1.
Threat
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A threat is a communicated intent to inflict harm or loss on another person. A threat is considered an act of coercion, some of the more common types of threats forbidden by law are those made with an intent to obtain a monetary advantage or to compel a person to act against his or her will. In all US states, it is an offense to threaten to use a weapon on another person, injure anothers person or property. Brazilian jurisprudence does not treat as a crime a threat that was proffered in a heated discussion, the German Strafgesetzbuch §241 punishes the crime of threat with a prison term for up to one year or a fine. In the United States, federal law criminalizes certain true threats transmitted via the U. S. mail or in interstate commerce and it also criminalizes threatening the government officials of the United States. Threat Death threat Emotional blackmail Extortion Balance of threat Non-credible threat Throffer
2.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
3.
Dominance (ethology)
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Dominance in ethology is an individuals preferential access to resources over another. Dominance in the context of biology and anthropology is the state of having high social status relative to one or more other individuals and this enables the dominant individual to obtain access to resources such as food or potential mates at the expense of the submissive individual, without active aggression. The absence or reduction of aggression means unnecessary energy expenditure and the risk of injury are reduced for both, the opposite of dominance is submissiveness. Dominance may be a purely dyadic relationship, i. e. individual A is dominant over individual B, alternatively, dominance may be hierarchical, with a transitive relationship, so that if A dominates B and B dominates C, A always dominates C. This is called a linear dominance hierarchy, some animal societies have despots, i. e. a single dominant individual with little or no hierarchical structure amongst the rest of the group. Horses use coalitions so that affiliated pairs in a herd have an accumulative dominance to displace a third horse that normally out-ranks both of them on an individual basis, dominance may initially be established by fighting, or simply by threatening displays or interchanges. Once established, however, dominance is usually maintained by agonistic behaviours with aggression considerably reduced or sometimes absent, in the maintenance of dominance relationships, the behaviour of the sub-dominant animal is critical. If a dominant animal perceives its status is being threatened, it will threaten the sub-dominant individual. The sub-dominant must then either escalate the intensity of the interaction to challenge the dominant, in this way, it is often the behaviour of the sub-dominant animal that maintains the dominance relationship, rather than the dominant. The ultimate function of a hierarchy is to increase the individual or inclusive fitness of the animals involved in its formation. Fighting to acquire such as food and mates is expensive in terms of time, energy. Therefore, the functions of a pecking order are to reduce the costs of time, energy and risk of injury incurred during resource acquisition. A dominant animal is one whose sexual, feeding, aggressive, subordinate animals are opposite, their behavior can be relatively easily influenced or inhibited by other group members. g. Naked mole-rat, bees and many farm, laboratory, zoo, studies have shown there is a strong association between high testosterone levels and dominance behaviors that help enhance mating success in men. In hierarchical societies, dominant individuals may exert control over others, for example, in a herd of feral goats it is a large male that is dominant and maintains discipline and coherence of the flock. He leads the group but shares leadership on an expedition with an old she-goat who will normally outlast a succession of dominant males. However, earlier work showed that leadership orders in goats was not related to age or dominance, in sheep, position in a moving flock is highly correlated with social dominance, but there is no definite study to show consistent voluntary leadership by an individual sheep. It has been suggested, however, that more commonly, decision-taking about the actions of the group is dissociated from social dominance and this led to the colloquial term pecking order describing the hierarchical system of social organization in chickens, although it is sometimes loosely applied to other animals
4.
Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
5.
Discrimination
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This includes treatment of an individual or group, based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or social category, in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in countries and institutions in every part of the world. In some places, controversial attempts such as quotas have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination—but have sometimes been called reverse discrimination, the term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- distinguished between, from the verb discriminare, from discrimen distinction, from the verb discernere, Discrimination derives from Latin, where the verb discrimire means to separate, to distinguish, to make a distinction. Moral philosophers have defined discrimination as disadvantageous treatment or consideration, an individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. They just need to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason, in addition to this discrimination develops into a source of oppression. It is similar to the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated inhumanly, social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups. Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy and reflects stable, the United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement, Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection. International bodies United Nations Human Rights Council work towards helping ending discrimination around the world, important UN documents addressing discrimination include, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is a United Nations convention, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination. The convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 21 December 1965, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as a bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is a human rights instrument treaty of the United Nations. Parties to the Convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities, the text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 2006, and opened for signature on 30 March 2007. Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on 3 May 2008, ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someones age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a persons age. Ageism is most often directed towards old people, or adolescents, Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University, interestingly, they found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years
6.
