution guaranteed certain fundamental rights, their scope was limited by provisions stating they had to be exercised in harmony with the interests of the socialist society. In 1989, as the Communist regime crumbled, the legislature approved a constitutional revision that brought in a civil democratic form of government. After the opposition won free elections in 1990, references to democratic socialism, further modifications followed over the ensuing two decades, as successive plans for a new constitution did not reach fulfillment
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Constitution of Iceland
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The Constitution of Iceland is the supreme law of Iceland. It is composed of 80 articles in seven sections, and within it the leadership arrangement of the country is determined, the current constitution was first instituted on June 17,1944, since then, it has been amended seven times. In the 19th century, the Icelandic independence movement was gaining momentum, while nationalism, in June 1849, the king of Denmark was forced to meet the demands of the liberals and the nationalists, and agree to a constitution for Denmark and thus also with Iceland. This constitution repealed the absolute monarchy and established a monarchy in which power over most important issues was handed over to a parliament elected by the people. This change was not well-received with Icelanders, as it in reality translated to reduced autonomy for Iceland, before 1849, Icelanders had officially ruled themselves as they happened to see fit in domestic matters. But now those matters were falling under the control of parliaments over which Icelanders had no influence, but when said region was annexed by Prussia in 1867, new conditions were created and stöðulögin were passed 1871, which determined the standing of Iceland in relation to the Danish state. In 1874, on the anniversary of the settlement in Iceland, Christian IX became king of Denmark. This opportunity was used to give Iceland its own separate constitution and this constitution was called Stjórnarskrá um hin sérstaklegu málefni Íslands, and was the basis of Icelands current constitution. With the sambandslögunum of 1918, Iceland became a sovereign state and this constitution was called Stjórnarskrá konungsríkisins Íslands. In early 1944 the Althing approved the cancellation of the sambandslögin and agreed to a new constitution, an election was run in May of the same year and had a turnout of 98%. 97% voted to break off the current relationship law with Denmark, on June 17,1944 the Althing met at Þingvellir, where the constitution was ratified and the republic established. After the ratification of the constitution, it has been amended seven times in total, mostly due to changes in the structure of the constituencies of Iceland, in 1991 the organization of Althing changed so that it now worked in one house rather than two as previously before. Extensive modifications were made in 1995 when the human rights sections of the constitution were reviewed, section I states that Iceland is a Republic with a parliamentary government, and the Althing and the president jointly exercise legislative power and judges exercise judicial power. Section II contains articles 3 through 30, and states where the Presidential Seat is, meetings with the Althingi, and presidential rights. Section III contains articles 31–34, and defines term limits for Althingi members, section IV contains articles 35-58, and defines the major issues concerning the activity of the parliament and determines the rights and power of the MPs. The section says that nobody is allowed to approve a bill before three readings in the Althing, and Althing meetings shall take place in public unless approved by the Parliament. The majority of MPs must be present to deal with an issue, many other parliamentary procedural rules are legally defined according to the 58th article. Section V contains articles 59-61, and describes the regulation of judiciary and it says that the judiciary may be established by law, that the judiciary will settle disputes around competence of authorities, and that the judiciary shall be guided solely by law
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Constitution of Ireland
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The Constitution of Ireland is the fundamental law of the Republic of Ireland. It asserts the national sovereignty of the Irish people, the constitution falls broadly within the tradition of liberal democracy being based on a system of representative democracy. It guarantees certain rights, along with a popularly elected non-executive president, a bicameral parliament based on the Westminster system. It is the constitution of the state since independence, replacing the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State. It came into force on 29 December 1937 following a plebiscite held on 1 July 1937. The Constitution may be amended solely by a national referendum, there were two main motivations for replacing the constitution in 1937. Firstly, the Statute of Westminster 1931 granted parliamentary autonomy to the six British Dominions within a British Commonwealth of Nations, the