1.
Inukshuk Wireless
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Inukshuk Wireless was a joint venture of BCE Inc. Bell and Rogers separately market the service to their customers as Portable Internet, as of September 2016, Inukshuk Wireless is no longer operating. Inukshuk Internet, a predecessor to Inukshuk Wireless, was formed in 1999. Inukshuk was acquired by Microcell in 2001, which was acquired by Rogers in 2004, the spectrum and technology was merged into the joint venture with Bell in 2005. Until November 7,2008, Bell Internet Portable was referred to as Sympatico High Speed Unplugged or Bell WiMAX Unplugged, likewise, Bell Internet Rural was referred to as Bell WiMAX In-home. Bell had announced termination of its Portable Internet service on February 14,2012, Rogers had announced termination of its Portable Internet service on March 1,2012. The Inukshuk network was built using pre-WiMAX technology provided by Expedience solution from Motorola, the network provides connectivity to 45 major cities and more than 120 rural communities throughout the ten Industry Canada licensed areas. Activation, however, is available in certain rural regions. Bells Rural service used the technology as the portable product. Hence, it was not designed to be portable, Bell also offered Unplugged service for businesses. Inukshuk Wireless throttled peer-to-peer traffic on its network during peek times of the day. For Bell customers, downloads and uploads were throttled to 512 kbit/s from 16h30 to 17h59 EST, then to 256 kbit/s from 18h00 to 23h59 EST, no throttling occurred from 1h00 to 16h30
2.
Igloolik
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Igloolik is an Inuit hamlet in Foxe Basin, Qikiqtaaluk Region in Nunavut, northern Canada. Because its location on Igloolik Island is close to Melville Peninsula, the name Igloolik means there is a house here. It derives from iglu, meaning house or building, and refers to the sod houses that were originally in the area, in Inuktitut The residents are called Iglulingmiut. The mayor of Igloolik is Joe Inooya, information about the area’s earliest inhabitants comes mainly from numerous archeological sites on the island, some dating back more than 4,000 years. First contact with Europeans came when British Navy ships HMS Fury and HMS Hecla, under the command of Captain William Edward Parry, the island was visited in 1867 and 1868 by the American explorer Charles Francis Hall in his search for survivors of the lost Franklin Expedition. The first permanent presence by southerners in Igloolik came with the establishment of a Roman Catholic Mission in the 1930s, by the end of the decade, the Hudsons Bay Company had also set up a post on the island. Non-indigenous establishments, such as RCMP stations, day schools, the Igloolik Research Centre focuses on documenting Inuit traditional knowledge and technology, as well as climatology and seismic data research. An ancient legend from the Igloolik area was adapted by Zacharias Kunuk into the award-winning Canadian film Atanarjuat, in 2004, Isuma produced the film The Journals of Knud Rasmussen which was released in September 2006 after premiering at the Toronto International Film Festival. Igloolik is also the home-base of the only Inuit circus, Artcirq and this collective is active in video-making, music production and live circus show performances. Early in 2008, when temperatures in Igloolik were at −50 °C, eight members of Artcirq went to Essakane north of Timbuktu, Mali, in February 2010, six members of Artcirq represented Nunavut in performances at the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver, British Columbia. In late 2007, the Igloolik HTO banned all forms of tourism related to the northern Foxe Basin walrus population for a period of two years and this ban was in response to an observed decrease in walrus. The Igloolik Inuit continue to harvest walrus while the ban is in place. According to the 2016 census, the population of Igloolik was 1,682, a 15. 7% increase from the 2011 census. The growth of the Iglulingmiut,1464856808671,1741,2861,5381,4541,682 Igloolik has a climate with 9 months averaging below 0 °C. He called on Baffinland to find a shipping route to the mine. Paul Quassa, Former Mayor of Igloolik, also expressed concern and he said the region was known for its highly prized aged, fermented walrus meat, a valuable export from the region. On November 2,2016, CBC News reported that residents were describing a hum or buzz, coming from deep within the Fury and Hecla Strait—near Steensby Inlet where Baffinland has one of its ports. Paul Quassa, Iglooliks representative to the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut, the hum is very loud, so loud the complement of vessels transiting the straits can hear it transmitted through the hulls, without any electronic aids
3.
Nunavut
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Nunavut is the newest, largest, and northernmost territory of Canada. The creation of Nunavut resulted in the first major change to Canadas political map since the incorporation of the province of Newfoundland, Nunavut comprises a major portion of Northern Canada, and most of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Its vast territory makes it the fifth-largest country subdivision in the world, the capital Iqaluit, on Baffin Island in the east, was chosen by the 1995 capital plebiscite. Other major communities include the regional centres of Rankin Inlet and Cambridge Bay and it is Canadas only geo-political region that is not connected to the rest of North America by highway. Nunavut is the largest in area and the second least populous of Canadas provinces and territories. One of the worlds most remote, sparsely settled regions, it has a population of 35,944, mostly Inuit, spread over an area of just over 1,750,000 km2, Nunavut is also home to the worlds northernmost permanently inhabited place, Alert. A weather station farther down Ellesmere Island, Eureka, has the lowest average temperature of any Canadian weather station. Nunavut means our land in Inuktitut, Nunavut covers 1,877,787 km2 of land and 160,935 km2 of water in Northern Canada. This makes it the fifth largest subnational entity in the world, if Nunavut were a country, it would rank 15th in area. It also shares borders with Greenland and the provinces of Quebec, Ontario. Nunavuts highest point is Barbeau Peak on Ellesmere Island, the population density is 0.019 persons/km2, one of the lowest in the world. By comparison, Greenland has approximately the area and nearly twice the population. Nunavut experiences a climate in most regions, owing to its high latitude. In more southerly continental areas very cold climates can be found. The region now known as Nunavut has supported an indigenous population for approximately 4,000 years. Most historians identify the coast of Baffin Island with the Helluland described in Norse sagas, the materials were collected in five seasons of excavation at Cape Tanfield. Scholars determined that these provide evidence of European traders and possibly settlers on Baffin Island and they seem to indicate prolonged contact, possibly up to 1450. So you have to consider the possibility that as remote as it may seem, the ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit
4.
Inuktitut language
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For example, being educated in Inuktitut does not mean just using the language. An Inukitut education is not done in classrooms and from books written in their language, parents still teach their children in Inuktitut away from schools. Inuit generally consider their culture and language to be parts of a single whole. The language of Inuktitut is one of the principal Inuit languages of Canada and it is one of the aboriginal languages written with Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. It is recognised as a language in Nunavut alongside Inuinnaqtun. It also has some recognition in Nunatsiavut—the Inuit area in Labrador—following the ratification of its agreement with the government of Canada, the Canadian census reports that there are roughly 35,000 Inuktitut speakers in Canada, including roughly 200 who live regularly outside of traditionally Inuit lands. The term Inuktitut is often used broadly to include Inuvialuktun. For more information on the relationship between Inuktitut and the Inuit languages spoken in Greenland and Alaska, see Inuit languages, the word Inuktitut is often used to describe both. A more proper term has been adopted using Inuit Languages when speaking of Inuinnaqtun, the demographic situation of Inuktitut is quite strong in Nunavut. Nunavut is the home of some 24,000 Inuit, most of whom – over 80% according to the 2001 census – speak Inuktitut, including some 3,500 people reported as monolinguals. 2001 census data shows that the use of Inuktitut, while lower among the young than the elderly, has stopped declining in Canada as a whole, the South Baffin dialect is spoken across the southern part of Baffin Island, including the territorial capital Iqaluit. This has in recent years made it a more widely heard dialect. Some linguists also distinguish an East Baffin dialect from either South Baffin or North Baffin, Quebec is home to roughly 12,000 Inuit, nearly all of whom live in Nunavik. According to the 2001 census, 90% of Quebec Inuit speak Inuktitut, the Nunavik dialect is relatively close to the South Baffin dialect, but not identical. In the Nunavik dialect, Inuktitut is called Inuttitut and this dialect is also sometimes called Tarramiutut or Taqramiutut. Subdialects of Inuktitut in this region include Tarrarmiut and Itivimuit, Itivimuit is associated with Inukjuak, Quebec, and there is a Itivimuit River near the town. The Nunatsiavut dialect was spoken across northern Labrador. It has a writing system, created by German missionaries from the Moravian Church in Greenland in the 1760s
5.