Embarrassment
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Embarrassment is an emotional state of intense discomfort with oneself, experienced when having a socially unacceptable act or condition witnessed by or revealed to others. Usually some amount of loss of honor or dignity is involved, but how much and it is similar to shame, except that shame may be experienced for an act known only to oneself. Also, embarrassment usually carries the connotation of being caused by an act that is socially unacceptable. Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps, in many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment. Personal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings of anger depending on the seriousness of the situation. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the act as inconsequential or even humorous. The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture, similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviour was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys. Thus proneness to embarrassment can act as a brake on behaviour that would be dysfunctional for a group or culture, Embarrassment can also be professional or official, especially after statements expressing confidence in a stated course of action, or willful disregard for evidence. Embarrassment increases greatly in instances involving official duties or workplace facilities, large amounts of money or materials, even small errors or miscalculations can lead to significantly greater official embarrassment if it is discovered that there was willful disregard for evidence or directives involved. Not all official failures result in embarrassment, even if the circumstances lead to some slight personal embarrassment for the people involved. Similarly, a scientist might be disappointed and embarrassed if one of his hypotheses was proven wrong. By contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a claim would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. Professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by expressions of anger, denial of involvement. One typology of embarrassment is by Sharkey and Stafford, based on these types, Cupach and Metts classify two basic embarrassment situations, the actor responsible and the observer responsible. The word derives from the French word embarrasser, to block,5 However, it certainly is not directly derived from it, as the substitution of r for rr in Ibero-Romantic languages was not a known occurrence. The Spanish word may come from the Italian imbarazzare, from imbarazzo, joan Corominas and José Pacual, embarazar, Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, Vol. II, p. 555-556
7.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
8.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
9.
Assault
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In criminal and civil law, assault is an attempt to initiate harmful or offensive contact with a person, or a threat to do so. It is distinct from battery, which refers to the achievement of such contact. An assault is carried out by a threat of bodily harm coupled with an apparent, present ability to cause the harm and it is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in either criminal and/or civil liability. Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal, there is, however, an additional criminal law category of assault consisting of an attempted but unsuccessful battery. The term is confused with battery, which involves physical contact. Assault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. Thus throwing a rock at someone for the purpose of hitting him is a if the rock in fact strikes the person. Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a form of assault. Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants, Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on, or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others. Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault, in some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault. This can have important consequences when dealing with such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game, bodily adornment, however, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish Law, consent is not a defense for assault, Police officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, an officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary. In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system, the officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault. What constitutes reasonable varies in both law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a statute for child abuse. Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of punishment for children in school
10.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
11.
Hybrid offence
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In the United States, an alternative misdemeanor/felony offense lists both county jail and state prison as possible punishment. The power to choose under which class a hybrid offence will be tried rests with the crown counsel, hybrid offences can either be summary offences or indictable offences. For most indictable offences, a person has the right to trial by jury, in English criminal law a hybrid offence is called a triable-either-way offence and can be heard at either the Magistrates Court or Crown Court. The decision as to which court will hear the case is determined at a Mode of Trial hearing, the magistrates decide if the case is suitable to be heard in the Magistrates Court. If they decide that the case is too serious or too complex. If the magistrates decide that the case is suitable to be heard by the then the defendant is asked for consent to do so. The defendant can then either consent to be tried by the magistrates or opt for trial by jury at the Crown Court provided that they have pleaded not guilty. If they have pleaded guilty then they have no say in the matter - thus there is no way for a defendant to agree to plead guilty in exchange for having a case dealt with by magistrates. The expression hybrid offence was applicable to an offence triable either on indictment or summarily and it was applicable to offences to which section 18 of the Magistrates Courts Act 1952 applied. See sections 14 and 64 of the Criminal Law Act 1977, for statutory offences, the statute will provide whether the offence is triable summarily, on indictment, or both. The choice of forum is a matter for the Lord Advocate and procurator fiscal, in U. S. states in which these offenses occur, the prosecuting attorney has discretion in deciding which category to charge the defendant. Prosecutors may strategically file such offenses as felonies, agreeing to refile the charge as a misdemeanor should the defendant consent to a guilty plea. After hearing evidence at a hearing, the judge or magistrate has discretion to reduce a felony wobbler to a misdemeanor charge. In juvenile court, after a minor is declared to be delinquent following a trial or open plea. In California, one example of an offense is grand theft
12.
