1.
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
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Since 2003, it is a division of Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. The ISAS originated as part of the Institute of Industrial Science of the University of Tokyo and this experimentation eventually led to the development of the Κ sounding rocket, which was used for observations to determine the International Geophysical Year. By 1960, the Κ-8 rocket had reached an altitude of 200 km, in 1964, the rocket group and the Institute of Aeronautics, along with scientific ballooning team, were merged to form Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science within the University of Tokyo. The rocket evolved into the L series, and, in 1970, although Lambda rockets were only sounding rockets, the next generation of M rockets was intended to be satellite launch vehicles from the start. Beginning in 1971, ISAS launched a series of satellites to observe the ionosphere and magnetosphere. Since the launch of Hakucho in 1979, ISAS has had X-ray astronomy satellites consecutively in orbit, in 2003, three national aerospace organizations including ISAS were merged to form Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. The English name Institute of Space and Astronautical Science is still used, in 2010, the name was changed back to the previous Uchū kagaku kenkyūjo. Hayabusa 2 IKAROS Reusable Vehicle Testing SELENE-2 SPICA http, //www. isas. jaxa. jp/e/index. html From Pencil to M-V — History of Rocket Development - Official JAXA YouTube Channel
2.
Spaceport
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A spaceport is a site for launching spacecraft, by analogy with seaport for ships or airport for aircraft. The word spaceport, and even more so cosmodrome, has traditionally used for sites that are capable of launching spacecraft into orbit around Earth or on interplanetary trajectories. Space stations and proposed future bases on the moon are sometimes called spaceports, the term rocket launch site is used for any facility from which rockets are launched. It may contain one or more launch pads or suitable sites to mount a transportable launch pad and it is typically surrounded by a large safety area, often called a rocket range or missile range. The range includes the area over which launched rockets are expected to fly, tracking stations are sometimes located in the range to assess the progress of the launches. Major spaceports often include more than one launch complex, which can be rocket launch sites adapted for different types of launch vehicles, for launch vehicles with liquid propellant, suitable storage facilities and, in some cases, production facilities are necessary. On-site processing facilities for solid propellants are also common, a spaceport may also include runways for takeoff and landing of aircraft to support spaceport operations, or to enable support of HTHL or HTVL winged launch vehicles. The first rockets to reach space were V-2 rockets launched from Peenemünde, after the war,70 complete V-2 rockets were brought to White Sands for test launches, with 47 of them reaching altitudes between 100 km and 213 km. The worlds first spaceport for orbital and human launches, the Baikonur Cosmodrome in southern Kazakhstan and it achieved the first orbital flight in October 1957. The exact location of the cosmodrome was initially held secret, guesses to its location were misdirected by a name in common with a mining town 320 km away. The Baikonur Cosmodrome achieved the first launch of a human into space in 1961, the launch complex used, Site 1, has reached a special symbolic significance and is commonly called Gagarins Start. Baikonur was the primary Soviet cosmodrome, and is widely used by Russia under a lease arrangement with Kazakhstan. In response to the early Soviet successes, the United States built up a major complex at Cape Canaveral in Florida. A large number of unmanned flights, as well as the early flights, were carried out at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. For the Apollo programme, an adjacent spaceport, Kennedy Space Center, was constructed and it has been the base for all Space Shuttle launches and most of their runway landings. For details on the complexes of the two spaceports, see List of Cape Canaveral and Merritt Island launch sites. The Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana, is the major European spaceport, in October 2003 the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center achieved the first Chinese human spaceflight. The spacecraft, SpaceShipOne, was launched by an airplane taking off horizontally
3.
Tanegashima Space Center
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The Tanegashima Space Center is a Japanese space development facility. It is located on Tanegashima, an island located 115 km south of Kyushu and it was established in 1969 when the National Space Development Agency of Japan was formed, and is now run by JAXA. The activities that take place at TNSC include assembly, testing, launching and it is Japans largest space development center. There are several facilities at the TNSC, orbital launches of the H-II rockets took place from the Yoshinobu Launch Complex. One of the firing test facilities is the Yoshinobu Firing Test Stand, there are also buildings for assembly of spacecraft, and for radar and optical tracking of launched spacecraft. The Osaki Launch Complex was retired in 1992 and it was used for N-I, N-II, and H-I launches and development. The spaceport was completely destroyed in a bombing raid by Novaya Russia. Episode 2 of the Japanese animated film 5 Centimeters Per Second features a launch from Tanegashima Space Center. In the Robotics, Notes visual novel, Tanegashima Space Center is one of the settings found in the game. It is also featured in the anime, in Captain Earth, Tanegashima Space Center is now controlled by Globe and serves as one of their bases. In the Japanese animated television series Aldnoah. Zero, Tanegashima is the landing site of some Martian technology. In the Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire games, along with their remakes, In a part of Mossdeep City, there is a center called Mossdeep Space center. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Official website Official website Introduction http, //www. astronautix. com/sites/tanshima. htm SLR Global Performance Report Card 8866 Tanegashima - asteroid
4.
Satellite
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In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
5.
Geocentric orbit
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A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of space debris as tracked by the Goddard Space Flight Center. Over 16,291 previously launched objects have decayed into the Earths atmosphere, altitude as used here, the height of an object above the average surface of the Earths oceans. Analemma a term in astronomy used to describe the plot of the positions of the Sun on the celestial sphere throughout one year, apogee is the farthest point that a satellite or celestial body can go from Earth, at which the orbital velocity will be at its minimum. Eccentricity a measure of how much an orbit deviates from a perfect circle, eccentricity is strictly defined for all circular and elliptical orbits, and parabolic and hyperbolic trajectories. Equatorial plane as used here, an imaginary plane extending from the equator on the Earth to the celestial sphere, escape velocity as used here, the minimum velocity an object without propulsion needs to have to move away indefinitely from the Earth. An object at this velocity will enter a parabolic trajectory, above this velocity it will enter a hyperbolic trajectory, impulse the integral of a force over the time during which it acts. Inclination the angle between a plane and another plane or axis. In the sense discussed here the reference plane is the Earths equatorial plane, orbital characteristics the six parameters of the Keplerian elements needed to specify that orbit uniquely. Orbital period as defined here, time it takes a satellite to make one orbit around the Earth. Perigee is the nearest approach point of a satellite or celestial body from Earth, sidereal day the time it takes for a celestial object to rotate 360°. For the Earth this is,23 hours,56 minutes,4.091 seconds, solar time as used here, the local time as measured by a sundial. Velocity an objects speed in a particular direction, since velocity is defined as a vector, both speed and direction are required to define it. The following is a list of different geocentric orbit classifications, Low Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 160 kilometers to 2,000 kilometres above mean sea level. At 160 km, one revolution takes approximately 90 minutes, medium Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee ranging between 2,000 kilometres and that of the geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 kilometres. Geosynchronous orbit - Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 kilometres, the period of the orbit equals one sidereal day, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth. The speed is approximately 3,000 metres per second, high Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee higher than that of the geosynchronous orbit. A special case of high Earth orbit is the elliptical orbit
6.
