Islamic eschatology

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Islamic eschatology is the branch of Islamic theology concerning the end of the world, and the "Day of Resurrection" after that, known as Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة‎, IPA: [jawmu‿l.qijaːma], "the Day of Resurrection") or Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين, Arabic pronunciation: [jawmu‿d.diːn], "the Day of Judgment").^[1] It is characterized by the annihilation of all life, which will then be followed by its resurrection and judgment by God. When al-Qiyamah will happen is not specified, but according to prophecy, primarily elaborated by hadith-literature, there are major and minor signs that will foretell its coming.^[2][3] Many verses in the Quran mention the Last Judgment.^[4][5]

The main subject of Surat al-Qiyama is the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is described in the hadith and commentaries of the ulama, including al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, and Ibn Khuzaymah.^[6][7] The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Last Day, and the Hour (al-sā'ah).^{[8][9][10][11]}

Unlike the Quran, the hadith contain several events, happening before the Day of Judgment, which are describe as several minor signs and twelve major signs. During this period, terrible corruption and chaos would rule the earth, caused by the Masih ad-Dajjal (the Antichrist in Islam), then a messianic figure will appear, defeating the Dajjal and establish a period of peace, liberating Islam from cruelty. These events will be followed by a time of serenity when people live according to religious values.^[12]

Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches that there will be a resurrection of the dead followed by a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked.^[13] Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (The Great Massacre) or ghaybah in Shī'a Islam. The righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Paradise), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell).

End time[edit]

Two main sources in Islamic scripture discuss the Last Judgment and the tribulation associated with it: the Quran, which is viewed in Islam as infallible, and the hadith, or sayings of the prophet. Hadith are viewed with more flexibility due to the late compilation of the sayings in written form, two hundred years after the death of Muhammad.^[14] The Last Judgment and the tribulation have also been discussed in the commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and Muhammad al-Bukhari.^[6][7]

Signs of the end time[edit]

In Islam, a number of major and minor signs foretell the end of days.^[15] There is debate over whether they could occur concurrently or must be at different points in time, although Islamic scholars typically divide them into three major periods.^[16]

1. Sexual immorality appears among people to such an extent that they commit it openly, except that they will be afflicted by plagues and diseases unknown to their forefathers;
2. People cheat in weights and measures (business, trades, etc.) and are stricken with famine, calamity, and oppression as a result;
3. They withhold charity and hoard their wealth, and rain is withheld from the sky from them; there is rain only for animals;
4. They break their covenant with God and His Messenger and God enables their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands;
5. God causes those who do not live according to His book to fight among themselves.^{[note 1]}

Minor signs[edit]

