1.
Gerard ter Borch
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Gerard ter Borch, also known as Gerard Terburg, was a Dutch genre painter who lived in the Dutch Golden Age. Gerard ter Borch was born in December 1617 in Zwolle in the province of Overijssel in the Dutch Republic and he received an excellent education from his father Gerard ter Borch the Elder, also an artist, and developed his talent very early. The inscription on a study of a head proves that Ter Borch was at Amsterdam in 1632, duysters influence can be traced in a picture bearing the date 1638, in the lonides Bequest. In 1634 he studied under Pieter de Molijn in Haarlem, a record of this Haarlem period is the Consultation at the Berlin Gallery. In 1635 he was in London, and subsequently he travelled in Germany, France, Spain and his sister Gesina also became a painter. It is certain that he was in Rome in 1641, when he painted the portraits on copper of Jan Six, A Young Lady. He seems to have resided for a time in Haarlem, but he settled in Deventer. He died at Deventer in 1681, Ter Borch is a significant painter of genre subjects. He is known for his rendering of texture in draperies, for example in The Letter and in The Gallant Conversation, Ter Borchs works are comparatively rare, about eighty have been catalogued. Six of these are at the Hermitage, six at the Berlin Museum, five at the Louvre, four at the Dresden Museum, a pair of portraits are located at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington D. C. highlighted in 2010 by Blake Gopnik. The artists painting The Suitors Visit, c,1658, oil on canvas,80 x 75 cm in the Andrew W. Mellon Collection, was used on the cover of Marilyn Stokstads second edition of Art History. Gerard ter Borchs paintings This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Ter Borch. Gerard Terburg et sa famille, by Emile Michel Der künstlerische Entwickelungsgang des C
2.
Leiden
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Leiden is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some 20 kilometres from The Hague to its south, the recreational area of the Kaag Lakes lies just to the northeast of Leiden. A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts. One of the worlds most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born, other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan van Steen. The city has one of Europes most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave, many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto, ‘City of Discoveries’. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdoms oldest university, Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences together have around 35,000 students. Leiden is a university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city. Leiden was formed on a hill at the confluence of the rivers Oude. In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called Leithon, the name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- canal. Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum and this particular castellum was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the citys name was thought to be derived of the Latin name Lugdunum. However the castellum was in closer to the town of Katwijk. The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill, was subject to the Bishop of Utrecht. This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold, Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III. Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a war against her uncle, William I. He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada, Leiden received city rights in 1266. In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons, burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels. But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first and he rolled the cannons with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship
3.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
4.
Haarlem
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Haarlem is a city and municipality in the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of North Holland and is situated at the edge of the Randstad. Haarlem had a population of 155,758 in 2014 and it is a 15-minute train ride from Amsterdam, and many residents commute to the countrys capital for work. Haarlem was granted city status or stadsrechten in 1245, although the first city walls were not built until 1270, the modern city encompasses the former municipality of Schoten as well as parts that previously belonged to Bloemendaal and Heemstede. Apart from the city, the municipality of Haarlem also includes the part of the village of Spaarndam. Newer sections of Spaarndam lie within the municipality of Haarlemmerliede en Spaarnwoude. The city is located on the river Spaarne, about 20 km west of Amsterdam and it has been the historical centre of the tulip bulb-growing district for centuries and bears the nickname Bloemenstad, for this reason. Haarlem has a history dating back to pre-medieval times, as it lies on a thin strip of land above sea level known as the strandwal. The people on this strip of land struggled against the waters of the North Sea from the west, and the waters of the IJ. Haarlem became wealthy with toll revenues that it collected from ships, however, as shipping became increasingly important economically, the city of Amsterdam became the main Dutch city of North Holland during the Dutch Golden Age. The town of Halfweg became a suburb, and Haarlem became a bedroom community. Nowadays many of them are on the Dutch Heritage register known as Rijksmonuments, the list of Rijksmonuments in Haarlem gives an overview of these per neighbourhood, with the majority in the old city centre. The oldest mentioning of Haarlem dates from the 10th century, the name probably comes from Haarlo-heim. This name is composed of three elements, haar, lo and heim, there is not much dispute about the meaning of lo and heim, in Old Dutch toponyms lo always refers to forest and heim to home or house. Haar, however, has several meanings, one of them corresponding with the location of Haarlem on a sand dune, the name Haarlem or Haarloheim would therefore mean home on a forested dune. There was a stream called De Beek, dug from the peat grounds west of the river Spaarne as a drainage canal, over the centuries the Beek was turned into an underground canal, as the city grew larger and the space was needed for construction. Over time it began to silt up and in the 19th century it was filled in, the location of the village was a good one, by the river Spaarne, and by a major road going south to north. By the 12th century it was a town, and Haarlem became the residence of the Counts of Holland
5.