Asteroid
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Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger ones have also been called planetoids and these terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, in this article, the term asteroid refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter. There are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the remnants of planetesimals. The large majority of known asteroids orbit in the belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter. However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the near-Earth objects, individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups, C-type, M-type, and S-type. These were named after and are identified with carbon-rich, metallic. The size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as 1000 km across, asteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition, while asteroids are composed of mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust. In addition, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned cometary ice, the difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size, meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials, only one asteroid,4 Vesta, which has a relatively reflective surface, is normally visible to the naked eye, and this only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be visible to the eye for a short time. As of March 2016, the Minor Planet Center had data on more than 1.3 million objects in the inner and outer Solar System, the United Nations declared June 30 as International Asteroid Day to educate the public about asteroids. The date of International Asteroid Day commemorates the anniversary of the Tunguska asteroid impact over Siberia, the first asteroid to be discovered, Ceres, was found in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and was originally considered to be a new planet. In the early half of the nineteenth century, the terms asteroid. Asteroid discovery methods have improved over the past two centuries. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, the expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernible by observers
7.
Exploration of the Moon
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The physical exploration of the Moon began when Luna 2, a space probe launched by the Soviet Union, made an impact on the surface of the Moon on September 14,1959. Prior to that the available means of exploration had been observation from Earth. The invention of the telescope brought about the first leap in the quality of lunar observations. NASAs Apollo program was the first, and to date only, the first landing took place in 1969, when astronauts placed scientific instruments and returned lunar samples to Earth. The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the reflected the light of the former. His non-religious view of the heavens was one cause for his imprisonment and he also entertained the possibility that the Moon was inhabited. Aristarchus went a further and computed the distance from Earth, together with its size. Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be equated to qi. This was supported by mainstream thinkers such as Jing Fang, who noted the sphericity of the Moon, by 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon. Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi, a Persian astronomer, conducted various observations at the Al-Shammisiyyah observatory in Baghdad between 825 and 835 AD. Using these observations, he estimated the Moons diameter as 3,037 km and its distance from the Earth as 215,209 miles, which come close to the currently accepted values. By the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, in 1609, Galileo Galilei drew one of the first telescopic drawings of the Moon in his book Sidereus Nuncius and noted that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Later in the 17th century, Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi drew a map of the Moon, on maps, the dark parts of the Moons surface were called maria or seas, and the light parts were called terrae or continents. Thomas Harriot, as well as Galilei, drew the first telescopic representation of the Moon, the first map of the Moon was made by the Belgian cosmographer and astronomer Michael Florent van Langren in 1645. Two years later a more influential effort was published by Johannes Hevelius. In 1647 Hevelius published Selenographia, the first treatise entirely devoted to the Moon, in 1753 the Croatian Jesuit and astronomer Roger Joseph Boscovich discovered the absence of atmosphere on the Moon. In 1824 Franz von Gruithuisen explained the formation of craters as a result of meteorite strikes, the possibility that the Moon contains vegetation and is inhabited by selenites was seriously considered by major astronomers even into the first decades of the 19th century. The Cold War-inspired space race and Moon race between the Soviet Union and the United States of America accelerated with a focus on the Moon
8.
Japan's space development
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Japans space exploration started in the mid-1950s as a research group led by Hideo Itokawa at the University of Tokyo. Rocket sizes increased gradually from less than 30 cm at the start of the project to over 15 m in the mid-1960s, the aim of the original research project was to launch a man-made satellite. By the 1960s, two organizations, the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and the National Space Development Agency of Japan, were developing their own rockets, the Japanese space development was started by Tokyo University professor Hideo Itokawa. Many aeronautical engineers lost their jobs after World War II as the development of aircraft was banned under the US Occupation of Japan, the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951 allowed the development of aviation technology again under the sovereignty of Japan. The seven-year stagnation of Japans aerospace industry had seriously harmed the Japaneses technical ability, the dimensions of the rocket were 23 cm in length by 1.8 cm in diameter. This was the first rocket experiment in Japan and this rocket was initially associated with the development of rocket aircraft and not with space exploration. However, with Japans participation in the International Geophysical Year, the focus of the project shifted towards space engineering. Following the pencil rocket, the larger Baby Rocket was developed which finally reached an altitude of 6 km, after the Baby Rocket, two rocket projects were carried out, a rockoon type rocket launched from a balloon and a ground-launched rocket. The development of the turned out to be difficult and was eventually stalled. Among the ground-launched rocket type, the reached by the Kappa rocket gradually increased. This rocket was used for weather observation and participated in the data collection of the 1958 International Geophysical Year. Due to non-existent development funds at the time, the rockets were handmade, the production relied on trial and error which brought forth many types of rockets. In 1958, the Kappa 6 rocket reached an altitude of 40 km, in 1960, the Kappa 8 rocket exceeded an altitude of 200 km. The development of larger rockets necessitated a launch site with a big downrange, in the 1960s, the information collected was primarily focused on satellites. In 1963 the Science and Technology Agency established the National Aerospace Laboratory where basic research on technology was to be conducted. From about that time the government started to increase its effort with regard to space development. The University of Tokyo Aerospace was established, lambda rocket development proceeded slowly while adding improvements, and to reach 2000 km altitude, the reality was closer to the launch of the satellite. Disputes arise between the parties had been fishing in coastal fishing and fly far away as the rocket stalled temporarily, the continued failure of the rocket into orbit four times lambda
9.