1. The coming of fitna (tribulations) and removal of khushoo' (fearfulness of God, taqwah, reverence, etc.)^{[note 2]}
2. The coming of 30 Dajjals, each one of them presuming himself an apostle of God.^{[note 3][jargon]}
3. A person passing by a grave might say to another: I wish it were my abode.^{[note 4]}
4. The loss of honesty, and authority put in the hands of those who do not deserve it.^{[note 5]}
5. The loss of knowledge and the prevalence of religious ignorance.^{[note 6]}
6. Frequent, sudden, and unexpected deaths.^{[note 7]}
7. Increase in pointless killings.^{[note 8]}
8. Acceleration of time.^{[note 9]}
9. Rejection of Hadith.^{[note 10]}
10. The spread of riba (usury, interest), zina (adultery, fornication), and the drinking of alcohol.^{[note 11]}
11. Widespread acceptance of music.^{[note 12]}
12. Pride and competition in the decoration of mosques.^{[note 13]}
13. Women will increase in number and men will decrease in number so much so that fifty women will be looked after by one man.^{[note 14]}
14. Abundance of earthquakes.^{[note 15]}
15. Frequent occurrences of disgrace, distortion, and defamation.^{[note 16]}
16. When people wish to die because of the severe trials and tribulations that they are suffering.^{[note 17]}
17. Jews fighting Muslims.^{[note 18]}
18. When paying charity becomes a burden.^{[note 19]}
19. Nomads will compete in the construction of very tall buildings.^{[note 20]}
20. Women will appear naked despite their being dressed.^{[note 21]}
21. People will seek knowledge from misguided and straying scholars.^{[note 22]}
22. Liars will be believed, honest people disbelieved, and faithful people called traitors.^{[note 23]}
23. The death of righteous, knowledgeable people.^{[note 24]}
24. The emergence of indecency (obscenity) and enmity among relatives and neighbours.^{[note 25]}
25. The rise of idolatry and polytheists in the community.^{[note 26]}
26. The Euphrates will uncover a mountain of gold.^{[note 27]}
27. The land of the Arabs will return to being a land of rivers and fields.^{[note 28]}
28. The Romans will form a majority amongst people.^{[note 29]}
29. People will increasingly earn money by unlawful (Haram) ways.^{[note 30]}
30. There will be much rain but little vegetation.^{[note 31]}
31. Evil people will be expelled from Al-Madinah.^{[note 32]}
32. Wild animals will communicate with humans, and humans will communicate with objects.^{[note 33]}
33. Lightning and thunder will become more prevalent.^{[note 34]}
34. There will be a special greeting for people of distinction.^{[note 35]}
35. Trade will become so widespread that a woman will help her husband in business.^{[note 36]}
36. No truly honest man will remain and no one will be trusted.^{[note 37]}
37. Only the worst people will be left; they will not know any good nor forbid any evil (i.e. No one will say there is no god but Allah).^{[note 38]}
38. Nations will call each other to destroy Islam by any and every means.^{[note 39]}
39. Islamic knowledge will be passed on, but no one will follow it correctly.^{[note 40]}
40. Muslim rulers will come who do not follow the guidance and tradition of the Sunnah. Some of their men will have the hearts of devils in a human body.^{[note 41]}
41. Stinginess will become more widespread and honorable people will perish.^{[note 42]}
42. A man will obey his wife and disobey his mother, and treat his friend kindly while shunning his father.^{[note 43]}
43. Voices will be raised in the mosques.^{[note 44]}
44. The leader of a people will be the worst of them.^{[note 45]}
45. People will treat a man with respect because they fear the evil he could do.^{[note 46]}
46. Much wine will be drunk.^{[note 47]}
47. Muslims shall fight against a nation who wear shoes made of hair and with faces like hammered shields, with red complexions and small eyes.^{[note 48]}
48. The emergence of the Sufyani within the Syria region.^{[note 49]}
49. The truce and joint Roman-Muslim campaign against a common enemy, followed by al-Malhama al-Kubra (Armageddon), a Roman vs. Muslim war.^{[note 50]}
50. The Black Standard will come from Khorasan, (see Hadith of black flags) nothing shall turn them back until it is planted in Jerusalem.^{[note 51]}
51. Quran will be forgotten and no one will recall its verses.
52. All Islamic knowledge will be lost to the extent that people will not say "Lā ilāha illā llāh" (There is no god but Allah), but instead old people will babble without understanding, "God, God".
53. People will fornicate in the streets "like donkeys".
54. The first trumpet blow will be sounded by Israfil, all that is in heaven and earth will be stunned and die except what God wills, and silence will envelop everything for forty undetermined periods of time.
55. There will be disagreement concerning succession. Then a man will emerge from Madina. He will hurry to Makkah, and the people of Makkah will come out to him and urge him and try to force him to accept the Bai'aa.^{[note 52]}
56. Mecca will be attacked and the Kaaba will be destroyed.^{[note 53]}
57. A pleasant breeze will blow from the south that shall cause all believers to die peacefully.
58. The Moon will split in two, but non-believers will insist it isn't happening for real.^{[note 54]}
59. There are two groups of ummah whom God will free from the fire: The group that invades India (Ghazwa-e-Hind), and the group that will be with Isa bin Maryam.^{[note 55][17]}
60. Emergence of an army, from Yemen, that will make Islam dominant.^{[note 56][18]}

One of the last of the minor signs, and which will signal the coming of the 10 Major signs[edit]

1. The appearance of the Mahdi.^{[19][20][21][22]}

Major signs[edit]