Esaias van de Velde
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Esaias van de Velde was a Dutch landscape painter. He worked in Haarlem 1610-1618, where he joined the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke in 1612 along with Hercules Segers and this event in many ways established realistic landscape paintings as a separate genre in that part of the Netherlands. In addition to landscapes, Esaias van de Velde also painted genre and he died in The Hague in 1630, where he had been Court Painter to the Prince Maurits and Frederick Henry. According to the RKD, he was influenced by Roelant Savery and his pupils were Pieter van Laer, Jan Martszen de Jonge, Pieter de Molyn, Pieter de Neyn, Anthony van de Velde, and Jan van Goyen. He influenced Palamedes Palamedesz, Nicolaes de Quade van Ravesteyn, Adriaen Adriaensz Ghibons, Jacob Wynants, Zacharias Blijhooft, Abraham Vinck, Willem Viruly, Esaias was not related to Willem van de Velde, but he was the cousin of Jan van de Velde. He died and was buried at The Hague, courtly Procession before Abstpoel Castle,1619 George S
6.
The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II
7.
Paulus Potter
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Paulus Potter was a Dutch painter who specialized in animals within landscapes, usually with a low vantage point. Before Potter died of tuberculosis at the age of 28 he succeeded in producing about 100 paintings, Paulus Potter was born in Enkhuizen. He was baptized on 20 November 1625, in 1628 his family moved to Leiden, and in 1631 to Amsterdam, where young Paulus studied painting with his father, Pieter Symonsz Potter. After his mother died, his father started an affair with the wife of Pieter Codde, for some time his father was a manufacturer of gilded leather hangings outside the city walls. Potter became a member of the Guild of Saint Luke in Delft, Potter married in the Hague and his father-in-law, who was the leading building contractor in the Hague, introduced him to the Dutch elite. Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, a member of the family and an art-lover, bought a painting with a pissing cow. By May 1652, after a case about delivering a new painting, Potter was invited by Nicolaes Tulp, who was impressed by his civilized behavior and politeness. Potter painted his son Dirck Tulp, but only changed the face on a work he was not able to sell. Paulus painted a self-portrait which was at Hackwood Park, Hampshire until 1998 and it is now at Elibank House, Buckinghamshire. His most famous painting not to be confused with his work The Bull is The Young Bull, though this painting was criticized, it was greatly admired during the 19th century as an early example of Romanticism. The Young Bull features as the canvas being studied in Mark Tanseys 1981 monochromatic oil on canvas The Innocent Eye Test
8.
Nicolaes Pieterszoon Berchem
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He was a member of the second generation of Dutch Italianate landscape painters. These were artists who travelled to Italy, or aspired to, in order to soak up the romanticism of the country, bringing home sketchbooks full of drawings of classical ruins and pastoral imagery. His paintings, of which he produced a number, were in great demand. His landscapes, painted in the Italian style of idealized rural scenes, with hills, mountains, cliffs and trees in a golden dawn are sought after. Berchem also painted inspired and attractive human and animal figures in works of artists, like Allaert van Everdingen, Jan Hackaert, Gerrit Dou, Meindert Hobbema. Born in Haarlem, he received instruction from his father Pieter Claesz, according to Houbraken, Carel de Moor told him that Berchem got his name from two words Berg hem for Save him. An expression used by his fellows in Van Goyens workshop whenever his father chased him there with the intent to beat him, today his name is assumed to come from his fathers hometown of Berchem, Antwerp. According to the RKD he traveled to Italy with Jan Baptist Weenix, works by him are signed both as CBerghem and Berchem. In 1645 he became a member of the Dutch reformed church, around 1650 he travelled to Westphalia with Jacob van Ruisdael, where a dated piece showing Burg Bentheim is recorded. Maybe Berchem went to Italy after this trip and before he moved to Amsterdam - he is not clearly documented in the Netherlands between 1650 and 1656, around 1660 he worked for the engraver Jan de Visscher designing an atlas. In 1661-1670 he is registered in Amsterdam and in 1670 he moved back to Haarlem, but was living back in Amsterdam by 1677 and he was the uncle of Govert van der Leeuw and his brother Pieter
9.
