1.
Dutch Golden Age
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The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first half is characterized by the Eighty Years War which ended in 1648, the Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century. The Netherlandss transition from a possession of the Holy Roman Empire in the 1590s to the foremost maritime, in 1568, the Seven Provinces that later signed the Union of Utrecht started a rebellion against Philip II of Spain that led to the Eighty Years War. Antwerp fell on August 17,1585 after a siege, the United Provinces fought on until the Twelve Years Truce, which did not end the hostilities. Under the terms of the surrender of Antwerp in 1585, the Protestant population were given four years to settle their affairs before leaving the city, similar arrangements were made in other places. Protestants were especially well-represented among the craftsmen and rich merchants of the port cities of Bruges, Ghent. More moved to the north between 1585 and 1630 than Catholics moved in the direction, although there were also many of these. Many of those moving north settled in Amsterdam, transforming what was a port into one of the most important ports. The Pilgrim Fathers also spent time there before their voyage to the New World, Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke contribute part of the Dutch ascendancy to its Calvinistic ethic, which promoted thrift and education. This contributed to the lowest interest rates and the highest literacy rates in Europe, several other factors also contributed to the flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands during this time. A necessary condition was a supply of energy from windmills and from peat. The invention of the sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company was founded and it was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange. This company received a Dutch monopoly on Asian trade and would keep this for two centuries and it became the worlds largest commercial enterprise of the 17th century. Spices were imported in bulk and brought huge profits, due to the efforts and risks involved and this is remembered to this day in the Dutch word peperduur, meaning something is very expensive, reflecting the prices of spices at the time. To finance the trade within the region, the Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1609. According to Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke, geography favored the Dutch Republic and they write, The foundations were laid by taking advantage of location, midway between the Bay of Biscay and the Baltic. The Dutch share of European shipping tonnage was enormous, well over half during most of the period of their ascendancy, from here the Dutch traded between China and Japan and paid tribute to the Shogun
2.
Dirck de Bray
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Dirck de Bray was a Dutch Golden Age painter. According to Houbraken he was a son and pupil of the painter. He was known as a painter, but he could also sculpt. He carved a wooden bust of his fathers head, that Houbraken admired and used for his engraving of Salomon in his Schouburg and he became a monk in the Gaesdonck monastery near Goch. He became a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke in 1671, Dirck was born into an artistic family. His brother Jan became a painter, and his brother Joseph was also a painter. His sister Cornelia married Jan Lievens and his mother was Anna Westerbaen, the sister of the painter Jan Westerbaen, and the poet Jacob Westerbaen. He was a printmaker and painted flower- and hunting still lifes, after 1678 he moved to the Gaesdonck monastery. Works and literature on PubHist Dirck de Bray on Artnet Print after his design by Jan de Visscher and with a poem by his father, showing the young priest Simon van der Plas of Spaarnwoude
3.
Haarlem
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Haarlem is a city and municipality in the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of North Holland and is situated at the edge of the Randstad. Haarlem had a population of 155,758 in 2014 and it is a 15-minute train ride from Amsterdam, and many residents commute to the countrys capital for work. Haarlem was granted city status or stadsrechten in 1245, although the first city walls were not built until 1270, the modern city encompasses the former municipality of Schoten as well as parts that previously belonged to Bloemendaal and Heemstede. Apart from the city, the municipality of Haarlem also includes the part of the village of Spaarndam. Newer sections of Spaarndam lie within the municipality of Haarlemmerliede en Spaarnwoude. The city is located on the river Spaarne, about 20 km west of Amsterdam and it has been the historical centre of the tulip bulb-growing district for centuries and bears the nickname Bloemenstad, for this reason. Haarlem has a history dating back to pre-medieval times, as it lies on a thin strip of land above sea level known as the strandwal. The people on this strip of land struggled against the waters of the North Sea from the west, and the waters of the IJ. Haarlem became wealthy with toll revenues that it collected from ships, however, as shipping became increasingly important economically, the city of Amsterdam became the main Dutch city of North Holland during the Dutch Golden Age. The town of Halfweg became a suburb, and Haarlem became a bedroom community. Nowadays many of them are on the Dutch Heritage register known as Rijksmonuments, the list of Rijksmonuments in Haarlem gives an overview of these per neighbourhood, with the majority in the old city centre. The oldest mentioning of Haarlem dates from the 10th century, the name probably comes from Haarlo-heim. This name is composed of three elements, haar, lo and heim, there is not much dispute about the meaning of lo and heim, in Old Dutch toponyms lo always refers to forest and heim to home or house. Haar, however, has several meanings, one of them corresponding with the location of Haarlem on a sand dune, the name Haarlem or Haarloheim would therefore mean home on a forested dune. There was a stream called De Beek, dug from the peat grounds west of the river Spaarne as a drainage canal, over the centuries the Beek was turned into an underground canal, as the city grew larger and the space was needed for construction. Over time it began to silt up and in the 19th century it was filled in, the location of the village was a good one, by the river Spaarne, and by a major road going south to north. By the 12th century it was a town, and Haarlem became the residence of the Counts of Holland
4.