Irish Free State constitution of 1922 was, in the eyes of many, associated with the controversial Anglo-Irish Treaty. The largest political group in the anti-treaty faction, who opposed the treaty initially by force of arms, had boycotted the institutions of the new Irish Free State until 1926, in 1932 they were elected into power as the Fianna Fáil party. Such amendments removed references to the Oath of Allegiance, appeals to the United Kingdoms Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, the British Crown, the sudden abdication of Edward VIII in December 1936 was quickly used to redefine the Royal connection. Nevertheless, the Fianna Fáil government, led by Éamon de Valera, the second motive for replacing the original constitution was primarily symbolic. De Valera wanted to put an Irish stamp on the institutions of government, De Valera personally supervised the writing of the Constitution. It was drafted initially by John Hearne, legal adviser to the Department of External Affairs and it was translated into Irish over a number of drafts by a group headed by Micheál Ó Gríobhtha, who worked in the Irish Department of Education. He also received significant input from The Rt Rev. John Charles Monsignor McQuaid, Monsignor McQuaid later became, in 1940, the Catholic Archbishop of Dublin. Other religious leaders who were consulted were, Archbishop Edward Byrne, Archbishop John Gregg, Rev. William Massey, a draft of the constitution was presented personally to the Vatican for review and comment on two occasions by the Department Head at External Relations, Joseph P. Walsh. The text of the constitution, with minor amendments, was approved on 14 June by Dáil Éireann. The draft constitution was put to a plebiscite on 1 July 1937. 56% of voters were in favour, comprising 38. 6% of the whole electorate, the constitution formally came into force on 29 December 1937. Among the groups who opposed the constitution were supporters of Fine Gael and the Labour Party, Unionists, the question put to voters was simply Do you approve of the Draft Constitution which is the subject of this plebiscite
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Constitution of Italy
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The Constitution of the Italian Republic was enacted by the Constituent Assembly on 22 December 1947, with 453 votes in favour and 62 against. The text, which has since been amended 15 times, was promulgated in the edition of Gazzetta Ufficiale No.298 on 27 December 1947. The Constituent Assembly was elected by universal suffrage on 2 June 1946, the Constitution came into force on 1 January 1948, one century after the Statuto Albertino had been enacted. Although the latter remained in force after Benito Mussolinis March on Rome in 1922, wherever an Italian died to redeem freedom and dignity, go there young people and ponder, because that was where our Constitution was born. All the different political and social views of the Assembly contributed in shaping and influencing the final text of the Constitution and this has been repeatedly described as the constitutional compromise, and all the parties that shaped the Constitution were referred to as the arco costituzionale. These members came from all walks of life, including politicians, philosophers and partisans and it is important to note that the Constitution primarily contains general principles, it is not possible to apply them directly. As with many written constitutions, only few articles are considered to be self-executing, the majority require enabling legislation, referred to as accomplishment of constitution. This process has taken decades and some contend that, due to political considerations. While the Principles recognise a central government and the integrity of the State, they also recognise and promote local autonomies. They also promote scientific, technical and cultural development, and safeguard the environmental, historical, the State and the Church are recognised as independent and sovereign, each within its own sphere. In fact, the treaty was modified by a new agreement between church and state in 1984. The last of the Principles establishes the Italian tricolour as the Flag of Italy, green, white and red, articles 13–28 are the Italian equivalent of a bill of rights in common law jurisdictions. Every citizen is free to travel, both outside and inside the territory of the Republic, with restrictions granted only for eventual health, security, citizens have the right to freely assemble, both in private and public places, peacefully and unarmed. Notifications to the authorities is required only for meetings on public lands. The Constitution recognises the freedom of association, within the limits of criminal law, secret associations and organisations having military character are forbidden. Freedom of expression, press and religion are guaranteed in public places, for example, hate speech, calumny and obscenity in the public sphere are considered criminal offences by the Italian Criminal Code. Every citizen is protected from persecution and cannot be subjected to personal or financial burden outside of the law. The right to a trial is guaranteed, with everyone having the right to protect their rights regardless of their economic status