Jan Steen
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Jan Havickszoon Steen was a Dutch genre painter of the 17th century. His works are known for their insight, sense of humour. Steen was born in Leiden, where his well-to-do, Catholic family were brewers who ran the tavern The Red Halbert for two generations and he was the eldest of eight or more children. Like his even more famous contemporary Rembrandt van Rijn, Jan Steen attended the Latin school and he received his painterly education from Nicolaes Knupfer, a German painter of historical and figurative scenes in Utrecht. Influences of Knupfer can be found in Steens use of composition, other sources of inspiration were Adriaen van Ostade and Isaac van Ostade, painters of rural scenes, who lived in Haarlem. Whether Steen actually studied with Ostade is not known, in 1648 Jan Steen and Gabriël Metsu founded the painters Guild of Saint Luke at Leiden. Soon after he became an assistant to the landscape painter Jan van Goyen. On Oct 3,1649 he married van Goyens daughter Margriet, Steen worked with his father-in-law until 1654, when he moved to Delft, where he ran the brewery De Slang for three years without much success. After the explosion in Delft in 1654 the art market was depressed and it does not seem to be clear if this painting should be called a portrait or a genre work. Steen lived in Warmond, just north of Leiden, from 1656 till 1660 and in Haarlem from 1660 till 1670 and in both periods he was especially productive. In 1670, after the death of his wife in 1669 and his father in 1670, Steen moved back to Leiden, when the art market collapsed in 1672, called the Year of Disaster, Steen opened a tavern. In April 1673 he married Maria van Egmont, who gave him another child, in 1674 he became president of the Saint Lucas Guild. Frans van Mieris became one of his drinking companions and he died in Leiden in 1679 and was interred in a family grave in the Pieterskerk. Daily life was Jan Steens main pictorial theme, subtle hints in his paintings seem to suggest that Steen meant to warn the viewer rather than invite him to copy this behaviour. Many of Steens paintings bear references to old Dutch proverbs or literature and he often used members of his family as models, and painted quite a few self-portraits in which he showed no tendency of vanity. Steen did not shy from other themes, he painted historical, mythological and religious scenes, portraits, still lifes and his portraits of children are famous. He is also known for his mastery of light and attention to detail, most notably in Persian rugs. Steen was prolific, producing about 800 paintings, of which roughly 350 survive and his work was valued much by contemporaries and as a result he was reasonably well paid for his work
10.
Adriaen van der Cabel
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Adriaen van der Cabel or Ary van der Touw, was a Dutch Golden Age landscape painter active in France and Italy. He was born and grew up in the town of Rijswijk. Cabel was also known as Ary, according to Houbraken, he was a student of Jan van Goyen, and his real name was van der Touw, but that wasnt grand enough according to Van Goyen, so he changed it to mean of Cable. Houbraken wrote that his brother Engel was also a painter, Cabel moved to Lyon as a young man and spent the rest of his life there. According to the RKD, he lived in Lyon from 1655-1658, then Rome from 1659–1666 and his work is sometimes confused with that of his brother Engel van der Cabel, also known as Ange or Angelo. Engel accompanied his brother on his travels and they married on the same day. Cabel at Artnet Cabel at RKD This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Wood, James. London and New York, Frederick Warne
11.
Hallwyl Museum
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Hallwyl Museum is a Swedish national museum housed in the historical Hallwyl House in central Stockholm located on 4, Hamngatan facing Berzelii Park. The house once belonged to the Count and Countess von Hallwyl, in 1938, the museum was officially opened. Hallwyl House was built 1893–1898 to the design of Isak Gustaf Clason for Count Walther von Hallwyl and his wife and it was created to accommodate the office of the count and the extensive art collection of the countess. Wilhelmina and Walther von Hallwyl also lived there during the winter, the elevator was a later addition. The countess collected her artworks during her journeys in order to found a museum, and, consequently, the palace was donated to the Swedish State in 1920. The museum, including many of the rooms where they used to live, Hallwyl House was donated to the Swedish state on the condition that it would remain unchanged. Today, the house has been preserved as it was when Countess von Hallwyl donated the house, the museum features preserved rooms from the late Victorian period in Sweden giving a glimpse into the lifestyles of the nobility in Stockholm at the time. The Hallwyl Collection, which is housed there, encompasses some 50,000 objects, geography of Stockholm Hallwyl Museum - official site
12.