Salomon de Bray
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Salomon de Bray was a Dutch Golden Age architect and painter. De Bray was born in Amsterdam, but established himself in Haarlem before 1617 and he probably followed draftsmanship and painting lessons in the small academy started by Karel van Mander, Hendrick Goltzius and Cornelis van Haarlem, and where he married in 1625. He is registered as a pupil of Goltzius and Cornelis van Haarlem and he painted history paintings, portraits and landscapes. As a Catholic he probably also made pieces for the Haarlem underground Catholic churches known as mission stations. He was a poet and member of the Chamber of rhetoric called De Wijngaertranken, one of his poems was set to music by his friend the composer Cornelis Padbrué. This is probably how he met his wife Anna, the sister of the painter Jan and the poet Jacob Westerbaen, in 1630 he became a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke. He cooperated with fellow member and Catholic architect-artist Jacob van Campen in the decoration of Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. His works draw on the spirit of the Dutch classicism beginning at that time, De Bray became active as an architect and designer of silverwork, and became headman of the Guild of St. Luke. In 1632 he made efforts to retrieve the St. Lucas guild relic that had stored in the guild altar of the St. Bavochurch. It had been given to a representative of the Catholic church for safekeeping and De Bray felt it should be back to Haarlem. As an architect, he was involved in the construction or expansion of Haarlems City Hall in 1630, the new consistory of the Bavokerk, the Zijlpoort, and St. Annakerk. Outside of Haarlem, he designed a new entrance in 1629 for the Huis te Warmond that featured pilasters, in Nijmegen he made a design for the city orphanage. He was also a town planner for the city council of Haarlem, Salomon de Bray was the father of ten children, of whom three became notable artists. He probably died of the plague that hit Haarlem in 1664, as he and his children Jacob, Josef, Juliana and Margaretha all died in April and his wife had already died the previous year. He was buried in the Sint-Bavokerk in Haarlem, works and literature on PubHist Salomon de Bray on Artnet
5.
David
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David was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah, reigning in c. He is described as a man after Gods own heart in 1 Samuel 13,14 and Acts 13,22. The Hebrew prophets regarded him as the ancestor of the future messiah, the New Testament says he was an ancestor of Jesus. God is angered when Saul, Israels king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine instruction to not only all of the Amalekites. Consequently, he sends the prophet Samuel to anoint David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul. Sauls courtiers recommend that he send for David, a man skillful on the lyre, wise in speech, and brave in battle. So David enters Sauls service as one of the royal armour-bearers, and plays the lyre to soothe the king, war comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat. David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Sauls army, refusing the kings offer of the royal armour, he kills Goliath with his sling. Saul inquires the name of the heros father. Saul sets David over his army, all Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him. Saul plots his death, but Sauls son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his fathers schemes and David flees. He becomes a vassal of the Philistine king Achish of Gath, but Achishs nobles question his loyalty, Jonathan and Saul are killed, and David is anointed king over Judah. In the north, Sauls son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, with the death of Sauls son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital. He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, intending to build a temple for God, Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David, Your throne shall be established forever. David wins more victories over the Philistines, while the Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites, during a battle to conquer the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David seduces Bathsheba and causes the death of her husband Uriah the Hittite. In response, Nathan prophesies the punishment that shall fall upon him, in fulfillment of these words Davids son Absalom rebels. The rebellion ends at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, Absaloms forces are routed, and Absalom is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree, and killed by Joab, contrary to Davids order. Joab was the commander of Davids army, David laments the death of his favourite son, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom
6.