Inuinnaqtun
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Inuinnaqtun, is an indigenous Inuit language of Canada and a dialect of Inuvialuktun. It is related closely to Inuktitut, and some scholars, such as Richard Condon. The governments of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut recognise Inuinnaqtun as a language in addition to Inuktitut. The Official Languages Act of Nunavut, passed by the Senate of Canada on June 11,2009, Inuinnaqtun is used primarily in the communities of Cambridge Bay and Kugluktuk in the western Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut. Outside of Nunavut, it is spoken in the hamlet of Ulukhaktok and it is written using the Latin script
6.
Inupiaq language
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The Inupiat language is a member of the Inuit-Yupik-Unangan language family, and is closely related to Inuit languages of Canada and Greenland. Inupiaq is a language of the State of Alaska. The name is rendered as Inupiatun, Inupiaq, Iñupiaq, Inyupiaq, Inyupiat, Inyupeat, Inyupik. The main varieties of the Inupiaq language are Northern Alaskan Inupiaq, the Inupiaq language has been in decline since contact with English in the late 19th century. American colonization and the legacy of boarding schools have created a situation today where a minority of Inupiat speak the Inupiaq language. There is, however, revitalization work underway today in several communities, the Inupiaq language is an Inuit-Yupik-Unangan language, also known as Eskimo-Aleut, has been spoken in the northern regions of Alaska for as many as 5,000 years. Between 1,000 and 800 years ago, Inuit peoples migrated east from Alaska to Canada and Greenland, eventually occupying the entire Arctic coast, the Inupiaq dialects are the most conservative forms of the Inuit language, with less linguistic change than the other Inuit languages. In the mid to late 19th century, Russian, British, in 1885, the American territorial government appointed Rev. Sheldon Jackson as General Agent of Education. Under his administration, Inupiat people were educated in English-only environments, forbidding the use of Inupiaq, in 2014, Inupiaq became an official language of the State of Alaska, alongside English and nineteen other indigenous languages. There are four main dialect divisions and these can be organized within two larger collections, Seward Peninsula Inupiatun consists of Bering Strait dialects and Qawiaraq dialects. Northern Alaskan Iñupiatun is spoken in the Northwest Arctic and North Slope regions, Iñupiaq is a polysynthetic language, meaning that words can be extremely long with many postbases, endings, and enclitics connected to the initial root. The Iñupiaq category of number distinguishes singular, plural, and dual, nouns are inflected in nine cases and for possession. Iñupiaqs case inventory includes ergative, absolutive, instrumental, allative, ablative, locative, perlative, similative and vocative, Iñupiaq does not have a category of gender and articles. Verbs are inflected for number and person of their subject and object, person, number and mood are expressed by a single morpheme. Iñupiaq marks future tense obligatorily while present and past tense are marked optionally, subject-object-verb is the most neutral word order. Verb-initial sentences are grammatical but unusual, Iñupiaq displays ergative-absolutive alignment through case marking and verb agreement. Iñupiaq grammar includes morphological passive, antipassive, causative and applicative, Inupiaq has three basic vowels, a i u, phonemically /a i u/, phonetically. The vowels can appear long, aa ii uu /aː iː uː/
7.
Greenlandic language
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Greenlandic is an Eskimo–Aleut language spoken by about 57,000 Greenlandic Inuit in Greenland. It is closely related to the Inuit languages in Canada such as Inuktitut, the second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat or East Greenlandic. The Thule Inuit of Greenland, Inuktun or Polar Eskimo, is a recent arrival, Greenlandic is a polysynthetic language that allows the creation of long words by stringing together roots and suffixes. Its morphosyntactic alignment is ergative, meaning that it treats the argument of a verb like the object of a transitive verb. Nouns are inflected for one of the eight cases and for possession, verbs are inflected for one of the eight moods and for the number and person of its subject and object. Both nouns and verbs have complex derivational morphology, basic word order in transitive clauses is subject–object–verb. Subordination of clauses is done by the use of special subordinate moods, a so-called fourth-person category enables switch-reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects. However, some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic does mark future tense obligatorily, another question is whether the language has noun incorporation, or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature. When adopting new concepts or technologies, Greenlandic usually constructs new words made from Greenlandic roots, the language has been written in the Latin script since Danish colonization began in the 1700s. The first orthography was developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt in 1851, an extensive orthographic reform undertaken in 1973 that made the script easier to learn resulted in a boost in Greenlandic literacy, which is now among the highest in the world. The Greenlandic language was brought to Greenland with the arrival of the Thule people in the 1200s and it is unknown which languages were spoken by the earlier Saqqaq and Dorset cultures in Greenland. The missionary Paul Egede wrote the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750, from the Danish colonization in the 1700s to the beginning of Greenlandic home rule in 1979, Greenlandic experienced increasing pressure from the Danish language. In the 1950s, Denmarks linguistic policies were directed at replacing Greenlandic with Danish, of primary significance was that post-primary education and official functions were conducted in Danish. From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic was written in a complicated orthography devised by the missionary linguist Samuel Kleinschmidt, in 1973, a new orthography was introduced, intended to bring the written language closer to the spoken standard, which had changed considerably since Kleinschmidts time. The reform was effective and in the following it, Greenlandic literacy received a boost. Another development that strengthened the Greenlandic language has been the policy of greenlandization of Greenlandic society which began with the agreement of 1979. This policy has worked to reverse the trend towards marginalization of the Greenlandic language by making it the official language of education. Today Greenlandic has several dedicated news media, the Greenlandic National Radio, Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa, before June 2009, Greenlandic shared its status as the official language in Greenland with Danish
8.
Cairn
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A cairn is a human-made pile of stones. The word cairn comes from the Scottish Gaelic, càrn, cairns have been and are used for a broad variety of purposes, from prehistoric times to the present. In modern times, cairns are often erected as landmarks, a use they have had since ancient times. Cairns are used as markers in many parts of the world, in uplands, on moorland, on mountaintops, near waterways and on sea cliffs, as well as in barren deserts. They vary in size from small stone markers to entire artificial hills, cairns may be painted or otherwise decorated, whether for increased visibility or for religious reasons. An ancient example is the inuksuk, used by the Inuit, Inupiat, Kalaallit, Yupik, inuksuit are found from Alaska to Greenland. This region, above the Arctic Circle, is dominated by the tundra biome and has areas with few natural landmarks, different types of cairns exist from rough piles of stones to interlocking dry stone round cylinders. The most important cairns commonly used around the world are interlocking stone survey cairns constructed around a central survey mark about every 30 km on the tallest peaks across a nation. These physical survey mark cairn systems by surveyors as the basis for national survey grids to interconnect individual land survey measurements for entire nations, on occasion these permanent interlocking stone cairns were taken down then reconstructed for survey mark for measurements to increase the accuracy of the national survey grid. They can also be used in unpopulated country as emergency location points, for example, the extensive trail network maintained by the DNT, the Norwegian Trekking Association, extensively uses cairns in conjunction with T-painted rock faces to mark trails. Other examples of these can be seen in the fields of Volcanoes National Park to mark several hikes. Placed at regular intervals, a series of cairns can be used to indicate a path across stony or barren terrain, such cairns are often placed at junctions or in places where the trail direction is not obvious. They may also be used to indicate an obscured danger such as a sudden drop, most trail cairns are small, usually being a foot or less in height. However, they may be built taller so as to protrude through a layer of snow, hikers passing by often add a stone, as a small bit of maintenance to counteract the erosive effects of severe weather. North American trail marks are sometimes called ducks or duckies, because they sometimes have a beak pointing in the direction of the route. The expression two rocks do not make a duck reminds hikers that just one rock resting upon another could be the result of accident or nature rather than intentional trail marking. The building of cairns for recreational purposes along trails, to ones personal passage through the area. This distracts from cairns used as navigational guides, and also conflicts with the Leave No Trace ethic
9.