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Constitution of Kazakhstan
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The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the highest law of Kazakhstan, as stated in Article 4. The Constitution was approved by referendum on 30 August 1995, the preamble of the constitution emphasizes the importance of freedom, equality and concord and Kazakhstans role in the international community. Article 1 establishes the state as a democracy that values individual life, rights. It outlines social and political stability, economic development, patriotism and this is the first article in which the Parliament is mentioned. Article 2 states that Kazakhstan is a state and the government is presidential. The government has jurisdiction over, and is responsible for, all territory in Kazakhstan, regional, political divisions, including location of the capital, are left open to lower level legislation. Republic of Kazakhstan and Kazakhstan are considered one and the same, the governments power is derived from the people and citizens have the right to vote in referendums and free elections. Representation of the people is a right reserved to the executive and legislative branches, the government is divided between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Each branch is prevented from abusing its power by a system of checks and this is the first article to mention constitutional limits on the executive branch. The Constitution is made the highest law, the government shall publish all laws
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Constitution of Latvia
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The Constitution of Latvia is the fundamental law of the Republic of Latvia. Satversme is the oldest Eastern or Central European constitution still in force and it was adopted, as it states itself in the text, by the people of Latvia, in their freely elected Constitutional Assembly of Latvia on 15 February 1922 and came into force on 7 November 1922. It was heavily influenced by Germanys Weimar Constitution and the Swiss Federal Constitution, the constitution establishes the main bodies of government, it consists of 115 articles arranged in eight chapters. After the 1934 Latvian coup détat by Prime Minister of Latvia Kārlis Ulmanis, Satversme was suspended and this situation continued until June 17,1940, when Soviet Union occupied Latvia destroyed the existing regime and incorporated the Latvian SSR into the USSR on August 5. A new, Soviet-style constitution was then introduced, only articles 1,2,3 and 6 of Satversme were reintroduced at that time by the declaration and the constitution was fully reintroduced only by the first assembly of the 5th Saeima in 1993. In Latvian, satversme is officially used instead of constitution, while in everyday conversations konstitūcija is often used, the word was created by Atis Kronvalds, one of the leaders of the First Latvian National Awakening in the 19th century. The movement was trying to promote Latvian culture after centuries of Baltic German influence, Kronvalds and like-minded individuals created and introduced many new words and terms intended to be used over Germanic loanwords to modernize Latvian. The Constitution was drafted by the Constitutional Assembly of Latvia, which consisted of 150 members elected in April 1920 in general elections, the initial text was elaborated by a Constitutional committee and consisted of two parts. It was influenced by ideas of the Weimar Constitution and the Swiss Federal Constitution, the first regulated the states institutions, the second, citizens rights and obligations. The committee presented its work on 20 September 1921, on 20 June 1922 a law was passed that set the new constitution to come into force at 12 a. m. on 7 November 1922. In 1940 Latvian SSR was established by occupying Soviet Union forces, the legality of this parliament and its decisions is questioned–Soviets considered that the constitution was nullified by Ulmanis coup détat, so the Peoples Saeima never formally annulled it. After declaring accession to the USSR, the Peoples Saeima drafted a Constitution of LSSR on the basis of the 1936 Soviet Constitution and it was adopted a month after, on 25 August 1940. On 18 April 1978 the government of the LSSR adopted a new constitution modeled on the 1977 Soviet Constitution, on 4 May 1990 the Supreme Soviet of LSSR declared restoration of Latvias independence and adopted articles 1,2,3 and 6 of the constitution of 1922. Articles 1,2,3 and 6, which establish the basis of the states political system, were the first to be adopted after the restoration of independence. It is elected in general, equal and direct elections for a term of four years, the Constitution describes in general how the Saeima should work, noting that the Saeima should also establish rules of order to regulate its internal operations and order. Executive power is vested in the President and the Cabinet of ministers, there are two exceptions to this rule - the President can single-handedly decide to dissolve the Saeima and when a new government is formed it is up to him to choose a new Prime Minister. The cabinet is formed by the Prime Minister, under the constitution, the right to legislate has been granted to the Saeima. Laws are to be adopted by the Saeima and proclaimed by the President, the State Audit Office controls how the state financial resources are used
