1.
Aligarh
–
Aligarh is a city in the Northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of the Aligarh district. It lies 126 miles ) northwest of Kanpur and is approximately 90 miles southeast of the capital, notable as the seat of Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh is one of the largest cities in Uttar Pradesh as well as the 55th largest city in India. Before the 18th century, Aligarh was known as Kol, the history of the district up until the 12th century is obscure. In another account, Atkinson points out a legend that Kol was founded by the Dor tribe of Rajputs in 372 and this is further confirmed by an old fort, the ruined Dor fortress, which lies at the city centre. Some time before the Muslim invasion, Kol was held by the Dor Rajputs, at the time of Mahmud of Ghazni, the chief of the Dors was Hardatta of Baran. Statues of Buddha and other Buddhist remains have been found in excavations where the citadel of Koil stood, Hindu remains indicate that the citadel probably had a Hindu temple after the Buddhist temple. In 1194, Qutb-ud-din Aibak marched from Delhi to Kol, one of the most celebrated fortresses of Hind, Qutb-ud-din Aibak appointed Hisam-ud-din Ulbak as the first Muslim governor of Kol. Ibn Batuta calls Kol a fine town surrounded by mango groves, from these same groves the environs of Kol would appear to have acquired the name Sabzabad or the green country. In the reign of Akbar, Kol was made a Sirkar and included the dasturs of Marahra, Kol ba Haveli, Thana Farida, Akbar and Jahangir visited Kol on hunting expeditions. Jahangir clearly mentions the forest of Kol, where he killed wolves, during the time of Ibrahim Lodhi, Muhammad, son of Umar, was the governor of Kol. He built a fort at Kol and named the city Muhammadgarh, after himself, sabit Khan, who was then the governor of this region, of Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad Shah, rebuilt the old Lodhi fort and named the town after himself, Sabitgarh. The Jat ruler, Surajmal, with help from Jai Singh of Jaipur, Koil was renamed Ramgarh and finally, when a Shia commander, Najaf Khan, captured it, he gave it its present name of Aligarh. Aligarh Fort, as it today, was built by French engineers under the command of French officers Benoît de Boigne. The Battle of Aligarh was fought on 1 September 1803 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War at Aligarh Fort, the British 76th Regiment, now known as the Duke of Wellingtons Regiment besieged the fort, which was under the control of the French officer Perron, and established British rule. In 1804, the Aligarh district was formed by the union of the second, third and fourth British divisions with the addition of Anupshahr from Muradabad, on 1 August 1804, Claude Russell was appointed the first Collector of the new district. Aligarh district is divided into five tehsils, namely Kol Tehsil, Khair Tehsil, Atrauli, Gabhana and these tehsils are further divided into 12 blocks. The city is administered by Nagar Nigam Aligarh, which is responsible for performing civic administrative functions administered by Mayor, infrastructure development of the city is looked after by the Aligarh Development Authority administered by Divisional Commissioner and Vice-Chairman. Aligarh is the headquarters of Aligarh Police Range and Aligarh Division, a DIG looks after Aligarh for legal condition and law, a Commissioner looks for four district of Aligarh Division
Aligarh
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Moat at the
Aligarh Fort
Aligarh
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General
Lord Gerard Lake who oversaw the
Battle of Ally Ghur
Aligarh
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SS Masjid beside Strachey Hall, AMU Aligarh
2.
Aligarh Muslim University
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Aligarh Muslim University is a public central university. It was originally established by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan as Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875, the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. The main campus of AMU is located in the city of Aligarh, spread over 467.6 hectares, AMU offers more than 300 courses in both traditional and modern branches of education. In addition to this it has its three off-campus centres at Malappuram, Murshidabad and Kishanganj, the university comprises all castes, creeds, religions and genders, and is an Institute of National Importance provided under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution at its commencement. It was established as Madrasatul Uloom Musalmanan-e-Hind in 1875, the college started on 24 May 1875. The Anglo–Indian statesman Syed Ahmad Khan founded the predecessor of AMU, the movement of Muslim awakening associated with Syed Ahmad Khan and M. A. O. College came to be known as Aligarh Movement and he considered competence in English and Western sciences necessary skills for maintaining Muslims political influence, especially in Northern India. Khans image for the college was based on his visit to Oxford and Cambridge, a committee was formed by the name of foundation of Muslim College and asked people to fund generously. The, then, Viceroy and Governor General of India Lord Northbrook gave a donation of Rs 10000, Governor of the North Western Provinces contributed Rs 1000 and by March 1874 the fund for the college stood at Rs 153492 and 8 anas. In the beginning, the college was affiliated with the University of Calcutta for the matriculate examination, in 1877, the school was raised to college level and Lord Lytton laid the foundation stone of the college building. Around 1900 efforts began to make the college its own university, the Aligarh Muslim University Act of 1920 made it a central university. By the end of the 1930s, the university had developed an Engineering faculty, Syed Zafarul Hasan, joined the Aligarh Muslim University in early 1900s as head of Philosophy Department, dean Faculty of Arts. He was a pro-vice chancellor before his retirement, before 1939, faculty members and students supported an all-India nationalist movement. After 1939, political sentiment shifted toward support for a Muslim separatist movement, students and faculty mobilised behind Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the university became a center of Pakistan Movement. Womens education started at the university with the establishment of the Girls School on 19 October 1906, the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference had started a movement to establish girls education from 1896 onward. The school became intermediate college in 1929 and on 1930 it was made a constituent college of the university, since then it caters to the female undergraduate students of the university. In late 2014 the universitys vice-chancellor Zameer Uddin Shah turned down a demand by students of the college to be allowed to use the Maulana Azad Library. Shah stated that the issue was not one of discipline, but of space as if girls were allowed in the library there would be four times more boys, putting a strain on the librarys capacity
Aligarh Muslim University
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The seal of the Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh Muslim University
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Victoria Gate, a prominent building at the university
Aligarh Muslim University
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Maulana Azad Library (viewed from Kennedy Lawns)
Aligarh Muslim University
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Kennedy House, museum (left); auditorium (right)
3.
Oxford University
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
Oxford University
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Balliol College – one of the university's oldest constituent colleges
Oxford University
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University of Oxford
seal
Oxford University
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Aerial view of
Merton College 's
Mob Quad, the oldest
quadrangle of the university, constructed in the years from 1288 to 1378
Oxford University
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In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)
4.