Inuit
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Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
10.
Kalaallit
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Kalaallit make up the largest group among the Greenlandic Inuit, and are concentrated in Western Greenland. It is also a term in the Kalaallisut language for the indigenous people living in Greenland. The Kalaallit are a part of the Arctic Inuit people, the language spoken by Inuit in Greenland is Kalaallisut. Possibly adapted from the name Skræling, Kalaallit historically referred specifically to Western Greenlanders, on the other hand, Northern and Eastern Greenlanders call themselves Avanersuarmiut and Tunumiit, respectively. About 80% to 88% of Greenlands population, or approximately 44,000 to 50,000 people identify as being Inuit, Kalaallit are descended from the Thule people but probably not from their predecessors in Greenland, the Dorset people. As 84% of Greenlands landmass is covered by the Greenland ice sheet, in the 1850s some Canadian Inuit migrated to Greenland and joined the Polar Inuit communities. The Eastern Inuit, or Tunumiit, live in the area with the mildest climate, hunters can hunt marine mammals from kayaks throughout the year. The Northeast-Greenland Inuit are now extinct, douglas Charles Clavering met a group of twelve Inuit, including men, women and children in Clavering Island in August 1823. There are many remains of former Inuit settlements in different locations of the now desolate area, the Kalaallit have a strong artistic tradition based on sewing animal skins and making masks. They are also known for an art form of figures called tupilak, traditional art-making practices thrive in the Ammassalik. Sperm whale ivory remains a medium for carving. List of Greenlandic Inuit Demographics of Greenland History of Greenland Hessel, Ingo
11.
Yupik
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The Yupik are a group of indigenous or aboriginal peoples of western, southwestern, and southcentral Alaska and the Russian Far East. They are Eskimo and are related to the Inuit and Iñupiat peoples, US census data for Yupik include 2,355 Sugpiaq, there are also 1,700 Yupik living in Russia. Yupik comes from the Yupik word yuk meaning person plus the post-base -pik meaning real or genuine, thus, it means literally real people. The ethnographic literature sometimes refers to the Yupik people or their language as Yuk or Yuit, in the Hooper Bay-Chevak and Nunivak dialects of Yupik, both the language and the people are known as Cupik. The use of an apostrophe in the name Yup’ik, compared to Siberian Yupik, exemplifies the Central Yup’ik’s orthography, where the apostrophe represents gemination of the ‘p’ sound. Research on blood types, confirmed by later linguistic and DNA findings, suggests that the ancestors of American Indians reached North America before the ancestors of the Eskimo, the Siberian Yupik may represent a back-migration of the Eskimo people to Siberia from Alaska. Traditionally, families spent the spring and summer at fish camp, many families still harvest the traditional subsistence resources, especially Pacific salmon and seal. The mens communal house, the qasgiq, was the community center for ceremonies and festivals which included singing, dancing, the qasgiq was used mainly in the winter months, because people would travel in family groups following food sources throughout the spring, summer, and fall months. Aside from ceremonies and festivals, it was also where the men taught the young boys survival and hunting skills, the young boys were also taught how to make tools and qayaqs during the winter months in the qasgiq. The womens house, the ena, was right next door. In some areas they were connected by a tunnel, women taught the young girls how to tan hides and sew, process and cook game and fish, and weave. Boys would live with their mothers until they were five years old. The limited motion by no means limits the expressiveness of the dances, the Yupik are unique among native peoples of the Americas in that they name children after the last person in the community to have died. The kuspuk is a traditional Yupik garment, worn in casual and formal settings in Alaska. The seal-oil lamp was an important piece of furniture, the five Yupik languages are still very widely spoken, more than 75% of the Yupik/Yupik population are fluent in the language. The Alaskan and Siberian Yupik, like the Alaskan Inupiat, adopted the system of writing developed by Moravian Church missionaries during the 1760s in Greenland. The Alaskan Yupik and Inupiat are the only Northern indigenous peoples to have developed their own system of hieroglyphics, late nineteenth-century Moravian missionaries to the Yupik in southwestern Alaska used Yupik in church services, and translated the scriptures into the peoples language. Russian explorers in the 1800s erroneously called the Yupik people bordering the territory of the somewhat unrelated Aleut as also Aleut, or Alutiiq, in Yupik
12.
Arctic
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The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
13.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
14.
Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
15.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
16.
Greenland
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Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century, Greenland is the worlds largest island. Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480, it is the least densely populated country in the world, the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements. Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada, Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century. The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, soon after their demise, beginning in 1499, the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island, naming it Terra do Lavrador. In the early 18th century, Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again, to strengthen trading and power, Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island. Greenland was settled by Vikings more than a thousand years ago, Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland, discovering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached Caribbean islands. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262, the Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century. Thus, the two kingdoms resources were directed at creating Copenhagen, Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814, and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, in 1973, Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark. However, in a referendum in 1982, a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985, Greenland contains the worlds largest and most northernly national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq, Kujalleq, Qaasuitsup and it also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources, the capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. At 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, the early Viking settlers named the island as Greenland. In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian-born Icelander Erik the Red was said to be exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, along with his extended family and his thralls, he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest. After finding an area and settling there, he named it Grœnland
17.
Arctic Circle
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The Arctic Circle is the most northerly of the abstract five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of the Earth. The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic, the position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed, as of 7 April 2017, it runs 66°33′46. 6″ north of the Equator. Its latitude depends on the Earths axial tilt, which fluctuates within a margin of 2° over a 40, 000-year period, consequently, the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 15 m per year. The word arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός and that from the word ἄρκτος, directly on the Arctic Circle these events occur, in principle, exactly once per year, at the June and December solstices, respectively. That is true at sea level, those limits increase with elevation above sea level, tens of thousands of years ago, waves of people migrated from eastern Siberia across the Bering Strait into North America to settle. Much later, in the period, there has been migration into some Arctic areas by Europeans. The largest communities north of the Arctic Circle are situated in Russia and Norway, Murmansk, Norilsk, Tromsø, rovaniemi in Finland is the largest settlement in the immediate vicinity of the Arctic Circle, lying slightly south of the line. In contrast, the largest North American community north of the Arctic Circle, of the Canadian and United States Arctic communities, Barrow, Alaska is the largest settlement with about 4,000 inhabitants. The Arctic Circle is roughly 16,000 kilometres, the area north of the Circle is about 20,000,000 km2 and covers roughly 4% of Earths surface. The Arctic Circle passes through the Arctic Ocean, the Scandinavian Peninsula, North Asia, Northern America, the land within the Arctic Circle is divided among eight countries, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the United States, Canada, Denmark, and Iceland. In the interior, summers can be warm, while winters are extremely cold
18.
Tundra
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In physical geography, tundra is a type of biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра from the Kildin Sami word tūndâr uplands, there are three types of tundra, Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic tundra. In tundra, the vegetation is composed of shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses. Scattered trees grow in tundra regions. The ecotone between the tundra and the forest is known as the line or timberline. Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt, the word tundra usually refers only to the areas where the subsoil is permafrost, or permanently frozen soil. Permafrost tundra includes vast areas of northern Russia and Canada, the polar tundra is home to several peoples who are mostly nomadic reindeer herders, such as the Nganasan and Nenets in the permafrost area. Arctic tundra contains areas of landscape and is frozen for much of the year. The soil there is frozen from 25–90 cm down, and it is impossible for trees to grow, instead, bare and sometimes rocky land can only support low growing plants such as moss, heath, and lichen. There are two seasons, winter and summer, in the polar tundra areas. During the winter it is cold and dark, with the average temperature around −28 °C. However, extreme temperatures on the tundra do not drop as low as those experienced in taiga areas further south. During the summer, temperatures rise somewhat, and the top layer of seasonally-frozen soil melts, the tundra is covered in marshes, lakes, bogs and streams during the warm months. Generally daytime temperatures during the rise to about 12 °C. Arctic tundras are sometimes the subject of conservation programs. In Canada and Russia, many of areas are protected through a national Biodiversity Action Plan. Tundra tends to be windy, with winds often blowing upwards of 50–100 km/h, however, in terms of precipitation, it is desert-like, with only about 15–25 cm falling per year. Although precipitation is light, evaporation is also relatively minimal, there is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain
19.