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Constitution of Liechtenstein
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The Constitution of Liechtenstein was promulgated on 5 October 1921, replacing the 1862 constitution. It also abolished the three seats in the Landtag appointed by the Prince and lowered the age from 24 to 21. The constitution has twelve chapters, Chapter I, responsibilities of the State Chapter IV. General Rights and Obligations of Liechtenstein Citizens Chapter V, administrative Bodies and Civil Servants Chapter X. Constitutional Amendments and Interpretation Chapter XII,1972, Article 16, paragraphs 6 and 7 annulled. 1973, Article 46, paragraph 3 inserted setting the threshold at 8%. 1982, Article 61 amended 1984, Article 48 paragraphs 2 and 3,1988, Article 46, paragraph 1 amended to increase number of Landtag members from 15 to 25. 1989, Article 52, paragraph 2 annulled,1992, Article 31, paragraph 2 and 3 amended. 1994, Article 46, paragraph 2 amended and corrected,1997, Article 46, paragraph 4 amended, paragraph 5 inserted, article 47 paragraph 2 annulled. 2000, Article 29, paragraph 2 on citizenship amended,2003, Articles 1,3,4,7,10,11,13, 13bis, 13ter,51, 62f, 62g,63 all amended
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Constitution of Lithuania
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The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania defines the legal foundation for all laws passed in the Republic of Lithuania. It was approved in a referendum on 25 October 1992, the first attempt to codify the laws of Grand Duchy of Lithuania took the form of Statutes of Lithuania, with the First Statute in power in 1529. The document, written in Ruthenian language, fulfilled the role of the law of the land. In a belated attempt to rectify the situation, a constitution was adopted on May 3,1791 – one of the oldest codified national constitutions in the world, the new constitution abolished the liberum veto and banned the szlachtas confederations, features that had crippled decision making the state. The peasantry saw their rights increased but it fell short of abolishing serfdom, religious tolerance was preserved, although the status of the Catholic faith was recognized. The 1791 document remained in force for less than 19 months, after a war with Russia. By 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned between Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia and Habsburg Austria, with most of the lands of the Grand Duchy under the Russian rule, during the closing stages of World War I, Lithuania declared independence on February 16,1918. Three separate temporary constitutions were enacted on November 2,1918, April 4,1919, on November 2,1918, the State Council adopted a constitutional act. At the time, it was constrained by the decision of July 11,1918, declaring Lithuania a constitutional monarchy. In a changing environment, the council chose to adopt the act without specifying the form of government or the head of state. On April 4,1919, the State Council adopted modified Fundamental Principles of Temporary Constitution, the modifications were mainly notable for the introduction of the office of the President, in place of the Presidium of the Council. The Constituent Assembly did not adopt a constitution until August 1,1922, the constitution envisioned a strong parliament and a politically weakened President as the head of state. A coup on December 17,1926 started the process of transforming the Republic of Lithuania into an authoritarian state headed by Antanas Smetona as the President. The constitution of 1922 was disregarded as early as April 12,1927, a constitutional reform was proposed, strengthening the authority of the President and weakening the parliament. A new constitution was proclaimed by Smetona in May 1928 without any attempt to follow the procedure for changing the Constitution established in the 1922 document. Instead, the constitution was presented as a proposal to the nation, to be approved within 10 years, the Seimas would not reconvene until 1936. The constitution of 1928 was never submitted for approval to the nation, instead, the government started working on a new constitution, approved by the newly assembled Seimas in 1938. The constitution reversed the liberal ideas of the constitution of 1922, introducing the notion that the state was the foundation of existence of its citizens and not the other way round
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Constitution of Luxembourg