Abusive power and control
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Power and control in abusive relationships is the way that abusers gain and maintain control over a victim for an abusive purpose such as psychological, physical and sexual abuse. Controlling abusers use multiple tactics to exert power and control over their partners, the goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship. Isolation, gaslighting and other strategies are often used to facilitate power. Due to their shallow affect and lack of remorse or empathy and those with histrionic personality disorder need to be the center of attention, and in turn, draw people in so they may use their relationship. To maintain their self-esteem, and protect their true selves. Such persons manipulate and pressure others to change so as to avoid having to change themselves, when a control freaks pattern is broken, the controller is left with a terrible feeling of powerlessness but feeling their pain and fear brings them back to themselves. In terms of theory, control freaks are very much the Type A personality, driven by the need to dominate. An obsessive need to others is also associated with antisocial personality disorder. Negative reinforcement, involves removing one from a situation as a reward. You wont have to do your homework if you allow me to do this to you, intermittent or partial reinforcement, Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist, punishment, includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim. The silent treatment is used as a control mechanism. The model is used in many batterer intervention programs, and is known as the Duluth model, power and control is generally present with violent physical and sexual abuse. Often the abusers are initially attentive, charming and loving, gaining the trust of the individual that will become the victim. When there is a connection and a degree of trust, the abusers become unusually involved in their partners feelings, thoughts, next, they set petty rules and exhibit pathological jealousy. A conditioning process begins with alternation of loving followed by abusive behavior, according to Counselling Survivors of Domestic Abuse, These serve to confuse the survivor leading to potent conditioning processes that impact on the survivors self-structure and cognitive schemas. The abuser projects responsibility for the abuse on to the victim, or survivor, traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change. Controlling abusers use multiple tactics to exert power and control over their partners, no matter what tactics your partner uses, the effect is to control and intimidate you or to influence you to feel that you do not have an equal voice in the relationship
13.
Bullying
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Bullying is the use of force, threat, or coercion to abuse, intimidate, or aggressively dominate others. The behavior is repeated and habitual. One essential prerequisite is the perception, by the bully or by others, of an imbalance of social or physical power, behaviors used to assert such domination can include verbal harassment or threat, physical assault or coercion, and such acts may be directed repeatedly towards particular targets. If bullying is done by a group, it is called mobbing, Bullying can be defined in many different ways. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland has no definition of bullying. Bullying is divided into four types of abuse – emotional, verbal, physical. It typically involves subtle methods of coercion, such as intimidation, Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as peer abuse. Robert W. Fuller has analyzed bullying in the context of rankism, a bullying culture can develop in any context in which humans interact with each other. This includes school, family, the workplace, home, in a 2012 study of male adolescent American football players, the strongest predictor was the perception of whether the most influential male in a players life would approve of the bullying behavior. Bullying may thus be defined as the activity of repeated, aggressive behavior intended to hurt another individual, the Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus says bullying occurs when a person is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons. He says negative actions occur when a person intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, individual bullying is usually characterized by a person behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person. Individual bullying can be classified into four types, collective bullying is known as mobbing, and can include any of the individual types of bullying. Physical, verbal, and relational bullying are most prevalent in primary school and it is stated that Cyber-bullying is more common in secondary school than in primary school. Individual bullying tactics can be perpetrated by a person against a target or targets. This is any bullying that hurts someone’s body or damages their possessions, stealing, shoving, hitting, fighting, and destroying property all are types of physical bullying. Physical bullying is rarely the first form of bullying that a target will experience, often bullying will begin in a different form and later progress to physical violence. In physical bullying the main weapon the bully uses is their body when attacking their target. Sometimes groups of adults will target. This can quickly lead to a situation where they are being taunted, tortured, physical bullying can lead to a tragic ending and therefore must be stopped quickly to prevent any further escalation
14.