Biome
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A biome /ˈbaɪoʊm/ is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the environment they exist in, and can be found over a range of continents. Spanning continents, biomes are distinct biological communities that have formed in response to a shared physical climate, biome is a broader term than habitat, any biome can comprise a variety of habitats. While a biome can cover large ares, a microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist in a space as well. For example, the microbiome is the collection of bacteria, viruses. The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere, the term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for biotic community of Möbius. In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, the International Biological Program projects popularized the concept of biome. However, in contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. Both includes many biomes in fact and their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them. A1978 study on North American grasslands found a positive correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge’s bioclassification scheme, Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called humidity provinces, which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important and his scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridges, more readily accessible, but missing Holdridges greater specificity. Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling and he was in a unique position to make such a holistic assertion because he had previously compiled a review of biome classifications. Physiognomy, the apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of communities or species. Biome, a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a continent that are similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment. Formation, a kind of community of plants on a given continent. Biome-type, grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, whittakers distinction between biome and formation can be simplified, formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittakers convention of biome-type or formation-type is simply a method to categorize similar communities. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm, changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists
20.
Veneration
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Veneration, or veneration of saints, is the act of honoring a saint, a person who has been identified as having a high degree of sanctity or holiness. Angels are shown similar veneration in many religions, philologically, to venerate derives from the Latin verb, venerare, meaning to regard with reverence and respect. Veneration of saints is practiced, formally or informally, by adherents of some branches of all religions, including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Islam. The practice of veneration is deemed heretical by iconoclastic denominations, Hinduism has a long tradition of veneration of saints, expressed toward various gurus and teachers of sanctity, both living and dead. Branches of Buddhism include formal liturgical worship of saints, with Mahayana Buddhism classifying degrees of sainthood, other sects, such as Wahhabists etc. abhor the practice. In Judaism, there is no classical or formal recognition of saints, in some regions, for example within Judaism in Morocco, there is a long and widespread tradition of saint veneration. Both main branches of Buddhism, Theravada and Mahayana, recognize those who have achieved a degree of enlightenment as an Arhat. Mahayana Buddhism particularly gives emphasis to the power of saints to aid ordinary people on the path to enlightenment and those who have reached enlightenment, and have delayed their own complete enlightenment in order to help others, are called Bodhisattvas. Mahayana Buddhism has formal liturgical practices for venerating saints, along with specific levels of sainthood. Tibetan Buddhists venerate especially holy lamas, such as the Dalai Lama, veneration towards those who were considered holy began in early Christianity, with the martyrs first being given special honor. Official church commemoration of saints in Rome beginning as early as the third century, over time, the honor also began to be given to those Christians who lived lives of holiness and sanctity. Various denominations venerate and determine saints in different ways, with some having a formal canonization or glorification process, in Roman Catholic and Orthodox theology, veneration is a type of honor distinct from the adoration due to God alone. It is the manifestation of submission, and acknowledgement of dependence, appropriately shown towards the excellence of a divine person. It is the worship of the Creator that God alone deserves, veneration, known as dulia in classical theology, is the honor and reverence appropriately due to the excellence of a created person. Excellence exhibited by created beings likewise deserves recognition and honor and we see a general example of veneration in events like the awarding of academic awards for excellence in school, or the awarding of olympic medals for excellence in sports. There is nothing contrary to the adoration of God when we offer the appropriate honor. We must make a further clarification regarding the use of the term “worship” in relation to the categories of adoration and veneration, historically, schools of theology have used the term “worship” as a general term which included both adoration and veneration. They would distinguish between “worship of adoration” and “worship of veneration. ”The word “worship” was not synonymous with adoration, hence Catholic sources will sometimes use the term “worship” not to indicate adoration, but only the worship of veneration given to Mary and the saints
21.
Drift fence
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A drift fence is any long, continuous fence used to control the movement of animals in a particular open range, or to collect animals for research. Drift fences were used in the Texas Panhandle from 1882 to 1887 to control cattle drift—the winter migration of livestock to warmer territory, long sections of barbed wire fence were built by ranchers to keep the cattle from moving to the southern part of the state. This fence was disastrous for the animals during the winter of 1886-87, deep snow covered the grasslands, and the fence prevented the herds from migrating to greener pastures. As a result, the cattle froze to death along the fences, some 75 percent perished during the winter. The drift fence in Texas was built to hold back cattle from Oklahoma, Colorado and it was strung along the northern boundary of each ranch. The fence extended for two hundred miles in Texas, with a gate every three miles, as a result of the 1887 blizzard, Texas in 1889 passed a law prohibiting fencing of public property, and the fence was removed in 1890. Charles Goodnight Fence Cutting Wars JA Ranch Pitfall trap Everett, Dianna, encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Wheeler, David L. Panhandle Drift Fences, from open range to total enclosure Selected essays on barbed wire
22.
Reindeer
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This includes both sedentary and migratory populations. While overall widespread and numerous, some of its subspecies are rare, for this reason, it is considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN. Reindeer vary considerably in colour and size, both sexes can grow antlers annually, although the proportion of females that grow antlers varies greatly between population and season. Antlers are typically larger on males, hunting of wild reindeer and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer are important to several Arctic and Subarctic peoples. In traditional festive legend, Santa Clauss reindeer pull a sleigh through the sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve. The name Rangifer, which Carl Linnaeus chose for the genus, was used by Albertus Magnus in his De animalibus. This word may go back to a Saami word raingo, for the origin of the word tarandus, which Linnaeus chose as the specific epithet, he made reference to Ulisse Aldrovandis Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum historia fol. However, Aldrovandi – and before him Konrad Gesner – thought that rangifer, in any case, the tarandos name goes back to Aristotle and Theophrastus – see In history below. Because of its importance to many cultures, Rangifer tarandus and some of its subspecies have names in many languages, the name rein is of Norse origin. The Finnish name poro may also stem from the same, the word deer was originally broader in meaning, but became more specific over time. In Middle English, der meant a wild animal of any kind. Cognates of Old English dēor in other dead Germanic languages have the sense of animal, such as Old High German tior, Old Norse djúr or dýr, Gothic dius, Old Saxon dier. The name caribou comes, through French, from Mikmaq qalipu, meaning snow shoveler, in Inuktitut, spoken in eastern Arctic North America, the caribou is known by the name tuktu. In the western North American Arctic, the used by the Iñupiat is tuttu. Across the range of a species, individuals may display considerable morphological, genetic, COSEWIC developed Designated Unit attribution to add to classifications already in use. The species taxonomic name Rangifer tarandus was defined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the subspecies taxonomic name, Rangifer tarandus caribou was defined by Gmelin in 1788. Based on Banfields often-cited A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer, R. t. caboti, R. t. osborni and R. t. terraenovae were considered invalid and included in R. t. caribou. Some recent authorities have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct and he affirms that true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention
23.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
24.
Missionary
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A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
25.