Dutch Golden Age
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The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first half is characterized by the Eighty Years War which ended in 1648, the Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century. The Netherlandss transition from a possession of the Holy Roman Empire in the 1590s to the foremost maritime, in 1568, the Seven Provinces that later signed the Union of Utrecht started a rebellion against Philip II of Spain that led to the Eighty Years War. Antwerp fell on August 17,1585 after a siege, the United Provinces fought on until the Twelve Years Truce, which did not end the hostilities. Under the terms of the surrender of Antwerp in 1585, the Protestant population were given four years to settle their affairs before leaving the city, similar arrangements were made in other places. Protestants were especially well-represented among the craftsmen and rich merchants of the port cities of Bruges, Ghent. More moved to the north between 1585 and 1630 than Catholics moved in the direction, although there were also many of these. Many of those moving north settled in Amsterdam, transforming what was a port into one of the most important ports. The Pilgrim Fathers also spent time there before their voyage to the New World, Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke contribute part of the Dutch ascendancy to its Calvinistic ethic, which promoted thrift and education. This contributed to the lowest interest rates and the highest literacy rates in Europe, several other factors also contributed to the flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands during this time. A necessary condition was a supply of energy from windmills and from peat. The invention of the sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company was founded and it was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange. This company received a Dutch monopoly on Asian trade and would keep this for two centuries and it became the worlds largest commercial enterprise of the 17th century. Spices were imported in bulk and brought huge profits, due to the efforts and risks involved and this is remembered to this day in the Dutch word peperduur, meaning something is very expensive, reflecting the prices of spices at the time. To finance the trade within the region, the Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1609. According to Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke, geography favored the Dutch Republic and they write, The foundations were laid by taking advantage of location, midway between the Bay of Biscay and the Baltic. The Dutch share of European shipping tonnage was enormous, well over half during most of the period of their ascendancy, from here the Dutch traded between China and Japan and paid tribute to the Shogun
13.
Portrait
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A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person, for this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c.2144 -2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypts Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, the art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of a symbol of what that person looked like. In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized, true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings. Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits and these works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the elite, priests, warriors. They were represented during several stages of their lives, the faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found, there is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting. One of the portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vincis painting titled Mona Lisa. What has been claimed as the worlds oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old. Profile view, full view, and three-quarter view, are three common designations for portraits, each referring to a particular orientation of the head of the individual depicted. Such terms would tend to have greater applicability to two-dimensional artwork such as photography, in the case of three-dimensional artwork, the viewer can usually alter their orientation to the artwork by moving around it
14.
Landscape painting
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In other works, landscape backgrounds for figures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is almost always included in the view, and weather is often an element of the composition, detailed landscapes as a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going well over a thousand years in both cases. Landscape views in art may be imaginary, or copied from reality with varying degrees of accuracy. If the primary purpose of a picture is to depict an actual, specific place, especially including buildings prominently, within a few decades it was used to describe vistas in poetry, and eventually as a term for real views. However the cognate term landscaef or landskipe for a patch of land had existed in Old English. The earliest pure landscapes with no figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. The frescos from the Tomb of Nebamun, now in the British Museum, are a famous example. These were frequently used, as in the illustrated, to bridge the gap between a foreground scene with figures and a distant panoramic vista, a persistent problem for landscape artists. The Chinese style generally showed only a distant view, or used dead ground or mist to avoid that difficulty, aesthetic theories in both regions gave the highest status to the works seen to require the most imagination from the artist. They were often also poets whose lines and images illustrated each other, a revival in interest in nature initially mainly manifested itself in depictions of small gardens such as the Hortus Conclusus or those in millefleur tapestries. The frescos of figures at work or play in front of a background of trees in the Palace of the Popes. Several frescos of gardens have survived from Roman houses like the Villa of Livia, a particular advance is shown in the less well-known Turin-Milan Hours, now largely destroyed by fire, whose developments were reflected in Early Netherlandish painting for the rest of the century. Landscape backgrounds for various types of painting became prominent and skilful during the 15th century. The Italian development of a system of graphical perspective was now known all over Europe. Indeed, certain styles were so popular that they became formulas that could be copied again and again, after the publication of the Small Landscapes, landscape artists in the Low Countries either continued with the world landscape or followed the new mode presented by the Small Landscapes. The popularity of landscape scenes can be seen in the success of the painter Frans Post. Salvator Rosa gave picturesque excitement to his landscapes by showing wilder Southern Italian country, there are different styles and periods, and subgenres of marine and animal painting, as well as a distinct style of Italianate landscape
15.