Kibo (ISS module)
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The Japanese Experiment Module, nicknamed Kibo, is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, the first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127, the Pressurized Module is the core component connected to the port hatch of the Node 2 Module. The racks are placed 6-6-6-5 along the four walls of the module, the end of the JEM-PM has an airlock and two window hatches. The Exposed Facility, Experiment Logistics Module and the Remote Manipulator System all connect to the pressurized module, Kibo is also the location for many of the press conferences that take place on board the station. The Exposed Facility, also known as Terrace, is located outside the cone of the PM. The EF has 12 EFU ports that attach to PIU connectors on EF-EEUs, all experiment payloads are fully exposed to the space environment. For proper functioning of these experiments, the payload requires an ORU which consists of the EPS, CT, of the 12 ORUs, eight are replaceable by the JEMRMS while the other four are EVA-replaceable. The Experiment Logistics Module includes two sections, The Japanese Experiment Logistics Module, Pressurized Section –- also called the JLP –- is an addition to the PM. The module is a facility that provides storage space for experiment payloads, samples. The unpressurized section serves the EF as a storage and transportation module, the Remote Manipulator System is a 10m long robotic arm, mounted at the port cone of the PM, intended to service the EF and to move equipment from and to the ELM. The RMS control console was launched while inside the ELM-PS, the main arm was launched with the PM. The Small Fine Arm, is 2m long and attaches to the end effector of the arm, was launched aboard. The free end of the arm is able to use the type of grapple fixtures that the Canadarm2 uses, NASA launched the JEM complex over three flights using the Space Shuttle. The shuttle had a payload bay which carried the modules into orbit along with the crew. This is in contrast to the Russian modules, which are launched into orbit on multistage Proton rockets and then rendezvous, on 12 March 2007, the Experiment Logistics Module Pressurized Section, the main laboratory, arrived at the Kennedy Space Center from Japan. It was stored in the Space Station Processing Facility until launched into orbit aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour as part of the STS-123 mission, on 30 May 2003, the Pressurized Module arrived at KSC from Japan. It was stored at the Space Station Processing Facility until launched into orbit aboard Space Shuttle Discovery as part of the STS-124 mission, on 3 June 2008 the PM was attached to the Harmony module
10.
International Space Station
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The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
11.
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
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The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications is a cabinet-level ministry in the Government of Japan. Its English name was Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and it is housed in the 2nd Building of the Central Common Government Office at 2-1-2 Kasumigaseki in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. The Ministry oversees the Japanese administrative system, manages local governments, elections, telecommunication, post, the Minister for Internal Affairs and Communications is appointed from among the members of the cabinet. The Ministry was created on January 6,2001 by the merger of the Ministry of Home Affairs, the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications and the Management and Coordination Agency
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Outer space
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Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
13.
Rocket
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A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket before use, Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space. In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere, multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China, significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Earths moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for satellites, human spaceflight. Chemical rockets are the most common type of high power rocket, chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks, the first gunpowder-powered rockets were developed in Song China, by the 13th century. The Chinese rocket technology was adopted by the Mongols and the invention was spread via the Mongol invasions to the Near East, medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as incendiary weapons in sieges. An early Chinese text to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing, between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya, which included 107 gunpowder recipes,22 of which are for rockets. In Europe, Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his military treatise Bellifortis around 1405. The name Rocket comes from the Italian rocchetta, meaning bobbin or little spindle, the Italian term was adopted into German in the mid 16th century by Leonhard Fronsperger and Conrad Haas, and by the early 17th century into English. Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, an important early work on rocket artillery. The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the late 18th century in the Kingdom of Mysore, in 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote the line rockets red glare while held captive on a British ship that was laying siege to Fort McHenry. The first mathematical treatment of the dynamics of rocket propulsion is due to William Moore, in 1815, Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed rockets to be fired in salvos, and gun-laying devices. William Hale in 1844 greatly increased the accuracy of rocket artillery, the Congreve rocket was further improved by Edward Mounier Boxer in 1865. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky first speculated on the possibility of manned spaceflight with rocket technology, robert Goddard in 1920 published proposed improvements to rocket technology in A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes
14.
Tanegashima
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Tanegashima is one of the Ōsumi Islands belonging to Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island,444.99 km² in area, is the second largest of the Ōsumi Islands, access to the island is by ferry, or by air to New Tanegashima Airport. Administratively, the island is divided into the city, Nishinoomote, the towns belong to Kumage District. Tanegashima is the easternmost and the second largest of the Osumi Islands and it is located approximately 43 kilometres south of the southern tip of Osumi Peninsula in southern Kyushu, or 115 kilometres south of Kagoshima. The Vincennes Strait separates it from Yakushima, the island is of volcanic origin, however, unlike neighboring Yakushima, it presents a flat appearance, with its highest elevation at only 282 metres above sea level. The island has a length of 57 kilometres and a width ranging from 5 kilometres to 10 kilometres, Tanegashima has a long history with Kofun. Other burials on Tanegashima, namely the Yokomine and Hirota sites, the artifacts include magatama, an engraved pendant, and emblems with apparent writing. During the Nara period, the state of Japan began to contact Tanegashima, according to the Nihonshoki, the imperial court banqueted islanders of Tanegashima in 677. In 679, the court sent to the island a mission, other missions to the island mentioned in the book were of 683 and 695. According to the Shoku Nihongi, people from Tane, Yaku, Amami and these activities resulted in the establishment of Tane Province on the island in 702. Tane Province lasted until 824 and was merged into Ōsumi Province, sometime around 1140, the whole island of Tanegashima became part of the Shimazu Estate, the largest medieval shōen of Japan. In the early Kamakura period, the positions of the steward of the Shimazu Estate. However, the clan lost these positions to the Hōjō clan, the Hōjō clan sent the Higo clan as deputy governors. A branch line of the Higo clan made itself autonomous on Tanegashima after the Hōjō clan was annihilated, the Tanegashima clan ruled the island until the Meiji restoration. The Tanegashima clan enjoyed a degree of autonomy until Shimazu unified southern Kyūshū in the late 16th century. Following the Meiji restoration, the island has been administered as part of Kagoshima Prefecture, Tanegashima is traditionally known as the site of the introduction of European firearms to Japan in 1542. Until modern times, firearms were known in Japan as Tanegashima. However, Mendes Pinto does appear to have visited Tanegashima soon thereafter, the Europeans had arrived to trade, not only guns, but also soap, tobacco and other goods unknown in medieval Japan, for the Japanese goods
15.
Kyushu
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Kyushu is the third biggest island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Its alternative ancient names include Kyūkoku, Chinzei, and Tsukushi-no-shima, the historical regional name Saikaidō referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands. In the 8th century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as an administrative term for the region. As of 2016, Kyushu has a population of 12,970,479, the island is mountainous, and Japans most active volcano, Mt Aso at 1,591 metres, is on Kyushu. There are many signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, the island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. The name Kyūshū comes from the nine ancient provinces of Saikaidō situated on the island, Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Osumi, excepting Oita and Miyazaki cities, the eastern seaboard shows a general decline in population. Designated cities Fukuoka Kitakyushu Kumamoto Core cities Kagoshima Ōita Nagasaki Miyazaki Naha Kurume Parts of Kyushu have a climate, particularly Miyazaki. Major agricultural products are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, the island is noted for various types of porcelain, including Arita, Imari, Satsuma, and Karatsu. Heavy industry is concentrated in the north around Fukuoka, Kitakyushu, Nagasaki, and Oita and includes chemicals, automobiles, semiconductors, in 2010, the graduate employment rate in the region was the lowest nationwide, at 88. 9%. Besides the volcanic area of the south, there are significant mud hot springs in the part of the island, around Beppu. These springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, the Kanmon Bridge also connects the island with Honshu. Railways on the island are operated by the Kyushu Railway Company, and Nishitetsu Railway
16.