Baffin Island
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Baffin Island, in the Canadian territory of Nunavut, is the largest island in Canada and the fifth largest island in the world. Its area is 507,451 km2 and its population is about 11,000 and it is located 65.4215 N and 70.9654 W. Iqaluit, the capital of Nunavut, is located on the southeastern coast. Until 1987, the town shared the name Frobisher Bay with the bay on which it is located, to the south lies Hudson Strait, separating Baffin Island from mainland Quebec. South of the end of the island is the Fury. To the east are Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, with Greenland beyond, the Foxe Basin, the Gulf of Boothia and Lancaster Sound separate Baffin Island from the rest of the archipelago to the west and north. The Baffin Mountains run along the shore of the island and are a part of the Arctic Cordillera. Mount Odin is the highest peak, with an elevation of at least 2,143 m, another peak of note is Mount Asgard, located in Auyuittuq National Park, with an elevation of 2,011 m. Mount Thor, with an elevation of 1,675 m, is said to have the greatest purely vertical drop of any mountain on Earth, the two largest lakes on the island lie in the south-central part of the island, Nettilling Lake and Amadjuak Lake further south. Conversely, in the 1970s parts of Baffin Island failed to have the usual ice-free period in the summer, the island has been continuously inhabited by Inuit peoples for centuries. In September 2008, Nunatsiaq News reported that a team led by Dr, so you have to consider the possibility that as remote as it may seem, these finds may represent evidence of contact with Europeans prior to the Vikings arrival in Greenland. Dr Sutherlands research eventually led to a 2012 announcement that whetstones had been found remnants of alloys indicative of Viking presence. The archaeological site at Tanfield Valley is thought to have been a trading post, Baffin Island is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region. Additionally, the communities of Qikiqtarjuaq and Cape Dorset are located on offshore islands, there are discussions to start the Baffinland Iron Mine, an iron ore mine with a 21-year life, at Mary River, and to build a railway and a port to transport the ore. This may create a mining community there. Baffin Island has both year-round and summer visitor wildlife, on land, examples of year-round wildlife are barren-ground caribou, polar bear, Arctic fox, Arctic hare, lemming and Arctic wolf. In 2012, a survey of caribou herds found that the population was only about 5000. Polar bears mate approximately every year with one to three cubs being born around March. Female polar bears may travel 10–20 km inland to find a large snow bank where they dig a den in which to spend the winter and later for giving birth, the polar bear population here is one of 19 genetically distinct demes of the circumpolar region
26.
National Historic Sites of Canada
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Parks Canada, a federal agency, manages the National Historic Sites program. As of 2016, there are 976 National Historic Sites,171 of which are administered by Parks Canada, the sites are located across all ten provinces and three territories, with two sites located in France. There are related federal designations for National Historic Persons and National Historic Events, Sites, Events, and Persons are each typically marked by a federal plaque, but the markers do not indicate which designation a subject has been given. The Rideau Canal is a National Historic Site, while the Welland Canal is a National Historic Event, emerging Canadian nationalist sentiment in the late 19th century and early 20th century led to an increased interest in preserving Canadas historic sites. There were galvanizing precedents in other countries, in the United Kingdom, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was created in 1894 to protect that countrys historic and natural heritage. Domestically, Lord Dufferin, the Governor General from 1872 to 1878, initiated some of the earliest, high-profile efforts to preserve Canadas historic sites. He was instrumental in stopping the demolition of the fortifications of Quebec City, at the same time, the federal government was looking for ways to extend the National Park system to Eastern Canada. In 1914, the Parks Branch undertook a survey of sites in Canada. Fort Howe in Saint John, New Brunswick was designated a historic park in 1914. The fort was not a site of significant national historic importance, Fort Anne in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia was also designated in 1917. At the same time, the Department of Militia and Defence was anxious to transfer old forts, harkin, the first Commissioner of Dominion Parks, to develop a departmental heritage policy. On Harkins recommendation, the government created the Advisory Board for Historic Site Preservation in 1919 in order to advise the Minister on a new program of National Historic Sites. Brigadier General Ernest Alexander Cruikshank, an authority on the War of 1812 and the history of Ontario, was chosen as the Boards first chairman. Due to a lack of resources, the HSMBC limited itself to recommending sites for designation, of the 285 National Historic Sites designated by 1943,105 represented military history,52 represented the fur trade and exploration, and 43 represented famous individuals. There was also a strong bias in favour of commemorating sites in Ontario over other parts of the country, at one point, some members of the HSMBC concluded that there were no sites at all in Prince Edward Island worthy of designation. Lawrence, and in Niagara, promoting a loyalist doctrine of unity with Britain. Proposals to designate sites related to the immigration of Jews, Blacks and Ukrainians to Canada were rejected, such was the view of Canadian history by the Board in the first half of the 20th century. As time passed and the system grew, the scope of the program, by the 1930s, the focus of the heritage movement in Canada had shifted from commemoration to preservation and development
27.
Canadian Aboriginal syllabics
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Canadian Aboriginal syllabic writing, or simply syllabics, is a family of abugidas used to write a number of Aboriginal Canadian languages of the Algonquian, Inuit, and Athabaskan language families. Canadian syllabics are used to write all of the Cree languages from Naskapi to the Rocky Mountains, including Eastern Cree, Woods Cree, Swampy Cree. They are also used to write Inuktitut in the eastern Canadian Arctic and they are used regionally for the other large Canadian Algonquian language, Ojibwe in Western Canada, as well as for Blackfoot, where they are obsolete. Among the Athabaskan languages further to the west, syllabics have been used at one point or another to write Dakelh, Chipewyan, Slavey, Tłı̨chǫ, syllabics have occasionally been used in the United States by communities that straddle the border, but are principally a Canadian phenomenon. In Cree, for example, the consonant p has the shape of a chevron, in an upward orientation, ᐱ, it transcribes the syllable pi. Inverted, so that it points downwards, ᐯ, it transcribes pe, pointing to the left, ᐸ, it is pa, and to the right, ᐳ, po. The consonant forms and the vowels so represented vary from language to language, *The obsolete sp- series, which is not supported by Unicode, is here represented by Latin and Cyrillic letters, there is no good substitution for spi. The clockwise 90° rotation relates vowels as the later series sh- does, because the script is presented in syllabic charts and learned as a syllabary, it is often considered to be such. This is unlike a syllabary, where each combination of consonant. All were written with a line to show the vowel was short. These were originally written midline, but are now superscripted, the consonants -l and -r were marginal, only found in borrowings, baby talk, and the like. These, and -h, could occur before vowels, but were written with the final shape regardless, the vowels fall into two sets, the back vowels -a and -o, and the front vowels -e and -i. Each set consists of a vowel, -a or -e. In all cases, back-vowel syllables are related through left-right reflection, how they relate to front-vowel syllables depends on the graphic form of the consonants. Symmetrical, vowel, p-, t-, sp-, are rotated 90 degrees counter-clockwise, while those that are asymmetrical top-to-bottom, c-, k-, m-, n-, s-, y-, are rotated 180 degrees. The lower front-vowel syllables are derived this way from the low back-vowel syllables, for example, all scripts except the one for Blackfoot use the triangle for vowel-initial syllables. By 1841, when Evans cast the first movable type for syllabics and he instead filed across the raised lines of the type, leaving gaps in the printed letter for long vowels. This can be seen in early printings, later still a dot diacritic, originally used for vowel length only in handwriting, was extended to print, Thus today ᐊ a contrasts with ᐋ â, and ᒥ mi contrasts with ᒦ mî
28.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
29.