Demoralization (warfare)
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Demoralization is, in a context of warfare, national security, and law enforcement, a process in psychological warfare with the objective to erode morale among enemy combatants and/or noncombatants. That can encourage them to retreat, surrender, or defect rather than defeating them in combat, some methods on the strategic scale are commerce raiding, strategic bombing, static operations such as sieges and naval blockades, and propaganda. That is the form of demoralization that is referred to as a tool of psychological warfare, propaganda as a tool of demoralization refers to influencing opinion through significant symbols, through means such as rumors, stories, pictures, reports, and other means of social communication. A strategic demoralization campaign will navigate what Harold D, a strategic demoralization campaign should tailor its strategy to the specific target and situation. An important precursor to successful demoralization is an effort to deny the target the ability to project frustrations, such efforts will affect the tendency of the targets citizenry to project their discontent towards a common enemy identified by their government. The operations of the German Gazette des Ardennes, published in occupied areas of France during World War I, are an example of this aspect of strategic demoralization, the Gazette des Ardennes regularly published propaganda articles that sought to deny the French of a German enemy image. The themes are illustrative of defense by denial, also possible to use is defense by admission accompanied by justification. Articles that attempted to justify German unrestricted submarine warfare as a consequence of the British blockade are also examples of defense by admission and justification. Causing self-doubt or doubt in a cause is the definition most commonly ascribed to demoralization. It is only one aspect of a successful strategic demoralization campaign but is the most pronounced, as noted by Lasswell, the keynote in the preliminary spade work is the unceasing refrain, Your cause is hopeless. Your blood is spilt in vain, propaganda can be an indispensable tool in fostering an environment of doubt and anxiety. Real and conscious threats that normally inspire disquiet and fear can be made to cause anxiety and borderline neurosis through the use of such tools as fables. That anxiety cannot be calmed through an explanation of facts and is exacerbated by such an approach. The newly-onset anxiety places mass groups of individuals on the border of neurosis, as a result of contradictions and threats, man feels accused, guilty. The target will then begin their search for a cause that will provide a sense of righteousness, If not done properly, the manufactured sense of anxiety can both backfire on antagonists and cause the subject to cling more closely to their original cause or government. The most powerful strategy of demoralization is diversion, but that is an extremely difficult, once antagonists met the two precursors of demoralization, it is possible to concentrate upon the particular object of animosity about which it is hoped to polarize the sentiment of the enemy. The diversion of hatred can be towards an ally, towards the end mays government or governing class, the attempt to exacerbate relations between allies is one method of diverting hatred from an enemy and was attempted by both the Allied and Central Powers in World War I. The antagonist can attempt to divert hatred and frustration upon the targets government or ruling class
15.
Fearmongering
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Fearmongering or scaremongering is the spreading of frightening and exaggerated rumors of an impending danger or the habit or tactic of purposely and needlessly arousing public fear about an issue. This can take the form of manipulation that uses fear-based tactics including exaggeration. It is a used to scare or put fear into those viewing a campaign/advertisement. There is no doubt that fear can be a medium at relaying a message. Research shows that the effects of using fear marketing can both be facilitating and inhibiting to whether the audience accepts the message, fear marketing is especially effective with certain markets, while others are much less affected. In our world the population is oversaturated with vast quantities of advertising, the effectiveness of fear in marketing comes from the ability to establish a need. If a marketing campaign uses fear to people who do not have life insurance, it can awake a desire for the product. To go along with this, if a person who sees this advert already has life insurance, they can act in a negative way, fear truly is, a double edged sword. The effectiveness of fear is subject to several variables, the audience watching, the way it has been encoded, the transmission form and the degree of fear that is used. Fear is an emotion that is exploited, yet it is rarely used. Probably due to the ethical responsibilities that come with this form of advertising, the marketplace where fear-based appeals are usually found is the television, which is a very broad platform that is observed by many different types of users. If this message were to reach children, there is the potential to have an influence on the child’s mind. Hence, why discretion is advised when using fear-based marketing, using fear marketing upon the elderly is a critical area filled with debate at the moment. Another issue with fear in marketing is one of the reasons it is so effective is that it makes individuals anxious. There is an argument as to whether it is right for marketer to give people anxiety about topics, while they are in the safety of their homes or elsewhere. When people are so vulnerable to this type of stimuli, is it right that they are exploited when they did not consent to being targeted in this way and when it can be difficult to draw away from it. A lot of research says no, it is not appropriate, yet many still use this method. Fear in marketing is not frequently used, however when it is, some key industries are the anti-smoking movement, healthcare and safe-driving campaigns
16.