Space Shuttle
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The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System, taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development, the first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, the Shuttle fleets total mission time was 1322 days,19 hours,21 minutes and 23 seconds. Shuttle components included the Orbiter Vehicle, a pair of solid rocket boosters. The Shuttle was launched vertically, like a rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the OVs three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, and the ET was jettisoned just before orbit insertion, at the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to de-orbit and re-enter the atmosphere. The orbiter then glided as a spaceplane to a landing, usually at the Shuttle Landing Facility of KSC or Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base. After landing at Edwards, the orbiter was back to the KSC on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976 for use in Approach, four fully operational orbiters were initially built, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in accidents, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of fourteen astronauts killed. A fifth operational orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger, the Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantiss final flight on July 21,2011. Nixons post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all components except the Shuttle. The vehicle consisted of a spaceplane for orbit and re-entry, fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982, all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135 missions, the program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21,2011. Major missions included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes, conducting space science experiments, the first orbiter vehicle, named Enterprise, was built for the initial Approach and Landing Tests phase and lacked engines, heat shielding, and other equipment necessary for orbital flight. A total of five operational orbiters were built, and of these and it was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the US Department of Defense, the European Space Agency, Japan, and Germany. The United States funded Shuttle development and operations except for the Spacelab modules used on D1, sL-J was partially funded by Japan
17.
Cabinet of Japan
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The Cabinet of Japan is the executive branch of the government of Japan. It consists of the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the National Diet, the Prime Minister is designated by the Diet, and the remaining ministers are appointed and dismissed by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is collectively responsible to the Diet and must resign if a motion of no confidence is adopted by the Diet, under the constitution, Cabinet ministers are appointed after the selection of the Prime Minister. A majority of the Cabinet, including the Prime Minister, must be members of the Diet, under the Cabinet Law, the number of Cabinet Ministers must be fourteen or less, but this may be increased to nineteen if a special need arises. In the event that the Cabinet collectively resigns it continues to exercise its functions until the appointment of a new Prime Minister, while they are in office, legal action may not be taken against Cabinet ministers without the consent of the Prime Minister. Upon the first convocation of the Diet after an election to the House of Representatives. When the position Prime Minister becomes vacant, or the Prime Minister declares his intention to resign, the Cabinet exercises two kinds of power. Some of its powers, while in practice exercised in accordance with the instructions of the Cabinet, are nominally exercised by the Emperor with the advice. Its other class of powers are exercised by the Cabinet explicitly, contrary to the practice in many constitutional monarchies, the Emperor of Japan is not even the nominal Chief Executive. Instead, the Constitution explicitly vests executive authority in the Cabinet, in practice, much of the Cabinets authority is exercised by the Prime Minister. Under the Constitution, the Prime Minister exercises control and supervision over the executive branch, while Cabinet Ministers in most other parliamentary regimes theoretically have some freedom of action, the Japanese Cabinet is effectively an extension of the Prime Ministers authority. Promulgation of amendments to the laws, cabinet orders and treaties, dissolution of the House of Representatives. Proclamation of general elections to the Diet, receiving of foreign ambassadors and ministers. Granting of general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, signing of laws or cabinet orders by the relevant Minister of State and countersigned by the Prime Minister. Appointment of the justices of the Supreme Court of Japan. Accessed 13 October 2012 from, http, //www. japantimes. com/cabinets. htm Cabinet Secretariat, Office of Cabinet Public Relations, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet. Retrieved 28 Oct.2003 from, http, //www. kantei. go. jp/foreign/index-e. html Hunter, concise Dictionary of Modern Japanese History. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, pp. 266–324, Appendix 5, official Website of the Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, Third Reshuffled Noda Cabinet List of Japanese cabinets Cabinet Office Cabinet Secretariat Cabinet Legislation Bureau
18.
Hatoyama, Saitama
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Hatoyama is a town located in Hiki District, Saitama Prefecture, in the central Kantō region of Japan. As of 1 February 2016, the town had an population of 14,336. Its total area was 25.73 square kilometres, the JAXA Earth Observation Center is located in Hatoyama. Ranzan is located at the center of central Saitama Prefecture. Saitama Prefecture Sakado Higashimatsuyama Ranzan Tokigawa Ogose Moroyama The village of Hatoyama was created on April 15,1955 by the merger of the villages of Kamei and it was raised to town status on April 1,1982. The economy of Hatoyama is primarily agricultural, with rice predominating, hitachi has a research facility located in Hatoyama. Tokyo Denki University – Hatoyama campus Yamamura Gakuen College Hatoyama has three schools, one middle school and one high school. Hatoyama is not on any passenger train network or national highway, the nearest train station is Takasaka in neighboring Higashimatsuyama. The nearest highway access point is the Tsurugashima Interchange on the Kan-Etsu Expressway in neighboring Tsurugashima, media related to Hatoyama, Saitama at Wikimedia Commons Official website
19.
Noshiro Rocket Testing Center
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The Noshiro Rocket Testing Center | is a facility of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, located on the coast of the Sea of Japan in the city of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture, Japan. The testing center was involved in the development and testing of sounding rockets, from 1975, the Noshiro Testing Center was involved in the research, development and testing of liquid-fuel rocket engines. The static firing test for the M-V rocket engines took place at Noshiro, in addition, a successful static test firing of the ATREX, an experimental precooled jet engine that works as a turbojet at low speeds and a ramjet up to Mach 6.0 occurred in 1992. From 1998, the site has active in the Reusable Vehicle Testing program to develop an air-breathing engine which uses less fuel than a rocket. Emerging Space Powers, The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East, Space Program Management, Methods and Tools. Springer ISBN1461437555 JAXA official home page JAXA brochure on Noshiro Test Center
20.
Noshiro, Akita
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Noshiro is a city located in northern Akita Prefecture, Japan. As of February 2016, the city had an population of 54,576. The total area was 526.95 square kilometres, Noshiro is located in the flat coastal plains northwestern Akita Prefecture, bordered by the Sea of Japan to the west. The Yoneshiro River flows through the city and empties into the Sea of Japan near Noshiro Port, the highest point is Mount Yakeyama at 963. Trade vessels from Balhae were calling at Noshiro Port as late as 771 AD, the area of present-day Noshiro was part of ancient Dewa Province, dominated by the Satake clan during the Edo period, who ruled Kubota Domain under the Tokugawa shogunate. The modern city of Noshiro was created on October 1,1940, by the merger of the town of Noshirominato, on March 21,2006, the town of Futatsui was merged into Noshiro. The economy of Noshiro is based on agriculture and commercial fishing, Noshiro has 12 elementary schools, seven middle schools and four high schools, and well as one special education school. Onagori Festival in Noshiro Kanto matsuri, Aomori Nebuta Matsuri, Samba Carnival and more
21.