Genre
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Genre is any form or type of communication in any mode with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time. Genres form by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented, often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, some genres may be rigid with strictly adhered to guidelines while others may be very flexible. Genre began as a classification system for ancient Greek literature. Poetry, prose, and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, in later periods genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre became a tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art. Because art is often a response to a state, in that people write/paint/sing/dance about what they know about. Genre suffers from the ills of any classification system. Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized and to works on their unique merit. While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions, proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation, recombination, and evolution of the codes. The term genre is used in the history and criticism of visual art. These are distinguished from staffage, incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting, Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. The concept of the hierarchy of genres was a one in artistic theory. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a role in academic art. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as adult, young adult. They also must not be confused with format, such as novel or picture book
16.
Delft
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Delft is a city and a municipality in the Netherlands. It is located in the province of South Holland, to the north of Rotterdam, the city of Delft came into being aside a canal, the Delf, which comes from the word delven, meaning delving or digging, and led to the name Delft. It presumably started around the 11th century as a landlord court, from a rural village in the early Middle Ages, Delft developed to a city, that in the 13th century received its charter. The towns association with the House of Orange started when William of Orange, nicknamed William the Silent, at the time he was the leader of growing national Dutch resistance against Spanish occupation, known as the Eighty Years War. By then Delft was one of the cities of Holland. An attack by Spanish forces in October of that year was repelled, after the Act of Abjuration was proclaimed in 1581, Delft became the de facto capital of the newly independent Netherlands, as the seat of the Prince of Orange. When William was shot dead in 1584, by Balthazar Gerards in the hall of the Prinsenhof, therefore, he was buried in the Delft Nieuwe Kerk, starting a tradition for the House of Orange that has continued to the present day. The Delft Explosion, also known in history as the Delft Thunderclap, occurred on 12 October 1654 when a gunpowder store exploded, over a hundred people were killed and thousands were wounded. About 30 tonnes of gunpowder were stored in barrels in a magazine in a former Clarissen convent in the Doelenkwartier district, cornelis Soetens, the keeper of the magazine, opened the store to check a sample of the powder and a huge explosion followed. Luckily, many citizens were away, visiting a market in Schiedam or a fair in The Hague, Delft artist Egbert van der Poel painted several pictures of Delft showing the devastation. Historical buildings and other sights of interest include, Oude Kerk, buried here, Piet Hein, Johannes Vermeer, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. Nieuwe Kerk, constructed between 1381 and 1496 and it contains the Dutch royal familys burial vault, which between funerals is sealed with a 5,000 kg cover stone. A statue of Hugo Grotius made by Franciscus Leonardus Stracké in 1886 and this is the only remaining gate of the old city walls. The Gemeenlandshuis Delfland, or Huyterhuis, built in 1505, which has housed the Delfland regional water authority since 1645, the Vermeer Centre in the rebuilt Guild house of St. Luke. Windmill De Roos, a mill built c.1760. Restored to working order in 2013, another windmill that formerly stood in Delft, Het Fortuyn, was dismantled in 1917 and re-erected at the Netherlands Open Air Museum, Arnhem, Gelderland in 1920. Delft is well known for the Delft pottery ceramic products which were styled on the imported Chinese porcelain of the 17th century, the city had an early start in this area since it was a home port of the Dutch East India Company. It can still be seen at the pottery factories De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles, the painter Johannes Vermeer was born in Delft
17.
Rotterdam
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Rotterdam is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety, in 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre. Nowadays it is home to Europes largest port and has a population of 633,471, ranking second in the Netherlands, just behind Amsterdam. The Greater Rijnmond area is home to approximately 1.4 million people, Rotterdam is part of the yet larger Randstad conurbation with a total population of 7,100,000. The city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University, riverside setting, lively cultural life, the near-complete destruction of Rotterdams city centre during World War II has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities. Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others. Recently Rotterdam was listed eighth in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit, the port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world. Rotterdams logistic success is based on its location on the North Sea. The rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, the extensive distribution system including rail, roads, and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname Gateway to Europe, and, conversely, Gateway to the World in Europe. The settlement at the end of the fen stream Rotte dates from at least 900 CE. A dam on the Rotte or Rotterdam was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat, on 7 July 1340, Count Willem IV of Holland granted city rights to Rotterdam, which then had approximately 2,000 inhabitants. The port of Rotterdam grew slowly but steadily into a port of importance, becoming the seat of one of the six chambers of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the greatest spurt of growth, both in port activity and population, followed the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1872. The city and harbor started to expand on the bank of the river. The Witte Huis or White House skyscraper, inspired by American office buildings and built in 1898 in the French Château-style, is evidence of Rotterdams rapid growth, when completed, it was the tallest office building in Europe, with a height of 45 m. During World War I the city was the worlds largest spy centre because of Dutch neutrality, many spies who were arrested and executed in Britain were led by German secret agents operating from Rotterdam. MI6 had its main European office on de Boompjes, from there the British coordinated espionage in Germany and occupied Belgium. In WWI an average of 25,000 Belgian refugees lived in the city, as well as hundreds of German deserters, during World War II, the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, the Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940, following Hitlers bombing of Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities
18.