Padma Bhushan
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The Padma Bhushan is the third-highest civilian award in the Republic of India, preceded by the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan and followed by the Padma Shri. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is given for distinguished service of a high order, as of 2017, the award has been bestowed on 1231 individuals, including 19 posthumous and 92 non-citizen recipients. The Padma Awards Committee is constituted every year by the Prime Minister of India, the committee later submits their recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for the further approval. The award recipients are announced on 26 January, the Republic Day of India, when instituted in 1954, twenty-three recipients were honoured with the Padma Bhushan. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous conferrals but this was modified in the January 1955 statute. The Padma Bhushan, along with other personal civil honours, was suspended twice, from July 1977 to January 1980. Some of the recipients have refused or returned their conferments, on 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards, the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri. The award, along with other personal civilian honours, was suspended twice in its history. The first time in July 1977 when Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister of India, for being worthless, the suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980 after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being titles per an interpretation of Article 18 of the Constitution of India, on 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court of India was formed comprising five judges, A. M. Ahmadi C. J. Kuldip Singh, B. P. Jeevan Reddy, N. P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgment that the Bharat Ratna, the award is conferred for distinguished service of a high order. without distinction of race, occupation, position or sex. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was modified in the January 1955 statute. Kizhakemuri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1999, the recommendations received during 1 May and 15 September of every year are submitted to the Padma Awards Committee, convened by the Prime Minister of India. The Awards Committee later submits its recommendations to the Prime Minister, the conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette. The original specification of the award was a made of standard silver 1 3⁄8 inches in diameter. A floral wreath was embossed along the edge and a lotus wreath at the top along the upper edge. The State Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the side with the text Desh Seva in Devanagari Script on the lower edge
Padma Bhushan
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Padma Bhushan
5.
Hindutva
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Hindutva, or Hinduness, a term popularised by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923, is the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India. The Bharatiya Janata Party adopted it as its ideology in 1989. It is championed by the Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and its affiliate organisations, many Indian social scientists have described the Hindutva movement as fascist, adhering to the concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony. Some Indian social scientists, as well as the Hindutva movement, on 2 January 2017, the Supreme Court of India declined to reconsider its 1995 judgment, which defined Hindutva as a way of life and not a religion. The notion of Hindutva, meaning Hinduness was coined in the early 20th century, referring to three meanings of Hindu, viz. Indian, follower of Indian religions in general, and follower of Hinduism. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, an activist interned in Ratnagiri prison in the 1920s and his tract, Essentials of Hindutva, better known under the later title Hindutva, Who Is a Hindu. Defined a Hindu as one who was born of Hindu parents, the three essentials of Hindutva were said to be the common nation, common race and common culture/civilisation. Hindus thus defined formed a nation that had existed since antiquity, Savarkar claimed and it was a form of ethnic nationalism as understood by Clifford Geertz, Lloyd Fallers and Anthony D. Smith. Savarkars formulation of Hinduness was regarded in his time as akin to a scientific discovery, christophe Jaffrelot states that Savarkars idea of Hindutva marked a qualitative change in Hindu nationalism. Hedgewar, another Indian independence activist in Nagpur, who was concerned with the weaknesses of the Hindu society against foreign domination. He visited Savarkar in Ratnagiri in March 1925 and discussed with him methods for organising the Hindu nation, in September that year, he started Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh with this mission. However, the term Hindutva was not used to describe the ideology of the new organisation, the official constitution of the RSS, adopted in 1948, used the phrase Hindu Samaj. In the words of an RSS publication, it became evident that Hindus were the nation in Bharat, both the terms Hindutva and Hindu Rashtra were used liberally in the Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha, a party Savarkar became the president of in 1937. He asked for the membership of Hindu Mahasabha to be open to all communities. When this was not accepted, he resigned from the party, thus, yet another term Bharatiya came into parlance with rough resemblance to Hindutva, which continues to be used in the successor party Bharatiya Janata Party to this day. Whereas Savarkars Hindutva was an identity and religion was considered a part of the culture. The all-comprehensive religion of the Indian nation is Hinduism of which the culture is a product. Those only are nationalist patriots, who with the aspiration to glorify the Hindu race, the rest are traitors and enemies to the National Cause
Hindutva
–
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
6.
Islamic fundamentalism
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Definitions vary of what Islamic fundamentalism is and how, if at all, it differs from Islamism or Islamic revivalism. Exemplary figures of Islamic fundamentalism are Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Mawdudi, the Wahhabi movement and its funding by Saudi Arabia is often described as being responsible for the popularity of contemporary Islamic fundamentalism. Form of Islamism – Graham Fuller describes Islamic fundamentalism not as distinct from Islamism, but as a subset and its strictest form includes Wahhabism, sometimes also referred to as salafiyya. For fundamentalists the law is the most essential component of Islam, leading to an emphasis upon jurisprudence. In this fundamentalists have drifted away from the stand of the Islamists of the 1970s and 80s, similarly, the Afghan Jamaat, in its statutes, has declared it legal in the eyes of Islam to employ non-Muslims as experts. Use of ijtihad in Islamic law – According to academic John Esposito, one of the most defining features of Islamic fundamentalism is belief in the reopening of the gates of ijtihad. Disorder – Dr. Kathleen Taylor, speaking at the Hay Literary Festival, said Islamic fundamentalism may one day be seen in the way as mental illness. Islamists often talk of revolution and believe that the society will be Islamized only through social and political action, fundamentalists are primarily interested in revolution, less interested in modernity or by Western models in politics or economics, and less willing to associate with non-Muslims. While both Islamists and fundamentalists are committed to implementing Sharia law, Islamists tend to consider it more a project than a corpus. Islamists generally tend to favour the education of women and their participation in social and political life, the Islamist woman militates, studies, and has the right to work, but in a chador. While the fundamentalist preaches for women to return to the home, traditionalists take imitation, accepting what was said before and refusing to innovate, as a basic principle, They follow one of the great schools of religious jurisprudence. Their vision of the sharia is essentially legalistic and used to determine what is right or wrong for Enjoining good. Traditionalists are sometimes connected to the forms of Sufism such as the Barelvi school in Pakistan). 18th-century examples are Shah Waliullah Dehlawi in India and Abdul Wahhab in the Arabian Peninsula and this reformism is often developed in response to an external threat such as the influence of Hinduism on Islam. In the late 19th century salafiyya was developed in the Arab countries, criticism of the term The term Islamic fundamentalism has been criticized by Bernard Lewis, Khaled Abou El Fadl, Eli Berman, John Esposito, among others. Many have proposed substituting another term, such as puritanical, Islamic revivalism or activism, Lewis, a leading historian of Islam, believes that although the use of this term is established and must be accepted, It remains unfortunate and can be misleading. In this they oppose the liberal and modernist theologians, who tend to a critical, historical view of Scripture. Among Muslim theologians there is as yet no such liberal or modernist approach to the Quran, where the so-called Muslim fundamentalists differ from other Muslims and indeed from Christian fundamentalists is in their scholasticism and their legalism
Islamic fundamentalism
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Sab'u Masajid, Saudi Arabia
7.