Kakuda Space Center
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The LE-5, and the LE-7 rocket enginese were developed at the Kakuda Space Center. The predecessor to the Kakuda Space Center was established in 1965 as the Kakuda Branch Laboratory of the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan under the aegis of the Science, in 1978, the National Space Development Agency constructed the Kakuda Rocket Development Center on the same campus. Its purpose was to engage in research and development to raise the level of Japanese rocket propulsion technology. From the late 1980s, the Center also began research into space plane propulsion, especially scramjet technology, in 2005, the Kakuda Space Center was officially renamed the Kakuda Space Propulsion Technology Research Center
22.
Kakuda, Miyagi
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Kakuda is a city located in Miyagi Prefecture, in the Tohoku region of northern Japan. As of September 2015, the city had an population of 29,846. The total area was 147.58 square kilometres, Kakuda is in southeastern Miyagi Prefecture. The Abukuma River flows through the city, the town of Kakuda was established with the creation of the municipalities system on April 1,1889. It annexed the villages of Kitago, Sakura, NIshine, Higashine, Fujio. Kakuda was raised to city status on October 1,1958, Kakuda has a mixed economy based on light manufacturing of automotive parts and electrics, and on agriculture, primarily the cultivation of soybeans and plums. The area was noted for its sericulture. Kakuda has eight schools, three middle schools, one high school and one special education school
23.
H-IIA
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H-IIA is an active expendable launch system operated by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries for the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. The liquid-fueled H-IIA rockets have used to launch satellites into geostationary orbit, to launch a lunar orbiting spacecraft. Launches occur at the Tanegashima Space Center, the H-IIA first flew in 2001 and has been launched 30 times by February 2016. Production and management of the H-IIA shifted from JAXA to MHI on April 1,2007, flight 13, which launched the lunar orbiter SELENE, was the first H-IIA launched after this privatization. The H-IIA is a derivative of the earlier H-II rocket, substantially redesigned to improve reliability, there are currently two different variants of the H-IIA in active service for various purposes. A derivative design, the H-IIB, was developed in the 2000s, the launch capability of an H-IIA launch vehicle can be enhanced by adding SRB-A and Castor 4AXL to its basic configuration, creating a family. The models are indicated by three or four numbers following the prefix H2A. The first number in the sequence indicates the number of stages, the number of liquid rocket boosters, the third number of SRBs, and, if present. The first two figures are fixed at 20, as H-IIA is always two-staged, and the plans for LRBs were cancelled and superseded by the H-IIB. The first H-IIA was successfully launched on August 29,2001, the sixth launch on November 29,2003, intended to launch two IGS reconnaissance satellites, failed. JAXA announced that launches would resume in 2005, and the first successful flight took place on February 26 with the launch of MTSAT-1R, the first launch for a mission beyond Earth orbit was on September 14,2007 for the SELENE moon mission. The first foreign payload on the H-IIA was the Australian FedSat-1 in 2002, as of March 2015,27 out of 28 launches were successful. A rocket with increased launch capabilities, H-IIB, is a derivative of the H-IIA family, H-IIB uses two LE-7A engines in its first stage, as opposed to one in H-IIA. The first H-IIB was successfully launched on September 10,2009, for the 29th flight on November 24,2015, an H-IIA with an upgraded second stage launched the Canadian Telstar 12V satellite, the first commercial primary payload for a Japanese launch vehicle
24.
H-IIB
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H-IIB is an expendable launch system used to launch H-II Transfer Vehicles towards the International Space Station. H-IIB rockets are liquid-fuelled with solid-fuel strap-on boosters and are launched from the Tanegashima Space Center in Japan, Mitsubishi and JAXA have been primarily responsible for design, manufacture, and operation of H-IIB. H-IIB made its first flight in 2009, and has made a total of five flights through 2015. H-IIB is able to carry a payload of up to 8,000 kilograms to GTO, compared with the payload of 4, 000-6,000 kg for the H-IIA and its performance to LEO is sufficient for the 16,500 kg HTV. The first H-IIB was launched in September 2009, the H-IIB launch vehicle is a launch vehicle developed jointly by JAXA and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries to launch the H-II Transfer Vehicle. Before launch, two Captive Firing Tests were conducted on the H-IIB and this was later discovered to have been due to a manual supply valve not being open. The test was rescheduled for 1 April, but then postponed due to a leak in a pipe associated with the launch facilitys fire suppression system. The test was rescheduled for 2 April, when it was conducted at 05,00 GMT. Following this, the second test, which involved a 150-second burn of the first stage, was scheduled for 20 April and this was successfully conducted at 04,00 GMT on 22 April, following a two-day delay due to unfavourable weather conditions. A ground test, using a mockup of the rocket was subsequently conducted on 11 July. By 2009, the development program of the H-IIB had cost approximately 27 billion yen, the H-IIB launch vehicle is a two-stage rocket. The first stage uses liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen as propellants and has four solid rocket boosters powered by polybutadiene. The first stage is powered by two LE-7A engines, instead of one for the H-IIA and it has four SRB-As attached to the body, while the standard version of H-IIA has two SRB-As. In addition, the body of the H-IIB is 5. 2m in diameter compared with 4m for the H-IIA. The total length of the first stage is extended by 1m from that of H-IIA, as a result, the H-IIB first stage holds 70% more propellant than that of the H-IIA. The second stage is powered by a single LE-5B engine, the first launch of the H-IIB occurred on 10 September 2009 at 1701 UTC. It successfully launched the HTV-1, which was on a mission to resupply the International Space Station, Comparison of orbital launchers families Comparison of orbital launch systems JAXA | H-IIB Launch Vehicle Development Status of the H-IIB Launch Vehicle. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical Review Volume 45 Number 4 H-2B rocket 3D model
25.