Following the second period, the third will be marked by the ten major signs known as alamatu's-sa'ah al-kubra (the major signs of the end).^{[note 57]} They are as follows:

1. The false messiah—anti-Christ, Masih ad-Dajjal—shall appear with great powers as a one-eyed man with his right eye blind and deformed like a grape. Although believers will not be deceived, he will claim to be God, to hold the keys to heaven and hell, and will lead many astray.^[23] In reality, his heaven is hell, and his hell is heaven. The Dajjal will be followed by seventy thousand Jews of Isfahan wearing Persian shawls.^{[note 58]}
2. The return of Isa (Jesus), from the fourth sky, to kill Dajjal.^[24]
3. Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj (Gog and Magog), a Japhetic tribe of vicious beings who had been imprisoned by Dhul-Qarnayn, will break out. They will ravage the earth, drink all the water of Lake Tiberias, and kill all believers in their way. Isa, Imam Al-Mahdi, and the believers with them will go to the top of a mountain and pray for the destruction of Gog and Magog. God eventually will send disease and worms to wipe them out.^{[note 59][25]}
4. A huge black cloud of smoke will cover the earth.^{[note 60]}
5. The Dabbat al-ard, or Beast of the Earth, will come out of the ground to talk to people.^{[note 61]}
6. The sun will rise from the west.^[26][27]
7. Three sinkings of the earth, one in the east,^{[note 62]}
8. One in the west,^{[note 63]}
9. And one in Arabia.^{[note 64]}
10. The second blow of the trumpet will be sounded, the dead will return to life, and, out of Yemen, will come a fire that shall gather all to Mahshar Al Qiy'amah (The Gathering for Judgment).^[28]

Appearance[edit]

The Mahdi[edit]

Diagram of "Plain of Assembly"(Ard al-Hashr) on the Day of Judgment, from autograph manuscript of Futuhat al-Makkiyya by Sufi mystic and philosopher Ibn Arabi, ca. 1238. Shown are the 'Arsh (Throne of God), pulpits for the righteous (al-Aminun), seven rows of angels, Gabriel (al-Ruh), A'raf (the Barrier), the Pond of Abundance, al-Maqam al-Mahmud (the Praiseworthy Station; where the prophet Muhammad will stand to intercede for the faithful), Mizan (the Scale), As-Sirāt (the Bridge), Jahannam (Hell) and Marj al-Jannat (Meadow of Paradise).^[29]

Mahdi (Arabic: مهدي‎) means "guided one", is a messianic figure in Islamic tradition. He makes his first appearance in the hadiths and is thought as the first sign of the third period.).^[28] Hadith state that he will be a descendant of Muhammad through Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and cousin Ali. The Mahdi will be looked upon to kill al-Dajjal,^{[citation needed]} to end the disintegration of the Muslim community, and to prepare for the reign of Jesus, who will rule for a time thereafter. The Mahdi will fulfill his prophetic mission, a vision of justice and peace, before submitting to Jesus' rule.^[30] The physical features of Mahdi are described in the hadith—he will be of Arab complexion, of average height, with a big forehead, large eyes, and a sharp nose. He will have a mole on his cheek, the sign of the prophet on his shoulder, and be recognised by the caliphate while he sits in his own home. As written by Abu Dawud, "Our Mahdi will have a broad forehead and a pointed (prominent) nose. He will fill the earth with justice as it is filled with injustice and tyranny. He will rule for seven years."^[31] In some accounts, after the seven years of peace, God will send a cold wind causing everyone with the smallest measure of human-kindness or faith, to die and carry them straight to heaven. Therefore, only the wicked will remain and be victims of terrible animals and Satan, until the day of resurrection.^[32] Otherwise, the Mahdi will kill Satan before the last day, in most Shia accounts.