Communist Party of India
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The Communist Party of India is a communist party in India. In the Indian Communist movement, there are different views on exactly when the Communist Party of India was founded, but the date maintained as the foundation day by the CPI is 26 December 1925. However, the Communist Party of India, which separated from the CPI, has a different version that it was founded in 1920, the Communist Party of India has officially stated that it was formed on 25 December 1925 at the first Party Conference in Kanpur. The founding members of the party were M. N, Roy, Evelyn Trent Roy, Abani Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof, Mohammad Ali, Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui, Rafiq Ahmed of Bhopal and M. P. B. T. Aacharya, and Sultan Ahmed Khan Tarin of North-West Frontier Province, the CPI says that there were many communist groups formed by Indians with the help of foreigners in different parts of the world and the Tashkent group was only one of. Contacts with Anushilan and Jugantar groups in Bengal, small communist groups were formed in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, United Provinces and Punjab and Sindh. However, only Usmani became a CPI party member, during the 1920s and the early 1930s the party was badly organised, and in practice there were several communist groups working with limited national coordination. The British colonial authorities had banned all communist activity, which made the task of building a united party very difficult, between 1921 and 1924 there were three conspiracy trials against the communist movement, First Peshawar Conspiracy Case, Meerut Conspiracy Case and the Cawnpore Bolshevik Conspiracy Case. In the first three cases, Russian-trained muhajir communists were put on trial, however, the Cawnpore trial had more political impact. Roy, S. A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani, Singaravelu Chettiar, Ghulam Hussain, sharma were charged, in Cawnpore Bolshevik Conspiracy case. Singaravelu Chettiar was released on account of illness, Roy was in Germany and R. C. Sharma in French Pondichéry, and therefore could not be arrested, Ghulam Hussain confessed that he had received money from the Russians in Kabul and was pardoned. Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani and Dange were sentenced for various terms of imprisonment and this case was responsible for actively introducing communism to a larger Indian audience. Dange was released from prison in 1927, on 25 December 1925 a communist conference was organised in Kanpur. Colonial authorities estimated that 500 persons took part in the conference, the conference was convened by a man called Satyabhakta. At the conference Satyabhakta argued for a National communism and against subordination under Comintern, being outvoted by the other delegates, Satyabhakta left both the conference venue in protest. The conference adopted the name Communist Party of India, groups such as Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan dissolved into the unified CPI. The émigré CPI, which probably had little organic character anyway, was substituted by the organisation now operating inside India
Communist Party of India
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Communist party supporters during the
Indian general elections, 2009.
Communist Party of India
Communist Party of India
Communist Party of India
–
Mural in
Thiruvananthapuram.
8.
Indian National Congress
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The Indian National Congress is one of two major political parties in India, the other being the Bharatiya Janata Party. Congress was founded in 1885 during the British Raj, its founders include Allan Octavian Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji, there have been seven Congress Prime Ministers, the first being Jawaharlal Nehru, and the most recent Manmohan Singh. The partys social liberal platform is considered to be on the centre-left of Indian politics. From 2004 to 2014, the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance, a coalition of regional parties. As of March 2017, the party is in power in five states, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Meghalaya, in Bihar, it is a part of the ruling coalition. The Congress has previously directly ruled Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, in the 2014 general election, the Congress had its poorest post-independence general election performance, winning only 44 seats of the 543-member house. The party primarily endorses social liberalism—seeking to balance individual liberty and social justice, the Congress was founded in 1885 by Indian and British members of the Theosophical Society movement, including Scotsman Allan Octavian Hume. It has been suggested that the idea was conceived in a meeting of 17 men after a Theosophical Convention held in Madras in December 1884. Hume took the initiative, and in March 1885 the first notice convening the first Indian National Union to meet in Poona the following December was issued. Its objective was to obtain a share in government for educated Indians and to create a platform for civic. The first meeting was scheduled to be held in Poona, Hume organised the first meeting in Bombay with the approval of the Viceroy Lord Dufferin. Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee was the first president of the Congress, the first session was held from 28–31 December 1885, representing each province of India, the Partys delegates comprised 54 Hindus and 2 Muslims, the rest were of Parsi and Jain backgrounds. It also included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mohammed Ali Jinnah—later leader of the Muslim League and instrumental in the creation of Pakistan. The Congress was transformed into a movement by Surendranath Banerjea and Sir Henry Cotton during the partition of Bengal in 1905. Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915, in 1923 following the deaths of policemen at Chauri Chaura, Gandhi suspended the agitation. In protest, a number of leaders, Chittaranjan Das, Annie Besant, the Khilafat movement collapsed and the Congress was split. Although its members were predominantly Hindu, it had members from other religions, economic classes, at the Congress 1929 Lahore session under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, Purna Swaraj was declared as the partys goal, declaring 26 January 1930 as Purna Swaraj Diwas, Independence Day. The same year, Srinivas Iyenger was expelled from the party for demanding full independence, the British government allowed provincial elections in India in the winter of 1936–37 under the Government of India Act 1935
Indian National Congress
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A. O. Hume, one of the founders of the Indian National Congress
Indian National Congress
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Indian National Congress भारतीय राष्ट्रीय काँग्रेस
Indian National Congress
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First session of Indian National Congress, Bombay, 28–31 December 1885
Indian National Congress
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Mahatma Gandhi spinning yarn, in the late 1920s
9.