Tsukuba, Ibaraki
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Tsukuba is a city located in Ibaraki Prefecture, in the northern Kantō region of Japan. As of September 2015, the city had an population of 223,151. Its total area is 283.72 square kilometres and it is known as the location of the Tsukuba Science City, a planned science park developed in the 1960s. Located in southern Ibaraki Prefecture, Tsukuba is located to the south of Mount Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture Tsukubamirai Jōsō Shimotsuma Chikusei Sakuragawa Ishioka Tsuchiura Ushiku Ryūgasaki Mount Tsukuba has been a place of pilgrimage since at least the Heian period. During the Edo period, parts of what became the city of Tsukuba were administered by a junior branch of the Hosokawa clan at Yatabe Domain. With the creation of the system after the Meiji Restoration on April 1,1889. On November 30,1987 the town of Yatabe merged with the towns of Ōho and Toyosato. The neighboring town of Tsukuba merged with the city of Tsukuba on January 1,1988, on April 1,2007 Tsukuba was designated a Special cities of Japan with increased autonomy. On May 6,2012, Tsukuba was struck by a tornado caused heavy damage to numerous structures. The storm killed one 14-year-old boy and injured 45 people, the tornado was rated an F-3 by the Japan Meteorological Agency, making it the most powerful tornado to ever hit Japan. The city was closely modeled on other planned cities and science developments, including Brasilia, Novosibirsks Akademgorodok, Bethesda, nevertheless, it should not be called Japans Silicon Valley, simply because the public sector dominates research and development. Japans metropolises also dominate over Tsukuba in terms of corporate headquarters, there is no formal attempt currently to turn Tsukuba into a Silicon Valley style research center. This may be contrasted with formal government support of tech clustering in Taoyuan-Hsinchu in Taiwan, beginning in the 1960s, the area was designated for development. Construction of the city centre, the University of Tsukuba and 46 public basic scientific research began in the 1970s. Tsukuba Science City became operational in the 1980s, the Expo 85 worlds fair was held in the area of Tsukuba Science City, which at the time was still divided administratively between several small towns and villages. Attractions at the event included the 85-metre Technocosmos, which at time was the worlds tallest Ferris wheel. These zones were surrounded by more than 240 private research facilities, the city has an international flair, with about 7,500 foreign students and researchers from as many as 133 countries living in Tsukuba at any one time. Over the past several decades, nearly half of Japans public research, Tsukuba has become one of the worlds key sites for government-industry collaborations in basic research
26.
Uchinoura Space Center
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The Uchinoura Space Center is a space launch facility close to the Japanese town of Kimotsuki, in Kagoshima Prefecture. Before the establishment of the JAXA space agency in 2003, it was called the Kagoshima Space Center. All Japans scientific satellites were launched from Uchinoura prior to the M-V launch vehicles being decommissioned in 2006 and it continues to be used for suborbital launches, and has also been used for the Epsilon orbital launch vehicle. Additionally, the center has antennas for communication with interplanetary space probes, established in February 1962, the Kagoshima Space Center was constructed on the Pacific coast of Kagoshima Prefecture at Uchinoura for the purpose of launching large rockets with probe payloads. Prior to establishment of KSC, test launches of the Pencil Rocket, Baby Rocket, however, progress in rocket development and larger launch vehicles required a site with more expansive down range than the narrow Sea of Japan. After consideration of various sites, Uchinoura in Kagoshima Prefecture. Subsequent to the so-called Baby Rocket, launch vehicles developed by Japan have been given names from the Greek alphabet, i. e. Alpha, Beta, Kappa, Omega, Lambda, and Mu. Although some Greek letters have been skipped due to project termination, launch test efforts at KSC with regard to the Kappa, Lambda and Lambda-4 rockets set the stage for small satellite missions. At the same time, the Mu program of large rockets was pursued, after four launch failures, an engineering test satellite was successfully put into orbit aboard a Lambda 4S-5 rocket. The satellite Ōsumi marked Japans first successful satellite launch, subsequent improvements in the Mu class rocket enabled scientific satellite launches at a rate of one per year. Development of the new generation M-V rocket resulted in successful launch of the scientific satellite MUSES-B in February 1997, the first launch of the Epsilon rocket, of a small scientific satellite SPRINT-A, was performed at 14,00 JST,14 September 2013
27.
Epsilon (rocket)
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The Epsilon rocket is a Japanese solid-fuel rocket designed to launch scientific satellites. It is a project to the larger and more expensive M-V rocket which was retired in 2006. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency began developing the Epsilon in 2007 and it is designed to be capable of placing a 1.2 tonne payload into low Earth orbit. The development aim is to reduce costs compared to the US$70 million launch cost of an M-V, the Epsilon costs US$38 million per launch, which is half the cost of its predecessor. Development expenditures by JAXA exceeded US$200 million, to reduce the cost per launch the Epsilon uses the existing SRB-A3, a solid rocket booster on the H-IIA rocket, as its first stage. Existing M-V upper stages will be used for the second and third stages, the J-1 rocket, which was developed during the 1990s, but abandoned after just one launch, used a similar design concept, with an H-II booster and Mu-3S-II upper stages. The Epsilon is expected to have a launch preparation time than its predecessors. The rocket has a mass of 91 tonnes and is 24.4 metres tall and 2.5 metres in diameter, due to a function called mobile launch control, the rocket needs only eight people at the launch site, compared with 150 people for earlier launches. After the successful launch of the Epsilon first flight, the improvement plan was decided to handle the planned payloads, the maiden flight, carrying the SPRINT-A scientific satellite, lifted off at 05,00 UTC on September 14,2013. The launch was conducted at a cost of $38 million, on August 27,2013, the first planned launch of the rocket had to be aborted 19 seconds before liftoff because of a botched data transmission. A ground-based computer had tried to receive data from the rocket 0.07 seconds before the information was actually transmitted. Epsilons second mission was scheduled for 2015 with a mission to study solar storm effects on Earth. In November 2012, JAXA reported that there had been a leak of rocket data due to a computer virus. JAXA had previously been a victim of cyber-attacks, possibly for espionage purposes, solid-fuel rocket data potentially has military value, and Epsilon is considered as potentially adaptable to an intercontinental ballistic missile. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency removed the infected computer from its network, and said its M-V rocket and H-IIA and H-IIB rockets may have been compromised
28.