Though the predictions of the duration of his rule differ, hadith are consistent in describing that God will perfect him in a single night, imbuing him with inspiration and wisdom, and his name will be announced from the sky. The Mahdi will bring back worship of true Islamic values, and bring the Ark of the Covenant to light. He will conquer Istanbul and Mount Daylam and will regard Jerusalem and the Dome as his home. His banner will be that of the prophet Muhammad: black and unstitched, with a halo. Furled since the death of Muhammad, the banner will unfurl when the Mahdi appears. He will be helped by angels and others that will prepare the way for him. He will understand the secrets of abjad.^[12]

Amr bin Shuaib learned from his grandfather that the Messenger of God said, "In Dhu al-Qi'dah (Islamic month), there will be fight among the tribes, Muslim pilgrims will be looted and there will be a battle in Mina in which many people will be slain and blood will flow until it runs over the Jamaratul Aqba (one of the three stone pillars at Mina). The man they seek will flee and will be found between the Rukn (a corner of the Kaaba containing the Black Stone) and the Maqam of Prophet Abraham (near Ka'ba). He will be forced to accept people's Bay'ah (being chosen as a Leader/Caliph). The number of those offering Bay'ah will be the same as the number of the people of Badr (Muslim fighters who participated in the Battle of Badr at time of Prophet Mohammad). Then, the dweller of Heaven and the dweller of the Earth will be pleased with him."^[33]

Sunni and Shia perspectives on the Mahdi[edit]

Sunni and Shi'a Islam have different beliefs regarding the identity of Mahdi. Historically, Sunni Islam considers religious authority as being derived from the caliph, who was appointed by the companions of Muhammad at his death. The Sunnis view the Mahdi as the successor of Mohammad; the Mahdi is expected to arrive to rule the world and reestablish righteousness.^[34] Some Sunnis share a belief that there may be no actual Mahdi, but that a series of mujaddid will instead lead to an Islamic revolution of a renewal of faith and avoidance of deviation from God's path. Sunni tradition has attributed such intellectual and spiritual attributes to numerous Muslims at the end of each Muslim century from the origin of Islam to the present day.^[35] This classical interpretation is favored by Sunni scholars like Ghazali and Ibn Taymiyyah.

Contrarily, Shi'a Islam vested religious authority in those of the bloodline of Muhammad, favoring his cousin and son by marriage, Ali. Ali was appointed the first Imam; and according to Twelver interpretation, he was followed by eleven more. Muhammad al-Mahdi, otherwise known as the Twelfth Imam, went into hiding in 873 at the age of four. His father was al-`Askari, who had been murdered; and so he was hidden from the authorities of the Abbasid Caliphate. He maintained contact with his followers until 940, when he entered the Occultation. Twelverism believes that al-Mahdi is the current Imam, and will emerge at the end of the current age. Some scholars say that, although unnoticed by others present, the Mahdi of Twelver Islam continues to make an annual pilgrimage while he resides outside of Mecca.^[36] In contradistinction, Sunni Islam foresees him as a separate and new person.^[37] The present Ayatollahs of Iran see themselves as joint caretakers of the office of the Imam until he returns.^[38]

The Mahdi is not described in the Qurʾān, only in hadith, with scholars suggesting he arose when Arabian tribes were settling in Syria under Muawiya. "They anticipated 'the Mahdi who will lead the rising people of the Yemen back to their country' in order to restore the glory of their lost Himyarite kingdom. It was believed that he would eventually conquer Constantinople."^[34]

Raj`a[edit]

Raj`a(Arabic: الرجعة‎, translit. āl rj'ah, lit. 'Return')in Islamic terminology, refers to the Second Coming, or the return to life of a given past historical figure after that person's physical death.^[39] Shia believes that before the Day of Judgement, Muhammad al-Mahdi will return with a group of chosen companions. This return is more properly known as zuhur or 'appearance', as the Hidden Imam is believed to have remained alive during his occultation since the year 874.^[39]The return of these historical figures will herald the beginning of the Last Judgment. The purpose of this return is the establishment of justice for those who were oppressed and died oppressed: the oppressors are punished directly by the oppressed during this future reappearance.^[40]

Some Sunni scholars do believe in Raj’a, believing in the return of number of people such as Seven Sleepers synchronous with the appearance of the Mahdi.^[41] Jalaluddin Al-Sayuti wrote about the Raj`a but in a different way from the Shia. According to him, in contrast to Shia belief, the return of the Prophet Muhammad is not limited to a specific time in the future. Al-Sayuti did not mention if any other religious figures will return after death before the resurrection.<sup>[42]</sup> According to Abu 'Abdullah Al-Qurtubi, raj`a is understood as the lack of physical presence of a prophet, who marks his apparent death by absence in the physical world but will reappear, from time to time, to those who are pure in heart.^[43]