Abbas Tyabji
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Abbas Tyabji was an Indian freedom fighter from Gujarat, and an associate of Mahatma Gandhi. He also served as the Chief Justice of Baroda State and his grandson is the Marxist historian and ideologue Irfan Habib. Abbas Tyabji was born to an extremely rich Sulaimani Bohra Muslim family of Cambay in Gujarat and he was the son of Shamsuddin Tyabji and grandson of Mullah Tyab Ali, an immensely successful merchant. His fathers elder brother was Badruddin Tyabji, a judge of the Bombay High Court, abbas Tyabji was born in Baroda State, where his father was in the service of the Gaekwad Maharaja. He was educated in England, where he lived for eleven years and he returned, a cultivated Brown Sahib, very loyal to the Raj, devoted to western ways, and with a contempt for the customs and traditions of India. If he had any strong sentiments about Swadeshi, he didnt show it by precept or example. This being so, he disagreed vehemently with Gandhiji and his methods of political mass agitation. As an England-educated barrister, Tyabji landed a job as judge in the court of Baroda State as a matter of course, for the entirety of his career, Tyabji remained a staunch loyalist of the Raj. He was a proponent of womens rights, supporting womens education. He broke with the custom of the times by disregarding purdah restrictions. His daughter, Sohaila, was the mother of the Marxist historian, abbas Tyabji attended, along with Mahatma Gandhi, the Social Conference held at Godhra in 1917. At the time, he was seen as a model of Britishness, leading a Western lifestyle, all of that changed after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, when he was appointed by the Indian National Congress as chairman of an independent fact-finding committee. He cross-examined hundreds of eyewitnesses and victims of the committed by Reginald Dyer, reacting with nausea. That experience drove him to become a follower of Gandhi. Leaving his Western style aristocratic life behind, he adopted many of the symbols of the Gandhi movement, burning his English clothes and he continued this new lifestyle well past the age of seventy, including several years in British jails. In 1928, he supported Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in the Bardoli Satyagraha, tyabjis daughter, Sohaila, remembered loading a bullock cart with the familys foreign garments, onto which were loaded all her mothers best Irish linen, bedspreads, table covers. Her fathers angarkha, chowghas and English suits and Sohailas own favourite caps of silk and velvet, in early 1930, the Indian National Congress declared Purna Swaraj, or independence from the British Raj. As their first act of disobedience, or satyagraha, Mahatma Gandhi chose a nationwide non-violent protest against the British salt tax
Abbas Tyabji
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Abbas Tyabji and Mahatma Gandhi in 1934
10.
Baroda state
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With the city of Baroda as its capital, during the British Raj its relations with the British were managed by the Baroda Residency. Baroda formally acceded to the Union of India, on 1 May 1949, Baroda derives its native name Vadodara from the Sanskrit word vatodara, meaning in the heart of Banyan tree. It also has another name, Virakshetra or Virawati, mentioned alongside Vadodara by 17th century Gujarati poet Premanand Bhatt and its name has been mentioned as Brodera by early English travellers and merchants, from which its later name Baroda was derived. The Marathas first attacked Gujarat in 1705, by 1712, a Maratha leader Khande Rao Dabhade grew powerful in the region and when he returned to Satara in 1716, he was made the senapati. Thereafter during the Battle of Balapur in 1721, one of his officers, Damaji died in 1721 and was succeeded by his nephew Pilajirao. Thus the Baroda State was founded in 1721, when the Maratha general Pilaji Gaekwad conquered Songadh from the Mughals, Songadh remained the headquarters of the House of Gaekwad until 1866. After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas, although the Gaekwads trace their origins to 1720, it was not until considerably later that Baroda can be truly thought of as an independent state. Manaji, for example, placed a Nagari letter ma on his coins, the legends on these coins were still in Persian and the coins themselves were still hand-struck. Finally, in stages during the 1870s, Nagari legends and different designs were introduced and also milled coins began to be issued, eventually featuring the portrait of the Gaekwad on them. Following the death of Sir Khanderao Gaekwad, the popular Maharaja of Baroda, in 1870, it was expected that his brother, Malharrao, however, Malharrao had already proven himself to be of the vilest character and had been imprisoned earlier for conspiring to assassinate Khanderao. As Khanderaos widow, Maharani Jamnabai was already pregnant with a posthumous child, the child proved to be a daughter, and so upon her birth on 5 July 1871, Malharrao ascended the throne. Malharrao spent money liberally, nearly emptying the Baroda coffers and soon reached the Resident of Malharraos gross tyranny. Malharrao further attempted to cover up his deeds by poisoning the Resident, by order of the Secretary of State for India, Lord Salisbury, Malharrao was deposed on 10 April 1875 and exiled to Madras, where he died in obscurity in 1882. Kashirao and his three sons, Anandrao, Gopalrao and Sampatrao walked to Baroda from Kavlana-a distance of some 600 kilometers-to present themselves to Jamnabai, eventually Gopalrao was selected by the British Government as successor and was accordingly adopted by Maharani Jamnabai, on 27 May 1875. He was also given a new name, Sayajirao and he ascended the gaddi at Baroda,16 June 1875 but being a minor reigned under a Council of Regency until he came of age and was invested with full ruling powers on 28 December 1881. The Maharajah of Baroda, Sir Sayajirao Gaekwad III, became one of the most important rulers of the state, founding numerous institutions, including the Bank of Baroda on 20 July 1908. The bank, along with 13 other major banks of India, was nationalised on 19 July 1969, by the Government of India. In 1911, Baroda State spanned 8,182 km2, dr. B. R. Ambedkar writes about his experience with untouchability in Baroda in the second chapter of his autobiographical book, Waiting for a Visa
Baroda state
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Baroda state in 1909
Baroda state
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Flag
Baroda state
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Sir
Sayajirao Gaekwad III (1863–1939), Maharaja of Baroda
Baroda state
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Silver rupee of Sayaji Rao II of Baroda (ruled 1819-47), naming the Mughal emperor Muhammad Akbar II, dated AH 1238 (= 1822-23 CE). The prominent Nagari letter sa stands for Sayaji Rao and we also see a curved sword, one of the dynastic symbols of the Gaekwads and seen also on the Baroda state flag.
11.