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The Constitution of Luxembourg is the supreme law of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The modern constitution was adopted on 17 October 1868, whilst the constitution of 1868 marked a radical change in Luxembourgs constitutional settlement, it was technically an amendment of the original constitution. That original constitution was promulgated on 12 October 1841, came into effect on 1 January 1842, and was amended on 20 March 1848. 15 May 1919 - National sovereignty was transferred from the monarch to the nation, the monarchs powers to command the armed forces and to sign treaties were reaffirmed, provided that the treaty was not secret and that the Chamber of Deputies ratified it. All changes to Luxembourgs territory were required to be ratified by law,28 April 1948 - The Grand Duchy was defined as a free, independent, and indivisible state, removing reference to, and therefore ending, its long-standing political neutrality. 6 May 1948 - The regulation of use in legal and judicial affairs became regulated by statute, rather than requiring the equal treatment of French. 15 May 1948 - Suffrage was restricted to Luxembourgers living in Luxembourg, aged over 21 and in possession of their political rights. Das allgemeine Wahlrecht, Revision des Art
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Constitution of Malta
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The current Constitution of Malta was adopted as a legal order on 21 September 1964, and is the self-declared supreme law of the land. Therefore, any law or action in violation of the Constitution is null, being a rigid constitution, it has a three-tier entrenchment basis in order for any amendments to take place. The Constitution has been amended twenty-four times, most recently in 2007 with the entrenchment of the office of the Ombudsman, the constitution is typically called the Constitution of Malta and replaced the 1961 Constitution, dating from 24 October 1961. George Borg Olivier was its main instigator and negotiator, under its 1964 constitution, Malta became a parliamentary democracy within the British Commonwealth. On 13 December 1974, under Mr. Dom Mintoffs leadership the constitution was revised, the president is appointed by parliament. In turn, the president appoints as prime minister the leader of the party wins a majority of parliamentary seats in a general election for the unicameral House of Representatives. The president also appoints, upon recommendation of the prime minister. The cabinet is selected from among the members of the House of Representatives, the Constitution provides for general elections to be held at least every five years. Candidates are elected by the Single Transferable Vote system, the entire territory is divided into thirteen electoral districts each returning five MPs to a total of 65. To date this mechanism, intended to counteract gerrymandering, came into effect twice, for the Sixth and this mechanism was first applied in the 2008 general election. The Independence Constitution of Malta of 1964 established Malta as a parliamentary democracy. It safeguarded the fundamental rights of citizens, and forced a separation between the executive, judicial and legislative powers, with regular elections based on universal suffrage. This constitution was developed through history and its evolution. The constitutions of Malta fell under three main categories and these were, Those over which the British possessed total power, The intermediate genres of constitutions, where Malta had self government, the Independence Constitution of 1964. The Commissioners presented their report on 5 December 1960, the report was published on 8 March 1961. That same day, the Secretary of State declared to the House of Commons that Her Majesty’s Government had taken a decision, the Commissioner’s constitutional recommendations to be the basis for the subsequent Malta constitution were to be granted. The 1961 Constitution was also known as the Blood Constitution and it was enclosed in the Malta Constitution Order in Council 1961 and it was completed on 24 October of that same year. The statement that the Order makes provision for a new constitution where Malta is given self-government is found on the page of the Order in Council
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Constitution of Monaco
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The constitution also defines the line of succession to the Monegasque throne, this section was modified on April 2,2002. By word count, it is the shortest constitution in the currently in force. The principalitys local affairs are directed by the Communal Council, which consists of fifteen elected members and is presided over by the Mayor, under the 1962 constitution, the Prince shares his power with the unicameral National Council, the Principalitys legislative body. Though it is independent of the Prince and may act contrary to his wishes, judicial power is invested in the Prince, who delegates judicial procedures to the various courts, which dispense justice in his name. The independence of the judges is guaranteed by the constitution, the Supreme Court of Monaco is composed of five chief members and two assistant judges named by the Prince on the basis of nominations by the National Council and other government bodies. The Supreme Court is the highest court for judicial appeals and also interprets the constitution when necessary, monacos legal system, closely related to that of France, is patterned after the Napoleonic Code. Constitution de la Principauté Constitution of the Principality