Isa[edit]

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Isa is the Arabic name for Jesus, and his return is considered the third major sign of the last days (the second being the appearance of Jesus's nemesis Masih ad-Dajjal). Although Muhammad is the preeminent Prophet in Islam, Jesus is mentioned in the Quran, and so is Idris (Enoch), who is said not to have died but to have been raised up by God.^[44] Thus, in accordance with post-Quranic hadith, Jesus conceivably will return to Earth as a just judge before the Day of Judgment.^[45] As written in hadith:

Abu Hurayrah narrates that the Messenger of God said, "By Him in whose hands my soul rests! It is definitely close in that time that Isa, Son of Maryam descends amongst you as a just ruler. He will break the cross, kill the swine and abolish jaziya. And money will abound in such excess that no one will accept it.

— Ahmad bin Hambal, al-Musnad, vol 2, p. 240^[28]

Hadith reference both the Mahdi and Isa simultaneously and the return of the Mahdi will coincide with the return of Isa, who will descend from the heavens in al-Quds at dawn. The two will meet, and the Mahdi will lead the people in fajr prayer. After the prayer, they will open a gate to the west and encounter Masih ad-Dajjal. After the defeat of ad-Dajjal, Isa will lead a peaceful forty-year reign until his death. He will be buried in a tomb beside Muhammad in Medina.^[46] Though the two certainly differ regarding their role and persona in Islamic eschatology, the figures of the Mahdi and Isa are ultimately inseparable, according to the Prophet. Though Isa is said to descend upon the world once again, the Mahdi will already be present.

What will be your reaction when the son of Mary (Jesus) descends and your Imam is from among yourselves? (Sahih Muslim, bab nuzul 'isa, Vol. 2; Sahih Bukhari, kitab bad' al-khalq wa nuzul 'isa, Vol. 4)

Resurrection and final judgement (Ma'ad)[edit]

The resurrection and final judgement are fundamental beliefs in Islam. According to the Quran, without them, the creation of humanity would be in vain^[47].^[48]Thus the Day of Judgment, al-Qiyāmah, (also known as the Day of Reckoning or Resurrection, the Last Day, or the Hour) is one of the six articles of faith in Sunni Islam, and one of seven in Shia Islam.^{[8][9][10][11][49][50][19]}

Major events[edit]

Destruction of the Kaaba and the Beast of the Earth[edit]

Before doomsday, a thin ruler from Ethiopia, with short legs, will attack Mecca and destroy the Kaaba.^[51] Another sign is the appearance of the da'ba-tul-ard, or the Beast of the Earth.

The entire world will be engulfed by dukhan or smoke,^[20][52] for forty days,^{[citation needed]} and there will be three huge earthquakes.^{[citation needed]} The Qur'an will be taken to heaven and even the huffaz will not recall its verses. Finally, a pleasant breeze will blow that shall cause all believers to die, but infidels and sinners will remain alive. A fire will start, from Hadramawt in Yemen, that will gather all the people of the world in the land of Mahshar, and al-Qiyamah will commence.^[28]

Resurrection of the dead[edit]

In the Qur'an, barzakh (Arabic: برزخ‎) is the intermediate state in which nafs of the deceased are held between realities to rest with loved ones until Qiyamah.^{[53][54][54][55][56]}

The eighth sign is a breeze bearing a pleasant scent, which will emanate from Yemen, causing the awliya, sulaha and the pious to die peacefully once they inhale it.^{[citation needed]} After the believers die, there will be a period of 120 years during which the world will contain only kafirs, sinners, oppressors, liars, and adulterers; and there will be a reversion to idolatry.^{[citation needed]}

The ninth sign is the rising of the sun from the west after a long night. After midday, the sun will set again. According to hadith:

Abu Hurayrah states that the Messenger of God (saw) as said, "The Hour will not be established until the sun rises from the West and when the people see it they will have faith. But that will be (the time) when believing of the soul, that will have not believed before that time, will not benefit it.