Shiv Nadar University
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Shiv Nadar University is a private interdisciplinary research university founded in 2011 in Dadri, Uttar Pradesh in India. It was founded as part of a series of initiatives launched by the Shiv Nadar Foundation, the Universitys stated aim is to create an enduring, research-led, inter-disciplinary university. The University started the Engineering Majors in the Academic Year 2011-12 with the approval of the AICTE, the University is currently registered with DSIR, Government of India as a Research Institution. In 1994, Nadar established Shiv Nadar Foundation and created its first initiative in Chennai, the Foundation was a significant driver of social change and education through institutions spanning the education spectrum from schools to colleges. The SNF decided to build a unique research-led interdisciplinary university that can be identified as Indias first Ivy League institution, in the early 2010s a 286-acre land plot near the town of Dadri was earmarked for building the campus. The university started with a curriculum that was unique and unprecedented in India. Prof. Rupamanjari Ghosh is the current Vice Chancellor of Shiv Nadar University and she took charge as the VC in February 2016. She was preceded by the Universitys Founding Vice Chancellor Dr. Nikhil Sinha, the University has 17 departments across 5 schools. From 2011 to 2016, the University received Extramural Grants of over ₹17.03 crores for more than 52 active research projects, researchers include faculty members, post-doctoral fellows, Ph. D. scholars, visiting scholars and undergraduate students. Dell and Shiv Nadar University sign agreement to drive research and innovation The university is located on a 286-acre residential campus in Indias National Capital Region. The University’s campus has 6 academic blocks,154 laboratories and studios,9 student hostels,2 dining facilities,15 sports courts and 2 gymnasiums, apart from hostels, a residential complex is built for visitors. The faculty residential complex is under construction and is expected to be ready by 2016, clubs and forums offer various extra-curricular activities for students, faculty and staff. SNU has collaborated with following international universities for Collaborative Research, Semester Exchange programs, Joint Degree Programs, Joint Research Grants, Curricula, babson College, SNU has a strategic alliance with to bring excellent entrepreneurship education to India. Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, SNU collaborated with Annenberg School to launch its school of communication, duke University, For a broad framework of collaborative academic programs and experiential learning opportunities for faculty and students of both the universities. Queens University, Belfast Network n+i Applicants are evaluated on ability, abstract reasoning. They also take an Academic Proficiency Test in intended major subject areas, for admissions into the graduate programs, each department uses its own process to evaluate applicants. Recognized as ‘University of the Year’ at 3rd FICCI Higher Education Excellence Awards 2016, the FICCI Higher Education Excellence Awards recognize the achievements and work done by institutions and individuals in improving the quality of Higher Education in India. Best Avant-Garde Institution by CII The University of the Year by the PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry The Best Emerging Global University of the Year by Careers 360 Magazine Official website
Shiv Nadar University
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SNU Entrance
12.
Royal Historical Society
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The Royal Historical Society is a learned society of the United Kingdom which advances scholarly studies of history. The society was founded and received its Royal Charter in 1868, until 1872 it was known as the Historical Society. In 1897, it merged with the Camden Society, founded in 1838 and it is now based at University College London. In its origins, and for years afterwards, the society was effectively a gentlemens club. It now exists to promote historical research worldwide, representing historians engaged in professional research, the society provides a varied programme of lectures and one-day and two-day conferences covering various kinds of historical issues. It convenes in London and from time to time throughout the United Kingdom. The societys membership comprises honorary vice-presidents, fellows, corresponding fellows, members and its archives at Senate House include many records of international as well as British history. The society encourages, promotes and sponsors research, academic or otherwise. The society, in consultation with the Historical Association and with the History at Universities Defence Group, liaises with HM Government, historiography of the United Kingdom Camden Society Taylor Milne, Alexander. A Centenary Guide to the Publications of the Royal Historical Society 1868–1968, Royal Historical Society Guides and Handbooks. Official website List of Presidents Bibliography of British and Irish History
Royal Historical Society
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Royal Historical Society emblem
13.
Historical geography
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Historical geography is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time. It is a discipline which shares both topical and methodological similarities with history, anthropology, ecology, geology, environmental studies, literary studies. Although the majority of work in geography is considered human geography. Historical geography is often a component of school and university curricula in geography. Current research in geography is being performed by scholars in more than forty countries. In its early days, historical geography was difficult to define as a subject, a textbook from the 1950s cites a previous definition as an unsound attempt by geographers to explain history. Mitchell, came down firmly on the side of geography, the geographer is a geographer first last. To Sauer, a landscape and the cultures in it could only be if all of its influences through history were taken into account, physical, cultural, economic. Sauer stressed regional specialization as the means of gaining sufficient expertise on regions of the world. Sauers philosophy was the shaper of American geographic thought in the mid-20th century. Regional specialists remain in academic departments to this day. Despite this, some feel that it harmed the discipline, that too much effort was spent on data collection and classification. Studies became more and more area-specific as later geographers struggled to find places to make names for themselves and these factors may have led in turn to the 1950s crisis in geography, which raised serious questions about geography as an academic discipline in the USA. This sub-branch of human geography is closely related to history, environmental history, a Map History of the Modern World,1890 to the Present Day. First ed. published in 1968, a revision with corrections appeared in 1970, partly an atlas of historical geography, partly an atlas illustrating historical events
Historical geography
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A 1740 map of
Paris.
Historical geography
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Sub-fields
14.
History of India
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Evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is recorded as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period and this civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the texts of Hinduism. The Vedic Civilisation extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas, in one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th, from the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish. Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India, Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Southern India saw the rise of imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, the early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced. The 15th century saw the emergence of Sikhism, in the 16th century, Mughals came from Central Asia and gradually covered most of India. From the late 18th century to the century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire. James Mill, in his The History of British India, distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations and this periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods, according to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on significant social and economic changes, which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The ancient history of the region some of South Asias oldest settlements. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley, soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, early Neolithic culture in the Indian subcontinent is represented by the Bhirrana findings in Haryana, India as well as Mehrgarh findings in Balochistan, Pakistan. The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, the Stone Age carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from South India
History of India
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Bhimbetka rock painting,
Madhya Pradesh, India (c. 30,000 years old)
History of India
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Stone age (5000 BCE) writings of
Edakkal Caves in
Kerala, India.
History of India
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"Priest King" of
Indus Valley Civilisation
15.
Science and technology in ancient India
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The history of science and technology in the Indian Subcontinent begins with prehistoric human activity the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and empires. Following independence science and technology in the Republic of India has included engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar. By 5500 BCE a number of similar to Mehrgarh had appeared. The inhabitants of these sites maintained trading relations with Near East and this was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, cotton was cultivated in the region by the 5th–4th millennia BCE. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India, and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea. The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a system of standardization, using weights and measures and this technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices, one of the earliest known docks is at Lothal, located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Excavations at Balakot, present day Pakistan, have yielded evidence of an early furnace, the furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects. Ovens, dating back to the mature phase, were also excavated at Balakot. The Kalibangan archeological site further yields evidence of potshaped hearths, which at one site have found both on ground and underground. Kilns with fire and kiln chambers have also found at the Kalibangan site. The use of large scale plans, cosmological drawings. Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization, the earliest available swords of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date back to 2300 BCE. Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the Ganges–Jamuna Doab region of India, consisting of bronze, the religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasaṃhitā, numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts. For example, the mantra at the end of the annahoma performed during the aśvamedha, and uttered just before-, during-, the Satapatha Brahmana contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras. Baudhayana gives a formula for the root of two
Science and technology in ancient India
–
View of the Ashokan Pillar at
Vaishali. One of the
edicts of Ashoka (272—231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Ashoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."