Kuujjuarapik
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Kuujjuarapik is the southernmost northern village at the mouth of the Great Whale River on the coast of Hudson Bay in Nunavik, Quebec, Canada. About 800 people, mostly Cree, live in the adjacent village of Whapmagoostui, the community is only accessible by air and, in late summer, by boat. The nearest Inuit village is Umiujaq, about 160 kilometres north-northwest of Kuujjuarapik, like most other northern villages in Quebec, there is an Inuit reserved land of the same name, Kuujjuarapik. On maps of 1851 and 1854, the post is called Whale River House, protestant and Catholic missions settled there in the 1880s. In 1895, a station was set up by the Federal Government. Medical and police began to be offered in the first half of the 20th century. However, the census taker notes of this number, I should say it does not represent one-third of the Eskimos. In the late 1930s, the Inuit gave up their way of life. In 1940, the American army opened an air base here, using Inuit. In 1941, the HBC post closed, after the World War II in 1948, the military base was transferred to the Canadian government. And in 1955, it operating a Mid-Canada Line radar station. Though the radar station was not operational for long and closed in 1965, when the village was incorporated, it officially adopted its current name, a name the Inuit had already been using for some time to designate this place. A large portion of the Inuit moved there in 1986, causing the population of Kuujjuarapik to drop significantly. e, year-round, climatic conditions are influenced strongly by Hudson Bays freeze-thaw cycle. January is the coldest month on average, August, the warmest, as such, compared to most Northern Hemisphere sub-Arctic climates, Kuujjuarapik demonstrates a strong tendency favoring a relatively drier spring and relatively wetter autumn. This pattern is a consequence of Kuujjuarapiks location on the lee shore of Hudson Bay. Similar to a pattern evident in heavily lake-influenced areas around the U. S, Great Lakes, in spring and early summer, water temperatures are cooler than those of surrounding land areas, encouraging low clouds and fog, but also stable conditions and less precipitation. Kuujjuarapik official site Whapmagoostui official site Community Site Article about the community
30.
Foxe Peninsula
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Foxe Peninsula is a peninsula found at the southern end of Baffin Island in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada. It juts out from the end of the island in a southwestly direction, dividing Foxe Basin. Its western extremity is Cape Queen, to the southeast lies the Inuit hamlet of Cape Dorset, inuksuk Point at the western coast contains more than 100 inuksuit. The peninsula is 241 km long and 80 km to 161 km wide, the peninsula is named for the English explorer Luke Foxe
31.
Nunavik
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Nunavik comprises the northern third of the province of Quebec, Canada in Kativik, part of the Nord-du-Québec region. Covering a land area of 443,684.71 km2 north of the 55th parallel, Nunavik means great land in the local dialect of Inuktitut and the Inuit inhabitants of the region call themselves Nunavimmiut. Until 1912, the region was part of the District of Ungava of the Northwest Territories, negotiations for regional autonomy and resolution of outstanding land claims took place in the 2000s. The seat of government would be Kuujjuaq, negotiations on better empowering Inuit political rights in their land are still ongoing. A flag for Nunavik was proposed by Nunavik artist and graphic designer Thomassie Mangiok during an April 2013 Plan Nunavik consultation in Ivujivik, the proposal was announced in the meeting and then through Nunatsiaq News, the explanation of design was also made available on YouTube. Nunavik is a vast territory, larger than the U. S. state of California and it lies in both the Arctic and subarctic climate zones. All together, about 12,000 people live in Nunaviks communities, Nunavik is separated from the territory of Nunavut by Hudson Bay to the west and Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay to the north. Nunavik shares a border with the Côte-Nord region of Quebec and the Labrador region of the province of Newfoundland, the Ungava Peninsula forms the northern two-thirds of the region. Nunavik has fourteen villages, the vast majority of residents are Inuit. The village population ranges from 2,375 to 195, there is a year-round air link to all villages and seasonal shipping in the summer and autumn. Parts of the interior of southern Nunavik can be reached using several trails which head north from Schefferville, there are three meteor craters in Nunavik, Pingualuit crater, Couture crater, and La Moinerie crater. The climate of Nunavik is a severe one dominated by the long, since this moderation exists in summer when the surrounding sea thaws, even those temperatures are subdued. Inukjuak for example has summer highs averaging just 13 °C with January highs of −21 °C and this is exceptionally cold for a sea-level settlement more than 1/3 from the North Pole en route to the Equator. Annual temperatures are up to 15 °C colder than marine areas of Northern Europe on similar parallels, areas less affected by summertime marine moderation have somewhat warmer temperatures and unlike the west coast, features marginal taiga due to summers being warmer than 10 °C in mean temperatures. Federal government geopolitical manoeuvrings forced several Inuit families to leave Nunavik in the 1950s, eight Inuit families from Inukjuak were relocated after being promised homes and game to hunt, but the relocated people discovered no buildings and very little familiar wildlife. Eventually, the Inuit learned the local beluga whale migration routes and were able to survive in the area, in 1993, the Canadian government held hearings to investigate the relocation program. The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued a report the year entitled The High Arctic Relocation. The government paid $10 million CAD to the survivors and their families, the whole story is told in Melanie McGraths The Long Exile, A Tale of Inuit Betrayal and Survival in the High Arctic
32.
Inuit phonology
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Most Inuit varieties have fifteen consonants and three vowel qualities. Although Inupiatun and Qawiaraq have retroflex consonants, retroflexes have otherwise disappeared in all the Canadian, almost all dialects of Inuktitut have only three basic vowels and make a phonemic distinction between short and long vowels. In Inuujingajut long vowels are written as a double vowel, thus, the common Inuktitut word for water – imiq – is emeq in Qawiaraq. Furthermore, many diphthongs in the Alaskan dialects have merged, suggesting the beginnings of a new more complex vowel scheme with more than three distinct vowels and this phenomenon is particularly noticeable in the Kobuk area, where the diphthongs /ua/ and /au/ are now both pronounced. In contrast to the number of vowel contrasts in Alaskan dialects, in the dialect of northwest Greenland. Otherwise, the scheme described above holds for all of the Inuktitut dialects. West Greenlandic vowels have a wide range of allophones, /a/ varies between, and. The last allophone appears before and especially between uvulars, the last allophone appears before and especially between uvulars. The last allophone appears before and especially between uvulars, the Nunavut dialects of Inuktitut have fifteen distinct consonants, though some have more. Notes, /ʂ/ and /ʐ/ appear only in Inupiatun, everywhere else it has merged with /j/, it is not written with a separate letter. /ɡ/ is realized as voiced fricative in Siglitun. In other dialects, this realization may also be found between vowels or vowels and approximants, /ʁ/ assimilates to preceding nasal consonants by being realized as a uvular nasal. It is written ⟨r⟩ in Inuujingajut orthography, primary stress is said to fall on the last syllable of each word. In Inuktitut, intonation is important in distinguishing some words – particularly interrogatives –, there are some minimal pairs in Inuktitut where only pitch distinguishes between two different words, but they are rare enough that context usually disambiguates them in writing. One common case, however is suva, a high pitch on the first syllable followed by a falling pitch on the second syllable means What did you say. A middle pitch on the first syllable followed by a pitch on the second means What did he do. In general, Inuktitut uses intonation to mark questions in much the way English does, when an interrogative pronoun is used, pitch falls at the end of a question. When there is no interrogative pronoun, pitch rises on the last syllable, Inuktitut speakers tend to lengthen vowels with a rising intonation
33.
Politics of Canada
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The politics of Canada function within a framework of parliamentary democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Canada is a monarchy, in which the Monarch is head of state. The country has a multi-party system in many of its legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of. Such members, in the government caucus, and junior or lower-profile members of opposition caucuses, are known as backbenchers, backbenchers can, however, exert their influence by sitting in parliamentary committees, like the Public Accounts Committee or the National-Defence Committee. Smaller parties like the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada have also been able to exert their own influence over the political process, far-right politics has never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Thus in 1931, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster, giving recognition to the autonomy of Canada. Similarly, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain continued to make the decision on criminal appeals until 1933. Name Canada Type of government Westminster style federal parliamentary democracy within a constitutional monarchy, National holiday Canada Day, July 1. Constitution Westminster system, based on unwritten conventions and written legislation, suffrage Citizens aged 18 years or older. Only two adult citizens in Canada cannot vote, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer, the Governor General is eligible to vote, but abstains due to constitutional convention. Citizens residing outside of Canada for a greater than 5 years are excluded from voting beginning 2015. Description of national flag A red maple leaf centred on a Canadian pale, head of state Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada. Viceroy David Lloyd Johnston, Governor General of Canada, head of government Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. Cabinet Ministers chosen by the Prime Minister and appointed by the Governor General to lead various ministries and agencies, the Governor General is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister for a non-specific term, though it is traditionally approximately five years. Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is usually designated by the Governor General to become Prime Minister, the bicameral Parliament of Canada consists of three parts, the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Commons. Currently, the Senate, which is described as providing regional representation, has 105 members appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister to serve until age 75. It was created with equal representation from each of Ontario, Quebec, the Maritime region, however, it is currently the product of various specific exceptions, additions and compromises, meaning that regional equality is not observed, nor is representation-by-population. The normal number of senators can be exceeded by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, the House of Commons currently has 338 members elected in single-member districts in a plurality voting system, meaning that members must attain only a plurality rather than a majority
34.
Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada
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Its headquarters are in Terrasses de la Chaudière, in downtown Gatineau, Quebec. First Nation, has used since the 1970s instead of the word Indian. The term Indian is used for legal and historical documents such as Status Indians as defined by the Indian Act, for example, the term Indian continues to be used in the historical and legal document, the Canadian Constitution and federal statutes. The word means people in the Inuit language — Inuktitut, the singular of Inuit is Inuk. Eskimo is found in documents about Canadian Inuit. The term Aboriginal is commonly used referring to the three groups of indigenous peoples as a whole. It is also used by Aboriginal people who live within Canada who claim rights of sovereignty or Aboriginal title to lands, the department is overseen by the Minister of Indigenous and Northern Affairs. The current minister, since November 2015, is Carolyn Bennett, the last minister under the Conservative government that lost the 2015 federal election was Bernard Valcourt. James Moore acted in the position between Valcourt and the previous minister John Duncan, iNACs responsibilities are largely determined by numerous statutes, negotiated agreements and relevant legal decisions. Most of the Departments programs, representing a majority of its spending - are delivered through partnerships with Aboriginal communities, INAC also works with urban Indigenous people, Métis and Non-Status Indians. INAC also works with urban First Nations, Métis and Non-Status Indians through the Office of the Federal Interlocutor, INAC also manages the resources and lands of federal lands, including land and subsurface leases and resource royalties. In 1755, the British Crown established the British Indian Department, the Indian Governors General held control of Indian Affairs, but usually delegated much of their responsibility to a series of Civil Secretaries. The responsibility for Indian Affairs and Northern Development rested with various government departments between 1873 and 1966, the Minister of the Interior also held the position of Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs after the Indian Affairs Department was established in 1880. In 1939, federal jurisdiction for Indian peoples was interpreted by the courts to apply to the Inuit, a revised Indian Act was passed in 1951. From 1950 to 1965, the Indian Affairs portfolio was carried by the Minister of Citizenship, on October 1,1966, the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development was created as a result of the Government Organization Act,1966. Effective June 13,2011, the department began using the applied title Aboriginal Affairs, when the Department of the Interior dissolved in 1936, Indian Affairs fell under the purview of the Department of Mines and Resources. This became the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development in 1966, under the Federal Identity Program, the department is known as Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada. Beginning in the early 20th century, the Canadian government sponsored annual expeditions to the Canadian North and these expeditions yielded extensive photographic documentation of the lives of northern indigenous peoples by participating explorers, engineers, scientists and medical staff
35.
Hammer of Thor (monument)
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60°0′14″N 70°26′10″W The Hammer of Thor is a 3.3 metres tall, t-shaped, man-made rock formation, located along the Arnaud River in the Ungava Peninsula, Quebec, Canada. It was discovered in 1964 by an archaeologist who thought it was erected by Vikings and he named it The Hammer of Thor, in reference to the hammer-wielding Thor of Norse culture. Today some scholars believe that it is likely to be an artifact of Inuit culture. The Hammer of Thor consists of three rocks stacked on top of each other—a vertical shaft, a piece, and a capstone. The vertical column, or shaft, measures about 8 feet tall, the piece is about 4.5 feet long. The entire monument stands about 3.3 metres high, and has estimated to weigh about 4,000 pounds. It is located on the bank of the Arnaud River, about 15 miles above Payne Bay, near the western coast of Ungava Bay, in the Ungava Peninsula, Quebec. The monument was discovered in 1964 by archaeologist Thomas E. Lee and it had been standing for many years, and no one in the area knew who had erected it. Inuit tradition held that it predated their arrival in the area, Lee considered it to be European in appearance, and considered it to be proof that the Norse inhabited the Ungava region about a thousand years before. Lee thought it looked like a hammer and named the monument The Hammer of Thor, given growing knowledge about and appreciation for Inuit culture, contemporary scholars believe this work is as likely to be an inuksuk, a stone landmark, erected by Inuit. Inuksuk - a man-made stone landmark or cairn, used by the Inuit, Inupiat, Kalaallit, Yupik, and other peoples of the Arctic region of North America, from Alaska to Greenland
36.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
37.
Flag of Nunavut
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The official flag of Nunavut was proclaimed on 1 April,1999, along with the territory of Nunavut in Canada. It features a red inuksuk—a traditional Inuit land marker—and a blue star, which represents the Niqirtsuituq, the North Star, the colours blue and yellow represent the riches of the land, sea and sky. It was adopted following a process where input was sought from local communities, the flag of the Canadian territory of Nunavut consists of gold and white fields divided vertically by a red inuksuk with a blue star in the upper fly. The colours blue and gold were selected to represent the riches of land, sea, the inuksuk, which divides the flag, is a traditional stone monument used to guide travellers and to mark sacred sites. The process of creating a flag for Nunavut began prior to its creation as a territory in 1999, in deference to the elders of the Inuit communities of Nunavut, the development of both the Nunavut flag and coat of arms was guided by their input. The process sought to give the public an opportunity to offer input into the colours, the group then put out a call for submissions across all of Canada, and received over 800. These submissions were reviewed and winnowed by a made up of artists. From the symbols and colours of these ten finalists, five draft designs of the flag were developed and they were assisted in drafting these by local Inuit artist Andrew Qappik. The final version of the flag was reviewed and accepted by the responsible for its adoption as well as the Governor General of Canada. It was officially unveiled on 1 April 1999, the day both the territory and government of Nunavut became official. Following its adoption, the flag has been criticized for vexillological reasons, symbols of Nunavut Coat of arms of Nunavut Arms and flag of Nunavut in the online Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges
38.
David Ruben Piqtoukun
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David Ruben Piqtoukun is an Inuit artist from Paulatuk, Northwest Territories. His output includes sculpture and prints, the work is innovative in its use of mixed media. His materials and imagery bring together modern and traditional Inuit stylistic elements in a personal vision, an example of this is his work The Passage of Time, which portrays a shaman in the form of a salmon moving through a hole in a hand. While shamanic imagery is common in much of Inuit art, the hand in work is sheet metal, not a traditional material such as walrus ivory. Rubens brother, Abraham Apakark Anghik Ruben, is also a sculptor, fellow Inuit artist Floyd Kuptana learned sculpting techniques as an apprentice to David Ruben. 2000 - appointed to the Sculptors Society of Canada, MASTERS OF THE ARCTIC, An Exhibition of Contemporary Inuit Masterworks
39.
Embassy of Canada, Washington, D.C.