— Ibn Maja, as-Sunan, vol. 2 p 1352-53^[28]

The final signs will be nafkhatu'l-ula, when a trumpet will be sounded for the first time, and which will result in the death of the remaining sinners. Then there will be a period of forty years, after which the eleventh sign is the sounding of a second trumpet to signal the resurrection as ba'as ba'da'l-mawt. As written in the Qur'an:

The Trumpet will (just) be sounded, when all that are in the heavens and on earth will swoon, except such as it will please God (to exempt). Then will a second one be sounded, when, behold, they will be standing and looking on!

— Sura 39 (Az-Zumar), ayah 68^[57]

All will be naked and running to the Place of Gathering, while the enemies of God will be travelling on their faces with their legs upright. Finally, there will be no more injustice:

Surely God does not do injustice to the weight of an atom, and if it is a good deed He multiplies it and gives from Himself a great reward.

— Sura 4 An-Nisa, ayah 40^[58]

Separation of the righteous and the damned at al-Qiyamah[edit]

At divine judgment, each person's Book of Deeds will be read, in which "every small and great thing is recorded",^[59] but with actions before adolescence omitted. Records shall be given with the right hand if they are good, and the left if they are evil. Even the smallest acts will not be ignored:

Then shall anyone who has done an atom's weight of good, see it!
And anyone who has done an atom's weight of evil, shall see it.

— Qur'an, sura 99 Az-Zalzala, ayat 7-8^[60]

This will be followed by perfect, divine, and merciful justice. The age of the hereafter, or the rest of eternity, is the final stage after the Day of Judgment, when all will receive their judgment from God.

Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabeans [before Prophet Muhammad]^[61] – those [among them] who believed in God and the Last Day and did righteousness – will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve.

— Qur'an, Sura 2 Al-Baqara, ayah 62^[62]

The dead will stand in a grand assembly, awaiting a scroll detailing their righteous deeds, sinful acts, and ultimate judgment.^[63][64] Muhammad will be the first to be resurrected.^[65]

If one did good deeds, one would go to Jannah, and if unrighteous, would go to Jahannam. Punishments will include adhab, or severe pain, and khizy or shame.^[66][66] There will also be a punishment of the grave (for those who disbelieved) between death and the resurrection.^[67]

Resurrection theories[edit]

Although Islamic philosophers and scholars were in general agreement on a bodily resurrection after death, however their opinions differ in regard what bodily resurrection will be like. Some of the theories are the following:

• The return to the same material body, someone had during lifetime, that will be restored.^[68]
• Conjunction of the soul with a Mithali body, which is congenial to the worlds of Barzakh and the Akhirah.^[69]
• Resurrection with a Hurqaliyati body, accordingly a second invisible body, that survives death.^[70]

Last Judgment in the Quran[edit]

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Interpretations of the Quran yield the following specifics:

1. The time is known only to God.^[71]
2. Even Muhammad cannot bring it forward.^[72]
3. Those who have been dead, when resurrected, will believe that a short time has passed between death and resurrection.^[73]
4. Nothing will remain except God.^[74] God will resurrect all, even if they have turned to stone or iron.^[75]
5. Those that have accepted false deities will suffer in the afterlife.^[76]

Islamic eschatology in literature[edit]

Ibn al-Nafis wrote of Islamic eschatology in Theologus Autodidactus (circa AD 1270), where he used reason, science, and early Islamic philosophy to explain how he believed al-Qiyamah would unfold, told in the form of a theological fiction novel.^[77]

Imran Nazar Hosein wrote numerous books that deal with Islamic eschatology (Ilmu Ākhir al-Zamān – Knowledge of the later days), among which the most famous is Jerusalem in the Qur'an.^[78]

See also[edit]

• Shia eschatology
• Signs of the reappearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi
• Yawmuddin

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Sources[edit]

• "Fath al-Bari" (from Sahih al-Bukhari by ibn Hajar al-Asqalani).
• Esposito, John, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
• Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, MacMillan Reference Books, 2003, ISBN 978-0028656038.