Science and technology in ancient India
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Hand-propelled wheel cart, Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE). Housed at the
National Museum, New Delhi.
Science and technology in ancient India
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Ink drawing of Ganesha under an umbrella (early 19th century).
Ink, called masi, an admixture of several chemical components, has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE. The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early
South India. Several
Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.
Science and technology in ancient India
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The Hindu-Arabic numeral system. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.
16.
Economic history
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Economic history is the study of economies or economic phenomena of the past. Analysis in economic history is using a combination of historical methods, statistical methods. The topic includes financial and business history and overlaps with areas of history such as demographic. The quantitative – in this case, econometric – study of history is also known as cliometrics. In Germany in the late 19th century, scholars in a number of universities, led by Gustav von Schmoller and it ignored quantitative and mathematical approaches. Historical approach dominated German and French scholarship for most of the 20th century, the approach was spread to Great Britain by William Ashley, 1860-1927, and dominated British economic history for much of the 20th century. In France, economic history was influenced by the Annales School from the early 20th century to the present. It exerts an influence through its Journal Annales. Treating economic history as an academic discipline has been a contentious issue for many years. Academics at the London School of Economics and the University of Cambridge had numerous disputes over the separation of economics, Cambridge economists believed that pure economics involved a component of economic history and that the two were inseparably entangled. Those at the LSE believed that economic history warranted its own courses, research agenda, in the initial period of the subjects development, the LSE position of separating economic history from economics won out. Many universities in the UK developed independent programmes in economic history rooted in the LSE model, indeed, the Economic History Society had its inauguration at LSE in 1926 and the University of Cambridge eventually established its own economic history programme. However, the past twenty years have witnessed the widespread closure of these programmes in the UK. Only the LSE retains a separate economic history department and stand-alone undergraduate and graduate programme in economic history, Cambridge, Glasgow, the LSE and Oxford together train the vast majority of economic historians coming through the British higher education system today. Meanwhile, in the US, the field of history has in recent decades been largely subsumed into other fields of economics and is seen as a form of applied economics. As a consequence, there are no specialist economic history graduate programs at any universities anywhere in the country, the former study revolves around events, or facts, the latter, around tendencies. The former is primarily economic history, the latter is primarily economic science, both sorts of studies are proper and important. US economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger explained this position in his 1990 book Historical Economics, the new economic history, also known as cliometrics, refers to the systematic use of economic theory and/or econometric techniques to the study of economic history
Economic history
–
World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)
17.
Colonialism
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Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is used to describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa. At first the countries followed a policy of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the economy at the expense of rivals. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including something characteristic of a colony, in the book, Osterhammel asks, How can colonialism be defined independently from colony. He settles on a definition, Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the people are made. Rejecting cultural compromises with the population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority. Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism, Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state, as colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, the Other, or othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics. Othering is the creation from those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonizing powers explained an ‘other’ who were there to dominate, civilize, political geographers explain how colonial/ imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During the rise of colonialism and after, post colonialism, the Western powers perspectives of the East as the other, different and this viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/ subordinate dynamic, both being the other towards themselves. The word metropole comes from the Greek metropolis —mother city, the word colony comes from the Latin colonia—a place for agriculture
Colonialism
–
The
pith helmet, an icon of colonialism in tropical lands. Here, one in use in the
Second French Colonial Empire.
Colonialism
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1541 founding of
Santiago de Chile
Colonialism
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Dutch family in
Java, 1927
Colonialism
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Colonial Governor of the
Seychelles inspecting police guard of honour in 1972
18.
Historiography
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Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, beginning in the nineteenth century, with the ascent of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups, in 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities,1,644 identified themselves with social history and 1,425 identified themselves with political history. In the early period, the term historiography meant the writing of history. In that sense certain official historians were given the title Historiographer Royal in Sweden, England, the Scottish post is still in existence. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. For the purposes of article, history is taken to mean written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. Before writing, there was only oral history or oral tradition, in China, the earliest history was recorded in oracle bone script which was deciphered and may date back to around late 2nd millennium BCE. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE, is the earliest written of narrative history in the world, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius, zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era, traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder, over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty, the tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo. It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, the latter work is now lost. The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi, the first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720
Historiography
–
Allegory on writing history by
Jacob de Wit (1754). An almost naked Truth keeps an eye on the writer of history.
Pallas Athena (Wisdom) on left gives advice.
Historiography
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First page of the
Shiji.
Historiography
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Reproduction of part of a tenth-century copy of
Thucydides 's
History of the Peloponnesian War.
Historiography
–
A page of
Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
19.
Marxist
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
Marxist
–
Karl Marx
Marxist
–
One of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics; the Australian archaeologist
V. Gordon Childe
20.
Vedas
–
The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
Vedas
–
Rigveda (
padapatha) manuscript in
Devanagari
21.
Vedic period
–
The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
Vedic period
–
Aryans settling in India
Vedic period
–
Vedic period
Vedic period
–
Modern replica of utensils and
falcon shaped altar used for
Agnicayana, an elaborate
srauta ritual originating from the
Kuru Kingdom, around 1000 BCE.
Vedic period
–
Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli,
Malwa, 1300 BCE.
22.
Secularism
–
Secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. Another manifestation of secularism is the view that public activities and decisions, especially political ones, the purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely. In European laicism, it has argued that secularism is a movement toward modernization. This type of secularism, on a social or philosophical level, has occurred while maintaining an official state church or other state support of religion. Within countries as well, differing political movements support secularism for varying reasons, the term secularism was first used by the British writer George Jacob Holyoake in 1851. Although the term was new, the notions of freethought on which it was based had existed throughout history. Holyoake invented the term secularism to describe his views of promoting a social order separate from religion, an agnostic himself, Holyoake argued that Secularism is not an argument against Christianity, it is one independent of it. It does not question the pretensions of Christianity, it advances others, Secularism does not say there is no light or guidance elsewhere, but maintains that there is light and guidance in secular truth, whose conditions and sanctions exist independently, and act forever. Barry Kosmin of the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society, according to Kosmin, the hard secularist considers religious propositions to be epistemologically illegitimate, warranted by neither reason nor experience. In political terms, secularism is a movement towards the separation of religion and this can refer to reducing ties between a government and a state religion, replacing laws based on scripture with civil laws, and eliminating discrimination on the basis of religion. This is said to add to democracy by protecting the rights of religious minorities, what all secular governments, from the democratic to the authoritarian, share is a concern about the relationship between the church and the state. Each secular government may find its own unique policy prescriptions for dealing with that concern, maharaja Ranjeet Singh of the Sikh empire of the first half of the 19th century successfully established a secular rule in the Punjab. Ranjit Singh also extensively funded education, religion, and arts of various different religions, Secularism is most often associated with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe and it plays a major role in Western society. The principles, but not necessarily the practices, of separation of church and state in the United States, Secular states also existed in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages. Due in part to the belief in the separation of church and state, the most significant forces of religious fundamentalism in the contemporary world are Christian fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism. At the same time, one significant stream of secularism has come from religious minorities who see governmental and political secularism as integral to the preservation of equal rights, in studies of religion, modern democracies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the freedom of religion, and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. Nevertheless, religious beliefs are considered by many people to be a relevant part of the political discourse in many of these countries
Secularism
–
The
British writer
George Jacob Holyoake (1817–1906), coined the term "secularism."