Ark of the Covenant
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The Ark of the Covenant, also known as the Ark of the Testimony, is a gold-covered wooden chest described in the Book of Exodus as containing the two stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. According to various texts within the Hebrew Bible, it also contained Aarons rod, when carried, the Ark was always hidden under a large veil made of skins and blue cloth, always carefully concealed, even from the eyes of the priests and the Levites who carried it. God was said to have spoken with Moses from between the two cherubim on the Arks cover. When at rest the tabernacle was set up and the holy Ark was placed under the veil of the covering the staves of it crossing the side bars to hold it up off the ground. Moses instructed Bezalel and Oholiab to construct the Ark, in Deuteronomy, however, the Ark is said to have been built specifically by Moses himself without reference of Bezalel or Oholiab. The Book of Exodus gives detailed instructions on how the Ark is to be constructed and it is to be 2½ cubits in length, 1½ in breadth, and 1½ in height. Then it is to be gilded entirely with gold, and a crown or molding of gold is to be put around it, a golden lid, the kapporet which is covered with 2 golden cherubim, is to be placed above the Ark. Instructions missing from the biblical account include the thickness of the seat, the thickness of its sides and bottom. The Ark is finally to be placed under the veil of the covering, the biblical account continues that, after its creation by Moses, the Ark was carried by the Israelites during their 40 years of wandering in the desert. Whenever the Israelites camped, the Ark was placed in a room in a sacred tent. When the Israelites, led by Joshua toward the Promised Land, arrived at the banks of the River Jordan, as memorials, twelve stones were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood. In the Battle of Jericho, the Ark was carried round the city once a day for seven days, after the defeat at Ai, Joshua lamented before the Ark. When Joshua read the Law to the people between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, they stood on each side of the Ark and we next hear of the Ark in Bethel where it was being cared for by the priest Phineas the grandson of Aaron. According to this verse it was consulted by the people of Israel when they were planning to attack the Benjaminites at the battle of Gibeah. A few years later the elders of Israel decided to take the Ark out onto the battlefield to assist them against the Philistines and they were, however, heavily defeated with the loss of 30,000 men. The Ark was captured by the Philistines and Hophni and Phinehas were killed, the news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head. The mother of the child Ichabod died at his birth, the Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune befell them. At Ashdod it was placed in the temple of Dagon, the next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it, and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken
7.
Arnoud van Halen
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Arnoud van Halen, was an 18th-century painter from the Northern Netherlands. According to Houbraken he painted Christoffel Piersons portrait for his Panpoeticon Batavum, according to the RKD he was also known as Arend or Aquila van Halen. He is known for portraits and engravings, also titlepages of books, Arnoud van Halen portrait by Christoffel Lubienitzki at the Rijksmuseum Arnoud van Halen on Artnet A. van Halen at the Amsterdam City Archives Media related to Arnoud van Halen at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Levite
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A Jewish male descended patrilineally from Levi is a Levi, and his full name may be written as HaLevi. The prefix ה, in the Hebrew language, means the, the daughter of a Levi is a Bat Levi. In Jewish tradition, a Levite is a member of the Israelite Tribe of Levi, descended from Levi, the Tribe of Levi served particular religious duties for the Israelites and had political responsibilities as well. In return, the tribes were expected to give tithe to support the Levites. The Kohanim were the priests, who performed the work of holiness in the Temple, Today, Levites in Orthodox Judaism continue to have additional rights and obligations compared to lay people, although these responsibilities have diminished with the destruction of the Temple. For instance, Kohanim are eligible to be called to the Torah first, Levites also provide assistance to the Kohanim, particularly washing their hands, before the Kohanim recite the Priestly Blessing. They also do not participate in the Pidyon HaBen ceremony, because they are pledged to Divine service. Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism do not observe the distinctions between Kohanim, Levites, and other Jews, Orthodox Judaism believes in the eventual rebuilding of a Temple in Jerusalem and a resumption of the Levitical role. There are a number of schools, primarily in Israel, to train priests. Conservative Judaism believes in a restoration of the Temple as a house of worship and in some role for Levites. The Kohanim are traditionally believed and halachically required to be of direct descent from the Biblical Aaron of the Levi tribe. The noun kohen is used in the Torah to refer to priests, during the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, Kohanim performed the daily and holiday duties of sacrificial offerings. Today kohanim retain a lesser though distinct status within Judaism. During the Priestly Blessing, the Levites traditionally wash the hands of the Kohanim prior to the blessing of the House of Israel. Contrary to popular belief, this is not due to any sort of lineal sanctity, in Israel, Conservative/Masorti Judaism has not extended Torah honors to either a bat Kohen or a bat Levi. He wrote, Today, we also are living through a time of flood, Not of water, but of a bright fire and we are now drowning in a flood of blood. Through the Kohanim and Leviim help will come to all Israel, a 2003 study of the Y-chromosome by Behar et al. pointed to multiple origins for Ashkenasi Levites, a priestly class who comprise approximately 4% among the Ashkenazi Jews. A2013 paper by Siiri Rootsi et al, here we report the analysis of 16 whole R1 sequences and show that a set of 19 unique nucleotide substitutions defines the Ashkenazi R1a lineage
9.