Gaslighting
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Gaslighting is a form of manipulation that seeks to sow seeds of doubt in a targeted individual or members of a group, hoping to make targets question their own memory, perception, and sanity. Using persistent denial, misdirection, contradiction, and lying, it attempts to destabilize the target, instances may range from the denial by an abuser that previous abusive incidents ever occurred up to the staging of bizarre events by the abuser with the intention of disorienting the victim. The term owes its origin to Gas Light, a 1938 play and 1944 film and it has been used in clinical and research literature. The original title stems from the dimming of the gas lights in the house that happened when the husband was using the gas lights in the attic while searching for hidden treasure. The wife accurately notices the lights and discusses the phenomenon. The term gaslighting has been used colloquially since the 1960s, to describe efforts to manipulate someones sense of reality, sociopaths and narcissists frequently use gaslighting tactics. Sociopaths consistently transgress social mores, break laws, and exploit others, but typically also are convincing liars, sometimes charming ones, thus, some who have been victimized by sociopaths may doubt their own perceptions. Some physically abusive spouses may gaslight their partners by flatly denying that they have been violent, Gaslighting may occur in parent–child relationships, with either parent, child, or both, lying to each other and attempting to undermine perceptions. Gaslighting describes a dynamic observed in cases of marital infidelity. The gaslighting behaviors of the spouse provide a recipe for the nervous breakdown for some women suicide in some of the worst situations. The situation was a theme in the BBCs The Archers radio soap opera through the story of Helen Archer and Rob Titchenor in 2015-6. Psychotherapy and psychiatry have been described as forms of gaslighting wherein the therapist or psychiatrist is characterized by the patient to be of a more sound, furthermore, gaslighting has been observed between patients and staff in inpatient psychiatric facilities. Of painful and potentially painful mental conflicts, dorpat describes this as an example of projective identification. With respect to women in particular, Hilde Lindemann argued emphatically that in such cases, establishment of counterstories may help the victim reacquire ordinary levels of free agency. Gaslighting has been used by Russian politicians, british film-maker Adam Curtis suggested in 2014 that nonlinear or asymmetric war was a form of gaslighting intended to force political control. Surkov used his influence to finance various political coalitions so none of the Russian citizens could know if an organization was created by the government or a grassroots movement, in fact, I would never dream of saying X. had brought new notability to the term. Some Clinical Consequences of Introjection, Gaslighting, dialogues of Doubt, The Psychology of Self-Doubt and Emotional Gaslighting in Adult Women and Men. Gaslighting, How to Drive Your Enemies Crazy, the Gaslight Effect, How to Spot and Survive the Hidden Manipulation Others Use to Control Your Life
17.
Shock and awe
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Shock and awe is a military doctrine based on the use of overwhelming power and spectacular displays of force to paralyze the enemys perception of the battlefield and destroy its will to fight. The doctrine was written by Harlan K. Ullman and James P. Wade in 1996 and is a product of the National Defense University of the United States. Rapid dominance and shock and awe, they write, may become a change as the United States military is reduced in size. Subsequent U. S. military authors have written that rapid dominance exploits the superior technology, precision engagement, the term shock and awe is most consistently used by Ullman and Wade as the effect that rapid dominance seeks to impose upon an adversary. It is the state of helplessness and lack of will. The doctrine of rapid dominance has evolved from the concept of decisive force, ulman and Wade contrast the two concepts in terms of objective, use of force, force size, scope, speed, casualties, and technique. The threat and fear of action that may shut down all or part of the society or render his ability to fight useless short of complete physical destruction. You also take the city down, by that I mean you get rid of their power, water. In 2,3,4,5 days they are physically, emotionally and psychologically exhausted, Ullman and Wade argue that there have been military applications that fall within some of the concepts of shock and awe. Massive bombardment, Described as precise destructive power largely against military targets, blitzkrieg, The intent was to apply precise, surgical amounts of tightly focused force to achieve maximum leverage but with total economies of scale. Sun Tzu, The selective, instant decapitation of military or societal targets to achieve shock, haitian example, Imposing shock and awe through a show of force and indeed through deception, misinformation, and disinformation. The Roman legions, Achieving shock and awe rests in the ability to deter and overpower an adversary through the perception and fear of his vulnerability. Decay and default, The imposition of societal breakdown over a lengthy period, before the 2003 invasion of Iraq, United States armed forces officials described their plan as employing shock and awe. Before its implementation, there was dissent within the Bush Administration as to whether the shock, according to a CBS News report, One senior official called it a bunch of bull, but confirmed it is the concept on which the war plan is based. CBS Correspondent David Martin noted that during Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan in the prior year, the U. S. forces were badly surprised by the willingness of al Qaeda to fight to the death. If the Iraqis fight, the U. S. would have to throw in reinforcements and win the old fashioned way by crushing the Republican Guards, continuous bombing began on March 19,2003 as United States forces unsuccessfully attempted to kill Saddam Hussein. Attacks continued against a number of targets until March 21,2003, when, at 1700 UTC. Its forces launched approximately 1700 air sorties, Coalition ground forces had begun a running start offensive towards Baghdad on the previous day