Secularism
–
The
Italian law professor
Alberico Gentili (1587–1608) has been the first to divide the secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology.
23.
BJP
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The Bharatiya Janata Party is one of the two major political parties in India, along with the Indian National Congress. As of 2016, it is the countrys largest political party in terms of representation in the parliament and state assemblies. The BJP is a party, with close ideological and organisational links to the Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. The BJPs origins lie in the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, formed in 1951 by Syama Prasad Mookerjee, after the State of Emergency in 1977, the Jana Sangh merged with several other parties to form the Janata Party, it defeated the incumbent Congress party in the 1977 general election. After three years in power, the Janata party dissolved in 1980 with the members of the erstwhile Jana Sangh reconvening to form the BJP. Although initially unsuccessful, winning two seats in the 1984 general election, it grew in strength on the back of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement. After the 1998 general election, the BJP-led coalition known as the National Democratic Alliance formed a government under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee for a year. Following fresh elections, the NDA government, again headed by Vajpayee, lasted for a term in office. In the 2004 general election, the NDA suffered an unexpected defeat, long time Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi led it to a landslide victory in the 2014 general election. Since that election, Modi leads the NDA government as Prime Minister and as of March 2017, the official ideology of the BJP is integral humanism, first formulated by Deendayal Upadhyaya in 1965. The party expresses a commitment to Hindutva, and its policy has historically reflected Hindu nationalist positions, the BJP advocates social conservatism and a foreign policy centred on nationalist principles. Its key issues have included the abrogation of the status to Jammu and Kashmir, the building of a Ram temple in Ayodhya. However, the 1998–2004 NDA government did not pursue any of these controversial issues and it instead focused on a largely neoliberal economic policy prioritising globalisation and economic growth over social welfare. The BJPs origins lie in the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, popularly known as the Jana Sangh and it was founded in collaboration with the Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, and was widely regarded as the political arm of the RSS. The RSS loaned several of its leading pracharaks, or full-time workers, prominent among these was Deendayal Upadhyaya, who was appointed General Secretary. The Jana Sangh won only three Lok Sabha seats in the first general elections in 1952 and it maintained a minor presence in parliament until 1967. The Jana Sanghs first major campaign, begun in early 1953, centred on a demand for the integration of Jammu. Mookerjee was arrested in May 1953 for violating orders from the state government restraining him from entering Kashmir and he died of a heart attack the following month, while still in jail
BJP
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Syama Prasad Mookerjee, founder of the
Bharatiya Jana Sangh
BJP
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Bharatiya Janata Party भारतीय जनता पार्टी
BJP
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Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the first BJP
prime minister (1998–2004)
BJP
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Lal Krishna Advani,
deputy Prime Minister under Vajpayee and one of the architects of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement
24.
Murli Manohar Joshi
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Murli Manohar Joshi is an Indian politician, a leading member of the Bharatiya Janata Party of which he was the President between 1991 and 1993, and the current Member of Parliament for Kanpur. He later became the Union Human Resources Development minister in the National Democratic Alliance government and he is best known for his views on Hindu socio-politics and for his affiliation with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, of which he had been a pracharak. Joshi was born on 5 January 1934, hailing from the Kumaon Hills region of Nainital northern India which today form a part of the state of Uttarakhand, Joshi had his early education in Chandpur, District Bijnore and Almora. He completed his B. Sc. from Meerut College and M. Sc. from Allahabad University, here one of his teachers was Professor Rajendra Singh, who later became the RSS Sarsanghchalak. He did his doctorate from Allahabad University, the subject of his doctoral thesis was spectroscopy. He published a paper in Physics in Hindi, which was a first of its kind. After completing his PhD, Joshi started teaching Physics at Allahabad University, during the Emergency period in India, Joshi was in jail from 26 June 1975 until the Lok Sabha elections in 1977. He was elected Member of Parliament from Almora, when the Janata Party came to power forming the first non-Congress government in Indian history, Joshi was elected General Secretary of the Janata Parliamentary Party. After the fall of the government, his party out of Janata Party in 1980. Joshi first looked after the Central Office as a General Secretary, as General Secretary of BJP, he was directly in charge of Bihar, Bengal and North-Eastern States. Later, when BJP formed a government in India under Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Joshi is known to have been influenced by the life and work of Veer Savarkar, Golwalkar and Deendayal Upadhyaya. Joshi was a three-term M. P. from Allahabad before he was defeated in the Lok Sabha elections of May,2004 and he won election to the 15th Lok Sabha from Varanasi as a BJP candidate. He also served as the minister for 13 days government in 1996. Joshi was appointed as Chairman of the Manifesto Preparation Board of the BJP in 2009 and he was honored as Proud Past Alumni of Allahabad University by Allahabad University Alumni Association. He was a sitting MP from Varanasi and he vacated that seat for Narendra Modi in 2014 Lok Sabha Elections and he later contested from Kanpur and won from the constituency by a margin of 2.23 lac votes. Maseeh Rahman, The Guardian, Saturday 20 September 2003, mark Tully, BBC.5 December 2002. Satish Jacob, BBC.24 July 2002, jyotsna Singh, BBC11 August 2003. Sustainable consumption is the need of the hour, says Murli Manohar Joshi, Murli Manohar Joshi attacks Congress on N-deal, agrarian policies
Murli Manohar Joshi
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Murli Manohar Joshi
25.