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The Embassy of Canada in Washington, D. C. is Canadas main diplomatic mission to the United States. The embassy building is at 501 Pennsylvania Avenue, Northwest, Washington, in addition to its diplomatic role, the Embassy handles consular services and assists with international business development for the surrounding states of Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland. Today, the house is the Embassy of Uzbekistan, by 1969, the chancery had spread across three buildings and could not accommodate additional staff. At the same time, the federally chartered Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation was looking to revitalize the avenue, in 1978, the Canadian government purchased a vacant lot on Pennsylvania for $5 million. The site had been a Ford dealership and a public library, the six floor building was demolished before it was purchased by Canada. The Embassy was officially opened by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney on May 3,1989, the building houses approximately 265 Canadian diplomatic and locally engaged staff. Canada has the embassy closest to the Capitol and is the country to have its embassy along the Presidential inaugural route between the Capitol and the White House. The Washington bureau of the Fox News Channel is a distance away - its studio is positioned such that the Canadian flag of the embassy is usually visible out the window during broadcasts. The Embassy of Canada hosts numerous events throughout the year for visiting ministers as well as for a range of diplomatic, military. The new building was designed by British Columbias Arthur Erickson, recognized as one of Canada’s most decorated architects, Erickson tried to evoke a sense of Canada in the architecture of the building, using long horizontals, wide open spaces and water features. The seal above the Rotunda’s entranceway represents the territory of Nunavut, the Rotunda is also an echo chamber, noise is reflected and focused back, though this magnified volume is only appreciated by the person at the Rotunda’s centre. Surrounding the rotunda is a waterfall, incorporated by the architect to represent Niagara Falls, in the words of former U. S. Monumental in its appearance, it also I think conveys the warmth and your new home here in the centre of our new capital along an avenue which is steeped in the history of American democracy between the White House and the Congress. The Embassy also currently has several arctic-themed works that are on loan from TD Bank, the Foreign Affairs Fine Art Collection contains Canadian art for use in Embassies and Official Residences abroad. By displaying Canadian art in this manner, the assists in the promotion of Canadian culture abroad. The Canada Council Art Bank is a collection of Canadian art that is loaned to Canadian government departments, agencies, imperial Oil has lent the Embassy 10 works from their corporate collection, providing a regional perspective of Canadian art. Of particular note are the works “Heart of the Forest” by Emily Carr, casson’s piece “Morning near Whitefish Falls. ”The Scotiabank Corporate art collection is one of the leading corporate art collections in Canada, consisting of significant works of art by renowned Canadian contemporary artists. This includes photography by Edward Burtynsky and Geoffrey James and a silkscreen on paper by Christopher Pratt, the Embassy also has a small gallery set just off of the main foyer that showcases Canadian artists or Canada-themed exhibits
40.
Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
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Marie is a city on the St. Marys River in Ontario, Canada, close to the US-Canada border. It is the seat of the Algoma District and the third largest city in Northern Ontario, after Sudbury, to the south, across the river, is the United States and the city of Sault Ste. These two communities were one city until a new treaty after the War of 1812 established the border between Canada and the United States in this area at the St. Marys River. In the 21st century, the two cities are joined by the International Bridge, which connects Interstate 75 on the Michigan side, French colonists referred to the rapids on the river as Les Saults de Ste. Marie and the name was derived from that. The rapids and cascades of the St. Marys River descend more than 20 feet from the level of Lake Superior to the level of the lower lakes. Hundreds of years ago, this slowed shipping traffic, requiring a portage of boats. The entire name translates to Saint Marys Rapids or Saint Marys Falls, the word sault is pronounced in French, and /ˈsuː/ in the English pronunciation of the city name. Residents of the city are called Saultites, Marie is bordered to the east by the Rankin and Garden River First Nation reserves, and to the west by Prince Township. Native American settlements, mostly of Ojibwe-speaking peoples, existed here for more than 500 years, in the late 17th century, French Jesuit missionaries established a mission at the First Nations village. This was followed by development of a fur trading post and larger settlement, as traders, trappers and it was considered one community and part of Canada until after the War of 1812 and settlement of the border between Canada and the US at the Ste. The US prohibited British traders from operating in its territory, the historic Ojibwe, an Anishinaabe language people, originally called this area Baawitigong, meaning place of the rapids. They used this as a meeting place during whitefish season in the St. Marys Rapids. After the visit of Étienne Brûlé in 1623, the French called it Sault de Gaston in honour of Gaston, Duke of Orléans, in 1668, French Jesuit missionaries renamed it as Sault Sainte Marie, and established a mission settlement on the rivers south bank. Later, a fur trading post was established and the settlement expanded to both sides of the river. Marie is one of the oldest French settlements in North America and it was at the crossroads of the 3, 000-mile fur trade route, which stretched from Montreal to Sault Ste. Marie and to the North country above Lake Superior, a cosmopolitan, mixed population of Europeans, First Nations peoples, and Métis lived at the village spanning the river. The city name originates from Saults de Sainte-Marie, archaic French for Saint Marys Falls, etymologically, the word sault comes from an archaic spelling of saut, which translates most accurately in this usage to the English word cataract
41.
Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge
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Marie International Bridge spans the St. Marys River between the United States and Canada connecting the twin cities of Sault Ste. It serves as the terminus of Interstate 75. The International Bridge began construction in 1960 and officially opened to traffic on October 31,1962, daily operation is carried on by the International Bridge Administration under the supervision of the Sault Ste. The SSMBA replaced the previous Joint International Bridge Authority in 2009 and this is a steel truss arch bridge with suspended deck. There are two spans, a double arch span on the U. S. side and a single arch span on the Canadian side. The double arch spans cross the four U. S. Soo Locks, the single arch spans the single Canadian Lock. Marie, Ontario, the ends at a city street, Huron Street. The total length of the bridge approaches 2.8 miles, the Bridge allows bicycles to cross, but the lack of dedicated bike lanes requires cyclists to take proper precautions to ensure visibility. A tourist information station, CIRS, broadcast at 530 AM from the Ontario side of the bridge until 2010. In 1954 the state of Michigan created the International Bridge Authority, Canada followed in 1955, creating the St. Marys River Co. Beginning in 1987, an annual International Bridge Walk has been held on the last Saturday in June, starting on the Michigan side, with participants finishing in Ontario. On June 6,2005, the Ontario government announced a project to build a dedicated truck bypass route to connect the bridge to Highway 17 in the north end of the city. The truck route, known as Carmens Way in memory of the former federal MP Carmen Provenzano, was officially opened in September 2006. Beginning in May 2014, construction commenced on improvements to the plaza on the Michigan side of the bridge
42.
Coat of arms of Nunavut
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The coat of arms of the territory of Nunavut was granted by a warrant of Roméo LeBlanc, Governor General of Canada, dated 31 March 1999, one day before the territory of Nunavut, Canada, was created. The same document specified the flag of Nunavut, the symbol was designed in collaboration with Inuit elders, leaders, artists, groups, and the general population of the territory. Each symbol was chosen individually from the 800 submissions for the flag, five draft designs were created in collaboration between the heraldic artist at the Canadian Heraldic Authority and Andrew Qappik, an Inuit artist from Pangnirtung. In chief is a representation of the sun and of the North Star. Below are a qulliq, a lamp representing the warmth of home and community, and an inukshuk, a stone monument serving as a guidepost. The crest, an igloo, represents life, survival. It is ensigned with a crown representing royal sovereignty, the supporters, a caribou and narwhal, represent sustenance and natural resources of the land and sea. They stand on a compartment with Arctic poppies, dwarf fireweed, the motto, written in Inuktitut syllabary, is Nunavut Sannginivut. The letters patent, too, are unique, having been presented in English, French, Inuktitut
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Provinces and territories of Canada
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Canadas geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance. Over its history, Canadas international borders have changed several times, the ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, the three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the worlds second-largest country by area, the powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions, the territories are not sovereign, but simply part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the federal government. Notes, There are three territories in Canada, unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government. They include all of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, the following table lists the territories in order of precedence. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, over the following years, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were added as provinces. The Hudsons Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada referred to as Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870, subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The remaining Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880,1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1,1905, a portion of the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward, Manitobas to the 60° parallel, Ontarios to Hudson Bay, in 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status. In the middle of the Great Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a period of economic crisis. In 2001, it was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbias northwestern boundary. This was one of two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. In 1999, Nunavut was created from the portion of the Northwest Territories. Yukon lies in the portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east. All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 in land area and they are often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and economic purposes
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