18.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
19.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
20.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
Reward system
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The reward system is a group of neural structures responsible for incentive salience, associative learning, and positive emotions, particularly ones which involve pleasure as a core component. Reward is the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces appetitive behavior – also known as approach behavior –, in operant conditioning, rewarding stimuli function as positive reinforcers, however, the converse statement also holds true, positive reinforcers are rewarding. Primary rewards are those necessary for the survival of self and offspring. Intrinsic rewards are unconditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior because they are inherently pleasurable, extrinsic rewards are conditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior, but are not inherently pleasurable. Extrinsic rewards derive their value as a result of a learned association with intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards may also elicit pleasure after being classically conditioned with intrinsic rewards, survival for most animal species depends upon maximizing contact with beneficial stimuli and minimizing contact with harmful stimuli. Reward cognition serves to increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction by causing associative learning, eliciting approach and consummatory behavior, thus, reward is a mechanism that evolved to help increase the adaptive fitness of animals. Terms that are used to describe behavior related to the liking or pleasure component of reward include consummatory behavior. The three primary functions of rewards are their capacity to, produce associative learning, affect decision-making and induce approach behavior, elicit positive emotions, the dorsal raphe nucleus and cerebellum appear to modulate some forms of reward-related cognition and behaviors as well. The GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the striatum are components of the system as well. The glutamatergic projection nuclei in the nucleus, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, thalamus. The medial forebrain bundle, which is a set of neural pathways that mediate brain stimulation reward, is also a component of the reward system. After nearly 50 years of research on brain-stimulation reward, experts have certified that dozens of sites in the brain will maintain intracranial self-stimulation, regions include the lateral hypothalamus and medial forebrain bundles are especially effective. There are several explanations as to why the mesolimbic pathway is central to circuits mediating reward. First, there is a increase in dopamine release from the mesolimbic pathway when animals engage in intracranial self-stimulation. However, dopamine is not the only compound in the brain. Pleasure is a component of reward, but not all rewards are pleasurable, extrinsic rewards are rewarding as a result of a learned association with an intrinsic reward. In other words, extrinsic rewards function as motivational magnets that elicit wanting, the reward system contains pleasure centers or hedonic hotspots – i. e. brain structures that mediate pleasure or liking reactions from intrinsic rewards
22.
Reinforcement
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In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organisms future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a frequency of behavior, longer duration, greater magnitude. Reinforcement does not require an individual to perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior, however, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. An ibuprofen is a reinforcer because it takes away pain. Kennedy or of the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks, Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning. B. F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the constructs of reinforcement. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing. If the frequency of cookie-requesting behavior increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing cookie-requesting behavior, If however, cookie-requesting behavior does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer, the study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinners conclusions, the term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response, the experimenter waits for the response to occur, Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning - see punishment, Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases. A positive reinforcer is an event for which the animal will work in order to acquire it. Verbal and physical reward is very useful positive reinforcement Example, Whenever a rat presses a button, If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior. Example, A father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys, If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer. Example, A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold, the prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales
23.