X-ray astronomy
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X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of X-ray observation and detection from astronomical objects. X-radiation is absorbed by the Earths atmosphere, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites. X-ray astronomy is the science related to a type of space telescope that can see farther than standard light-absorption telescopes, such as the Mauna Kea Observatories. X-ray emission is expected from astronomical objects that contain extremely hot gasses at temperatures from about a million kelvin to hundreds of millions of kelvin. Although X-rays have been observed emanating from the Sun since the 1940s and this source is called Scorpius X-1, the first X-ray source found in the constellation Scorpius. The X-ray emission of Scorpius X-1 is 10,000 times greater than its visual emission, in addition, the energy output in X-rays is 100,000 times greater than the total emission of the Sun in all wavelengths. Based on discoveries in this new field of X-ray astronomy, starting with Scorpius X-1 and it is now known that such X-ray sources as Sco X-1 are compact stars, such as neutron stars or black holes. Material falling into a hole may emit X-rays, but the black hole itself does not. The energy source for the X-ray emission is gravity, infalling gas and dust is heated by the strong gravitational fields of these and other celestial objects. Many thousands of X-ray sources are known, in addition, the space between galaxies in galaxy clusters is filled with a very hot, but very dilute gas at a temperature between 10 and 100 megakelvins. The total amount of hot gas is five to ten times the mass in the visible galaxies. The first sounding rocket flights for X-ray research were accomplished at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico with a V-2 rocket on January 28,1949. A detector was placed in the nose section and the rocket was launched in a suborbital flight to an altitude just above the atmosphere. X-rays from the Sun were detected by the U. S. Naval Research Laboratory Blossom experiment on board, an Aerobee 150 rocket was launched on June 12,1962 and it detected the first X-rays from other celestial sources. The largest drawback to rocket flights is their short duration. A rocket launched from the United States will not be able to see sources in the southern sky, in astronomy, the interstellar medium is the gas and cosmic dust that pervade interstellar space, the matter that exists between the star systems within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the intergalactic medium. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, the energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is the interstellar radiation field
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S-Series (rocket family)
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S-Series is a fleet of sounding rockets funded by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency that have been in service since the late 1960s. Manufactured by IHI Aerospace and operated by the Institute of Space, the nomenclature of the S-Series rockets is the number of S indicates the number of stages, and the following number details the diameter of the craft in millimeters. For example the S-310 is a single rocket with a diameter of 310 mm. On January 14,2017 the SS-520-4 rocket attempted to become the lightest and smallest launch vehicle to send a payload to orbit, a retired single stage Japanese sounding rocket. The S-160 has a flight altitude of 80 kilometers, a launch mass of 100 kg, a diameter of 160 mm. It was launched 13 times between 1965 and 1972, a retired single-stage sounding rocket made by JAXA and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science to study the ionospheric, launched from Japans Antarctic base. The first S-210 launch took place in 1966, and was retired in 1982, the first two launches of the full sized versions in took place between 1966–1967, they were both failures, with the motor case burning through. After redesign of the case and improved quality control the subsequent launch in August 1969 was successful, following further successful tests in Japan in 1970–1971, the rocket was cleared for intensive use at the Japanese Antarctic base at Syowa in 1972–1978. Gross mass,300 kg Height,5.20 m Diameter,0.21 m Apogee,110 km It was built to replace the smaller S-160 rocket which was a proof-of-concept design rocket, the S-310 is an active single-stage sounding rocket. Like its predecessor the S-210 it was developed for observations in Antarctica, the rocket is 310 mm in diameter, and can reach an altitude of 150 km. The first flight of S-310 in January 1975 was successful, and it has launched at Kagoshima Space Center at Uchinoura, Showa Station in Antarctica. As of January 1,2017 the S-310 has completed 52 sub-orbital launches, gross mass,700 kg Height,6.80 m Diameter,0.31 m Apogee,190 km The S-520 was developed to replace the K-9M and K-10 type sounding rockets. It is an active single-stage sounding rocket capable of launching a 100 kg payload above 300 km, the first launch took place in 1980, and most recently flew on September 11,2015. Gross mass,2,300 kg Unfueled mass,400 kg Burn time,29 s Height,9.00 m Diameter,0.52 m Apogee,430 km The base configuration is a sounding rocket. The rocket has a capability for launching a 140 kg payload to an altitude between 800 and 1000 km, the first two sounding rockets were launched in 1998 and 2000 respectively and successfully carried their payload on sub-orbital missions. Gross mass,2,600 kg Height,9.70 m Diameter,0 and it is engineered to place the payload into an orbital speed of more than 17,000 mph. It is a demonstration with no serial production planned. Its maiden launch was supposed to have taken place on January 10,2017 and it was launched January 14,2017, but failed to reach orbit
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Sounding rocket
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A sounding rocket, sometimes called a research rocket, is an instrument-carrying rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its sub-orbital flight. The rockets are used to carry instruments from 50 to 1,500 kilometres above the surface of the Earth, the altitude generally between weather balloons and satellites. Certain sounding rockets, such as the Black Brant X and XII, have an apogee between 1,000 and 1,500 kilometres, the apogee of their class. Sounding rockets often use military surplus rocket motors, NASA routinely flies the Terrier Mk 70 boosted Improved Orion lifting 270–450-kilogram payloads into the exoatmospheric region between 100 and 200 kilometres. The origin of the term comes from nautical vocabulary to sound, the term itself has its etymological roots in the Portuguese / Italian / Spanish and French words for probe, which are sonda and sonde, respectively. Sounding in the context is equivalent to taking a measurement. A common sounding rocket consists of a rocket motor and a science payload. Larger, higher altitude rockets have 2 to 3 stages to increase efficiency, the freefall part of the flight is an elliptic trajectory with vertical major axis allowing the payload to appear to hover near its apogee. The average flight time is less than 30 minutes, usually between five and 20 minutes. The rocket consumes its fuel on the first stage of the part of the flight, then separates and falls away, leaving the payload to complete the arc. Sounding rockets are advantageous for research because of their low cost, short lead time. They are also used as test beds for equipment that will be used in more expensive and risky orbital spaceflight missions. The smaller size of a sounding rocket also makes launching from temporary sites possible allowing for field studies at remote locations, even in the middle of the ocean, vyom Mk-II is in its conceptual design stage with an objective to reach 70 km altitude with 20 kg payload capacity. The Kartika I rocket was built and launched in Indonesia by LAPAN on 1964, the Soviet Union developed an extensive program using rockets such as the M-100, the most used ever, its successor by its successor state, Russia, is the MR-20. Brazil has been launching its own sounding rockets since 1965, the largest and most current family of rocket are the Sonda rockets, which are the R&D basis for Brazils soon-to-be-launch VLS satellite launcher
31.