Haarlem Guild of St. Luke
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The Haarlem Guild of Saint Luke was first a Christian, and later a city Guild for a large number of trades falling under the patron saints Luke the Evangelist and Saint Eligius. During the lifetime of Geertgen tot Sint Jans, there was probably a painters guild in Haarlem, if one existed, it would probably have been associated with the Janskerk, where Geertgen was active as a respected painter. The earliest mention of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke and this is possibly also the year that the Guild switched its altar from the Janskerk to the Bavokerk. The guild was for painters and gold- and silversmiths, with St. Luke being the saint of the painters. The earliest charter for the no longer exists, but the earliest one still in the archives is from 1514. The Vrouwenbroerskerk was the church of the Carmelites, whose monastery is gone, of the original complex, only the entrance gate still stands on the Grote Houtstraat. These archives recorded that a kessophel was donated to this altar in 1575 by Elisabeth van Dorp, after Haarlem lost the Siege of Haarlem in 1573, it became a Catholic enclave that officially fell under the rule of Philip II of Spain. In 1576, a decision was made on September 28 to make a piece for St. Eligius. This referred to the painting by Martin van Heemskerck, which does not display St. Eligius, but shows St. Luke painting the Virgin. This painting was large, and though it shows a pottery baker as St. Luke and sculptures and woodcarvings abound in it. The signed paper attached at the bottom of the painting is recorded by Karel van Mander, heemskerk had painted this before he traveled to Italy, and when he came back he became charter master of the guild from 1550-1552. To protect the market, a new charter was issued in 1590, Luke had been donated for the altar by the painter Barthel Pons, who had gotten it from the cardinal Christoforo da Forli. This relic was accompanied by an indulgence of 100 days to whoever would say their Paternoster, apparently Pieter Fransz de Grebber gave this relic to the Franciscan monk Joannes Cloribus van Brugge in 1627 for safekeeping. In 1632 the St. Lucas guild masters were very upset about this and Salomon de Bray tried to get it back, in 1641 they tried once again to get the relic back, but it seems to have disappeared. Between 1605 and 1635 over 100,000 paintings were produced in Haarlem, the competition for commissions was very high, however, and the 1590 charter was apparently not considered protective enough. In 1631 a new charter was released again, and this charter is so detailed that it tells us more about the art of painting. It was prepared by Salomon de Bray, and he described a hierarchy of members that apparently met with a lot of opposition. His first petition to pass this charter was denied with the remark that it was too long, essentially the charter of 1590 held up until the guild was dissolved altogether in 1795 by Napoleonic decree
10.
Goch
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Goch is a town in the district of Kleve, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is situated close to the border with the sebengewald in Netherlands,12 km south of Kleve, and 27 km southeast of Nijmegen. Other places in Goch are Asperden and Kessel, Goch is at least 750 years old, the earliest mention of Goch is in a document dated 1259. It was a part of the Duchy of Cleves, during World War II, the city was completely destroyed by Allied bombers
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