Attention
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It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form of one out of what seem several simultaneous objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence, Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of limited processing resources. Attention remains an area of investigation within education, psychology, neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience. The relationships between attention and consciousness are complex enough that they have warranted perennial philosophical exploration, prior to the founding of psychology as a scientific discipline, attention was studied in the field of philosophy. Due to this, many of the discoveries in the field of Attention were made by philosophers. Psychologist John Watson cites Juan Luis Vives as the Father of Modern Psychology due to his book De Anima et Vita in which Vives was the first to recognize the importance of empirical investigation. In his work on memory, Vives found that the more closely one attends to stimuli, by the 1990s, psychologists began using PET and later fMRI to image the brain while monitoring attention tasks. Because of the expensive equipment that was generally only available in hospitals. Pioneers of brain imaging studies of attention are psychologist Michael Posner. Their results soon sparked interest from the neuroscience community in these psychological studies. The results of experiments have shown a broad agreement with the psychological, psychophysiological. In cognitive psychology there are at least two models which describe how visual attention operates and these models may be considered loosely as metaphors which are used to describe internal processes and to generate hypotheses that are falsifiable. Generally speaking, visual attention is thought to operate as a two-stage process, in the first stage, attention is distributed uniformly over the external visual scene and processing of information is performed in parallel. In the second stage, attention is concentrated to an area of the visual scene. The first of these models to appear in the literature is the spotlight model, the term spotlight was inspired by the work of William James, who described attention as having a focus, a margin, and a fringe. The focus is an area that extracts information from the scene with a high-resolution. Surrounding the focus is the fringe of attention, which extracts information in a more crude fashion. This fringe extends out to an area, and the cut-off is called the margin
24.
Bribery
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Bribery is the act of giving money, goods or other forms of recompense to a recipient in exchange for an alteration of their behavior that the recipient would otherwise not alter. Gifts of money or other items of value which are available to everyone on an equivalent basis. Offering a discount or a refund to all purchasers is a rebate and is not bribery. Giving the rebate to influence them to look favorably on the utilitys rate increase applications, however. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipients conduct, in economics, the bribe has been described as rent. Bribery in bureaucracy has been viewed as a reason for the higher cost of production of goods, one must be careful of differing social and cultural norms when examining bribery. Expectations of when a transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Tipping, for example, is considered bribery in some societies, in some Spanish-speaking countries, bribes are referred to as mordida. In Arab countries, bribes may be called baksheesh or shay, french-speaking countries often use the expressions dessous-de-table, pot-de-vin, or commission occulte. While the last two expressions contain inherently a negative connotation, the expression dessous-de-table can be understood as a commonly accepted business practice. In German, the term is Schmiergeld. The forms that bribery take are numerous, for example, a motorist might bribe a police officer not to issue a ticket for speeding, a citizen seeking paperwork or utility line connections might bribe a functionary for faster service. Bribery may also take the form of a commission, a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment. Euphemisms abound for this Bribers and recipients of bribery are likewise numerous although bribers have one common denominator, Bribery around the world is estimated at about $1 trillion. The reason for this dissociation is to make the steps of a corrupt deal already an offence and, thus. Besides, such a dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be difficult to prove that two parties have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. A grey area may exist when payments to smooth transactions are made, in some countries, this practice is the norm, often resulting from a developing nation not having the tax structure to pay civil servants an adequate salary. Nevertheless, most economists regard bribery as a bad thing because it encourages rent seeking behaviour, a state where bribery has become a way of life is a kleptocracy
25.