Very-long-baseline interferometry
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Very-long-baseline interferometry is a type of astronomical interferometry used in radio astronomy. In VLBI a signal from a radio source, such as a quasar, is collected at multiple radio telescopes on Earth. The distance between the telescopes is then calculated using the time difference between the arrivals of the radio signal at different telescopes. This allows observations of an object that are made simultaneously by many radio telescopes to be combined, Data received at each antenna in the array include arrival times from a local atomic clock, such as a hydrogen maser. At a later time, the data are correlated with data from other antennas that recorded the same radio signal, the resolution achievable using interferometry is proportional to the observing frequency. VLBI is most well known for imaging distant cosmic radio sources, spacecraft tracking, using VLBI in this manner requires large numbers of time difference measurements from distant sources observed with a global network of antennas over a period of time. Some of the results derived from VLBI include, High resolution radio imaging of cosmic radio sources. Variations in the Earths orientation and length of day, the most sensitive VLBI array in the world is the European VLBI Network. This is an array which brings together the largest European radiotelescopes for typically week-long sessions. The combination of the EVN and VLBA is known as Global VLBI, VLBI has traditionally operated by recording the signal at each telescope on magnetic tapes or disks, and shipping those to the correlation center for replay. Recently, it has become possible to connect VLBI radio telescopes in close to real-time, while employing the local time references of the VLBI technique. The image to the shows the first science produced by the European VLBI Network using e-VLBI. The data from 6 telescopes were processed in time at the European Data Processing centre at JIVE. The Netherlands Academic Research Network SURFnet provides 6 x 1 Gbit/s connectivity between JIVE and the GEANT2 network, in the quest for even greater angular resolution, dedicated VLBI satellites have been placed in Earth orbit to provide greatly extended baselines. Experiments incorporating such space-borne array elements are termed Space Very Long Baseline Interferometry, another space VLBI mission, Spektr-R, was launched in July 2011. In VLBI interferometry, the digitized antenna data are recorded at each of the telescopes. The antenna signal is sampled with a precise and stable atomic clock that is additionally locked onto a GPS time standard. Alongside the astronomical data samples, the output of this clock is recorded on the tape/disk media, the recorded media are then transported to a central location
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Magnetosphere
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A magnetosphere is the region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are controlled by that objects magnetic field. The magnetic field near the surface of many astronomical objects resembles that of a dipole, the field lines farther away from the surface can be significantly distorted by the flow of electrically conducting plasma emitted from a nearby star. Study of Earths magnetosphere began in 1600, when William Gilbert discovered that the field on the surface of Earth resembled that on a terrella. In the 1940s, Walter M. Elsasser proposed the model of dynamo theory, through the use of magnetometers, scientists were able to study the variations in Earths magnetic field as functions of both time and latitude and longitude. Beginning in the late 1940s, rockets were used to study cosmic rays, in 1958, Explorer 1, the first of the Explorer series of space missions, was launched to study the intensity of cosmic rays above the atmosphere and measure the fluctuations in this activity. This mission observed the existence of the Van Allen radiation belt, also in 1958, Eugene Parker proposed the idea of the solar wind. The term magnetosphere was proposed by Thomas Gold in 1959, the Explorer 12 mission led to the observation by Cahill and Amazeen in 1963 of a sudden decrease in the strength of the magnetic field near the noon meridian, later named the magnetopause. In 1983, the International Cometary Explorer observed the magnetotail, or the distant magnetic field, the distance at which a planet can withstand the solar wind pressure is called the Chapman–Ferraro distance. Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Ganymede, Saturn, Uranus, a magnetosphere is classified as induced when R C F ≪ R P, or when the solar wind is not opposed by the objects magnetic field. In this case, the solar wind interacts with the atmosphere or ionosphere of the planet, when R C F ≈ R P, the planet itself and its magnetic field both contribute. It is possible that Mars is of this type, the bow shock forms the outermost layer of the magnetosphere, the boundary between the magnetosphere and the ambient medium. For stars, this is usually the boundary between the wind and interstellar medium, for planets, the speed of the solar wind there decreases as it approaches the magnetopause. The magnetosheath is the region of the magnetosphere between the bow shock and the magnetopause and it is formed mainly from shocked solar wind, though it contains a small amount of plasma from the magnetosphere. It is an area exhibiting high particle flux, where the direction. This is caused by the collection of solar wind gas that has effectively undergone thermalization and it acts as a cushion that transmits the pressure from the flow of the solar wind and the barrier of the magnetic field from the object. The magnetopause is the area of the magnetosphere wherein the pressure from the magnetic field is balanced with the pressure from the solar wind. It is the convergence of the solar wind from the magnetosheath with the magnetic field of the object. Because both sides of this convergence contain magnetized plasma, the interactions between them are complex, the structure of the magnetopause depends upon the Mach number and beta of the plasma, as well as the magnetic field
33.
Climate
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Climate is the statistics of weather, usually over a 30-year interval. Climate differs from weather, in that weather only describes the conditions of these variables in a given region. A regions climate is generated by the system, which has five components, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates, Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future climates. Climate change may occur long and short timescales from a variety of factors. For example, a 3°C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km in latitude or 500 m in elevation, therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones. Climate is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period, the standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations, the classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. The World Meteorological Organization describes climate normals as reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered normal, a Normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element over a 30-year period. A30 year period is used, as it is enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies. The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a commission for climatology in 1929. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting the commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals. In 1982 the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and in these were completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990. The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get. Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water and these change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics
34.
Lambda (rocket family)
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Lambda is the name of a series of Japanese rockets. On February 11,1970 the first Japanese satellite Ōsumi was launched using a Lambda 4 rocket, the Lambda series are not guided rockets, this is because guidance techniques can often be diverted to military affairs. The Lambda 4 was launched nine times, though five were failures, the first launch of the Lambda 4S rocket took place on September 26,1966 from Kagoshima. A fourth-stage attitude control failed resulting in loss of the vehicle, the last launch date was September 1,1974
35.
H-II
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The H-II rocket was a Japanese satellite launch system, which flew seven times between 1994 and 1999, with five successes. It was developed by NASDA in order to give Japan a capability to launch satellites in the 1990s. It was the first two-stage liquid-fuelled rocket Japan made using only technologies developed domestically and it was superseded by the H-IIA rocket following reliability and cost issues. Prior to H-II, NASDA had to use components licensed by the United States in its rockets, in particular, crucial technologies of H-I and its predecessors were from the Delta rockets. By developing the LE-7 liquid-fuel engine and the booster rockets for the first stage. The H-II was developed under the policies, according to a NASDA press release. Reduce both development period and costs by utilizing developed technologies as much as possible, Develop a vehicle which can be launched from the existing Tanegashima Space Center. Use design criteria which allows sufficient performance for both the systems and subsystems. Ensure that development will be carried out properly, and safety is taken into account, development of the LE-7 engine which started in 1984 was not without hardships, and a worker died in an accidental explosion. The first engine was completed in 1994, two years behind the original schedule, in 1990, Rocket System Corporation was established to operate the launch missions after the rockets completion. In 1994, NASDA succeeded in launching the first H-II rocket, however, each launch cost 19 billion yen, too expensive compared to international competitors like Ariane. Development of the next-generation H-IIA rockets started in order to launch costs. The successive failure of flight 5 in 1998 and flight 8 in the year brought an end to the H-II series. To investigate the cause of the failure and to direct resources into the H-IIA, NASDA cancelled flight 7, spacecraft thrusters raised orbit enough to complete some communications experiments. ^ Cavitation in the first stage hydrogen turbopump impeller caused an impeller blade to fracture, resulting in loss of fuel, the vehicle impacted the ocean 380 km NW of Chichi-jima. H-II Orbiting Plane H-II Transfer Vehicle H-II H-IIA H-IIB Comparison of orbital launchers families Comparison of orbital launch systems H-II Launch Vehicle, JAXA