American Historical Association
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The American Historical Association is the oldest and largest society of historians and professors of history in the United States. Founded in 1884, the association promotes historical studies, the teaching of history, and it publishes five times a year, with scholarly articles and book reviews. The AHA is the organization for historians working in the United States, while the is the major organization for historians who study. As an umbrella organization for the profession, the AHA works with major historical organizations. Many affiliated historical societies hold their annual meetings simultaneously, the association also administers two major fellowships,24 book prizes, and a number of small research grants. However, as former AHA president James J, much of the early work of the association focused on establishing a common sense of purpose and gathering the materials of research through its Historical Manuscripts and Public Archives Commissions. From the beginning, the association was largely managed by historians employed at colleges and universities, the clearest expression of this academic impulse in history came in the development of the American Historical Review in 1895. Formed by historians at a number of the most important universities in the United States, under the early editorship of J. Franklin Jameson, the Review published several long scholarly articles every issue, only after they had been vetted by scholars and approved by the editor. Each issue also reviewed a number of books for their conformity to the new professional norms. From the AHR, Sheehan concludes, a junior scholar learned what it meant to be a historian of a certain sort, meringolo compares academic and public history. Historical museums, documentary editing, heritage movements and historical preservation are considered public history, though activities now associated with public history originated in the AHA, these activities separated out in the 1930s due to differences in methodology, focus, and purpose. The foundations of public history were laid on the ground between academic history and the public audience by National Park Service administrators during the 1920s-30s. In 1896 the association appointed a Committee of Seven to develop a standard for college admission requirements in the field of history. Before this time, individual colleges defined their own entrance requirements, after substantial surveys of prevailing teaching methods, emphases and curricula in secondary schools, the Committee published The Study of History in Schools in 1898. The association also played a role in lobbying the federal government to preserve and protect its own documents. After extensive lobbying by AHA Secretary Waldo Leland and Jameson, Congress established the National Archives, as the interests of historians in colleges and universities gained prominence in the association, other areas and activities tended to fall by the wayside. The Manuscripts and Public Archives Commissions were abandoned in the 1930s, while related to original research. In recent years, the association has tried to come to terms with the public history movement and has struggled to maintain its status as a leader among academic historians
American Historical Association
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Seal of the American Historical Association
26.
Tapan Raychaudhuri
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Tapan Raychaudhuri was an Indian historian specialising in British Indian history, Indian economic history and the History of Bengal. He was the son of Amiya Kumar Raychaudhuri, the last zamindar of Kirtipasha in Barisal district of eastern Bengal and he was a nephew of Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri. He completed his first D. Phil. in history at Calcutta University under the supervision of Sir Jadunath Sarkar and his second D. Phil. at Balliol College and he started his career as a lecturer at the Department of Islamic History and Culture, Calcutta University. After his return from Britain he became a deputy director of the National Archives of India and he was a reader and then professor of history and director of the Delhi School of Economics and also of the department of history of Delhi University. He was first a reader and then Professor of Indian History and Civilization in Modern South Asian History and fellow of St. Antonys College and he was an emeritus fellow of St. Antonys College, Oxford from 1993-2014. Watumull Prize awarded by the American Historical Association,1982. for the Cambridge Economic History of India, National Research Professor 2010 He died at home in Oxford on 26 November 2014, after suffering a stroke. Bengal Under Akbar and Jahangir, An Introductory Study in Social History, the Cambridge Economic History of India. Europe Reconsidered, Perceptions of the West in Nineteenth Century Bengal, romanthan Athoba Bhimrotiprapter Paracharitcharcha রমান্থানা অথবা, ভীমরতিপ্রাপ্তর পরচরিতচচা. Perceptions, Emotions, Sensibilities, Essays on Indias Colonial and Post-colonial Experiences, the world in our time, a memoir
Tapan Raychaudhuri
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Tapan Raychudhuri in 2009
27.
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
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Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences is a trust registered under the Indian Trusts Act,1882. Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former vice-chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India gave accreditation to the academy in 2004 and promoted it as centre of excellence in 2008. Membership of the academy is open to anyone who has an interest in the academys activities particularly on history of medicine, being a charitable organization, donations to the Academy are also exempted from Income Tax under section 80G of the Income Tax Act 1961. The founder president is Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Ibn Sina Academy is a part of signatories related to various health issues in the world. Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences is an extension of Majlis Ibn Sina, Majlis Ibn Sina was a sort of monthly discussion group. For instance, the first meeting of that Majlis was held to discuss typhoid, Tibbi Academy was itself formed in 1963 at Bhopal. From 1965 to 1970, a journal with the title Al-Hikmat from Delhi was published under the auspices of Tibbi Academy under the editorship of Syed Zillur Rahman Nadvi. The editor stated in the introduction of the first issue that the journal is being issued and he lamented that despite the publication of 30-40 Tibbi magazines in India, no learned journal of Unani medicine is being published. The purpose of this committee was the same as Tibbi Academy formed in 1963. It was formally inaugurated on 21 April 2001, the library houses one of the most precious and valuable collection of 20,000 printed books,500 manuscripts, some rare books, microfilms, compact discs and a large number of periodicals. The library is listed in the Directory of History of Medicine Collections, United States Department of Health and Human Services, National Library of Medicine, karam Husain Museum on History of Medicine and Sciences is an academic unit with collections and exhibitions. The main theme is the history of health and disease in a perspective, with focus on the material and iconographic culture of medieval medicine. The museum has categorically the pictures and busts of physicians belonging to Mesopotamia, Babylonian, Egyptians, Greeks, Arab, in addition, medical manuscripts, catalogues, medical philately, medical souvenirs, memoirs of physicians including Nobel laureates, etc. are preserved and exhibited. The museum is listed in the Worlds 10 weirdest medical museums, in the museum, there are family collections like Prof. Syed Mahmood Husain Family Collection, Roohi Mabud Hasan Family Collection, etc. Newsletter of Ibn Sina Academy, a newsletter since 2001. International Journal of Medical Research Professionals, international Archives of BioMedical and Clinical Research. Books The academy has published a number of books on the history of medicine and sciences including pharmacology, before the existence of Ibn Sina Academy, publications were done under the aegis of Tibbi Academy, formed in 1963. The first book of the Tibbi Academy was Daur Jadeed aur Tibb, from 1965 to 1970, a monthly Urdu journal, Al-Hikmat, was published under the auspices of Tibbi Academy
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
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Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
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Mosaic of Iranian tiles calligraphically inscribed ‘Ibn Sina Academy...’ (now destroyed during renovation; once installed at the main entrance)
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
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Syed Shahid Mehdi delivering 3rd Ibn Sina Memorial Lecture
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
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Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman introducing Dr. S. Shahid Mehdi
28.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press on
Walton Street.
Oxford University Press
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2008 conference booth