Child grooming
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Child grooming is befriending and establishing an emotional connection with a child, and sometimes the family, to lower the childs inhibitions for child sexual abuse. It also regularly lures minors into child-trafficking situations, illicit businesses such as child prostitution, the proscribed traffic was international in nature at that time. The concept of localised grooming, in which gangs of reprobates groom neighbourhood victims, was defined in 2010 by the UK Child Exploitation, a trusting relationship with the family means the childs parents are less likely to believe potential accusations. They might give gifts or money to the child in exchange for sexual contact, commonly, they show pornography to the child, or talk about sexual topics with the child, hoping to make it easy for the child to accept such acts, thus normalizing the behavior. Hugging and kissing or other contact, even when the child does not want it. In the U. S. case law draws a distinction between two and some people accused of grooming have successfully used this defense. Sexual grooming of children also occurs on the Internet, some abusers will pose as children online and make arrangements to meet with them in person. Facebook has been involved in controversy as to whether or not it takes enough precautions, a spokesman for Facebook responded to complaints by meeting Ceop directly in person, and saying, adamantly, We take the issue of safety very seriously. In 2003, MSN implemented restrictions in their chat rooms purportedly intended to protect children from adults seeking sexual conversations with them. Chat rooms were investigated by the New York State attorney generals office for allowing users to create rooms whose names suggested that they were being used for this purpose and that October, Yahoo. agreed to implement policies and procedures designed to ensure that such rooms would not be allowed. Some vigilante organizations use operatives posing as underage teens on the internet to identify potential child molesters and turn the information over to the police, the news program Dateline NBC featured the recurring segment To Catch a Predator, based on documenting such activities. Similar groups include Perverted-Justice, Dark Justice and Creep Catcher, multiple computer programs have been developed to help identify grooming and warn parents. Such software analyses chat rooms and other instant messaging logs for activity that may identify grooming or other suspicious activities. Some of the technologies have been adapted to social networking services, Sexual grooming of children over the internet is most prevalent amongst the 13–17 age group, particularly 13–14 year old children. The majority of them are girls, the majority of the victimization occurs with mobile phone support. Children and teenagers with issues such as high attention seeking have a much higher risk than others. This location is usually in public, such as a park, cinema, offenders often act together, establishing a relationship with a child or children before sexually exploiting them. Abuse may occur at a number of locations within a region and on several occasions, ‘Localised grooming’ was the term used by CEOP in the intelligence requests issued to police forces and other service agencies in order to define the data we wished to receive
26.
Flattery
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Flattery is the act of giving excessive compliments, generally for the purpose of ingratiating oneself with the subject. Historically, flattery has been used as a form of discourse when addressing a king or queen. Flattery is also used in pick-up lines when attempting to initiate romantic courtship, most associations with flattery, however, are negative. Negative descriptions of range at least as far back in history as The Bible. In the Divine Comedy, Dante depicts flatterers wading in human excrement, stating that their words were the equivalent of excrement, an insincere flatterer is a stock character in many literary works. Examples include Wormtongue from J. R. R. Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings, Goneril and Regan from King Lear, historians and philosophers have paid attention to flattery as a problem in ethics and politics. Plutarch wrote an essay on How to Tell a Flatterer from a Friend, julius Caesar was notorious for his flattery. To flatter is also used to refer to artwork or clothing that makes the subject or wearer appear more attractive, as in, The King was pleased with the portrait, I think Ill wear the green dress because it flatters my legs
27.
Nudge theory
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Sunstein as administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs. In Australia, the government of New South Wales established a Behavioural Insights community of practice, at the heart of nudge theory is the concept of nudge. The first formulation of this term and associated principles was developed in cybernetics by James Wilk before 1995 and it also drew on methodological influences from clinical psychotherapy tracing back to Gregory Bateson, including contributions from Milton Erickson, Watzlawick, Weakland and Fisch, and Bill OHanlon. In this expression, the nudge is a microtargetted design geared towards a group of people. To count as a nudge, the intervention must be easy. Putting fruit at eye level counts as a nudge, in this mode, drawing on behavioral economics, the nudge is a more generally applied influencer of behaviour. One of the most frequently cited examples of a nudge is the etching of the image of a housefly into the mens room urinals at Amsterdams Schiphol Airport, Nudge, as it is often referred, is usually credited to Richard Thaler. Thalers role in developing the theory is usually discussed in parallel with Daniel Kahneman. Nudge theory rose to prominence in 2008 with the release of the book Nudge, Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth. Most recently, the machinery of both US President Barack Obama and UK Prime Minister David Cameron have sought to employ nudge theory to advance their respective domestic policy goals. In both the UK and the Australian state of NSW, there is a Behavioural Insights team in the government, Nudge theory has also been applied to business management and corporate culture, such as in relation to health, safety and environment and human resources. Regarding its application to HSE, one of the goals of nudge is to achieve a zero accident culture. Leading Silicon Valley companies are forerunners in applying theory in corporate setting. These companies are using nudges in various forms to increase productivity, recently, further companies are gaining interest in using what is called nudge management to improve the productivity of their white-collar workers. Nudge theory has also been criticised, other scholars have echoed similar concerns, particularly with regard to the need to better understand the psychological factors that predict long-term behavioral changes. It has been remarked that nudging is also a euphemism for psychological manipulation as practiced in social engineering