Gouda, South Holland
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Gouda is a municipality and city in the province of South Holland, the Netherlands. The city is famous for its Gouda cheese, stroopwafels, many grachten, smoking pipes, goudas array of historic churches and other buildings makes it a very popular day trip destination. The area, originally marshland, developed over the course of two centuries, by 1225, a canal was linked to the Gouwe and its estuary was transformed into a harbour. City rights were granted in 1272, around the year 1100, the area where Gouda now is located was swampy and covered with a peat forest, crossed by small creeks such as the Gouwe. Along the shores of this stream near the current market and city hall, in 1139, the name Gouda is first mentioned in a statement from the Bishop of Utrecht. In the 13th century, the Gouwe was connected to the Oude Rijn by means of a canal, Castle Gouda was built to protect this harbour. This shipping route was used for trade between Flanders and France with Holland and the Baltic Sea, in 1272, Floris V, Count of Holland, granted city rights to Gouda, which by then had become an important location. City-canals or grachten were dug and served as transport ways through the town, great fires in 1361 and 1438 destroyed the city. In 1572, the city was occupied by Les Gueux who also committed arson and destruction, in 1577 the demolition of Castle Gouda began. In 1551 was founded the oldest still functioning inn De Zalm, located on Markt 34, near the historic Waag building. In 1574,1625,1636, and 1673, Gouda suffered from plague epidemics, of which the last one was the most severe,2995 persons died. In the last quarter of the 16th century, Gouda had serious economic problems and it recovered in the first half of the 17th century and even prospered between 1665 and 1672. But its economy collapsed again when war broke out in 1672, after 1700, Gouda enjoyed a period of progress and prosperity until 1730. Then another recession followed, resulting in a period of decline that lasted well into the 19th century. Gouda was one of the poorest cities in the country during that period, starting in 1830, demolition of the city walls began. The last city gate was torn down in 1854, only from the second half of the 19th century onward did Gouda start to profit from an improved economic condition. New companies, such as Stearine Kaarsenfabriek and Machinale Garenspinnerij, acted as the impetus to its economy, in 1855, the railway Gouda-Utrecht began to operate. In the beginning of the 20th century, large-scale development began, first the new neighbourhoods Korte Akkeren, Kort Haarlem and Kadebuurt were built, followed by Oosterwei, Bloemendaal, and Goverwelle after World War II
19.
Jacob van Ruisdael
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Jacob Isaackszoon van Ruisdael was a Dutch painter, draughtsman, and etcher. He is generally considered the pre-eminent landscape painter of the Dutch Golden Age, prolific and versatile, Ruisdael depicted a wide variety of landscape subjects. From 1646 he painted Dutch countryside scenes of remarkable quality for a young man, after a trip to Germany in 1650, his landscapes took on a more heroic character. In his late work, conducted when he lived and worked in Amsterdam, he added city panoramas, in these, the sky often took up two-thirds of the canvas. In total he produced more than 150 Scandinavian views featuring waterfalls, Ruisdaels only registered pupil was Meindert Hobbema, one of several artists who painted figures in his landscapes. Hobbemas work has at times confused with Ruisdaels. Ruisdaels work was in demand in the Dutch Republic during his lifetime, Jacob Isaackszoon van Ruisdael was born in Haarlem in 1628 or 1629 into a family of painters, all landscapists. The number of painters in the family, and the spellings of the Ruisdael name, have hampered attempts to document his life. The name Ruisdael is connected to a castle, now lost, the village was the home of Jacobs grandfather, the furniture maker Jacob de Goyer. When De Goyer moved away to Naarden, three of his sons changed their name to Ruysdael or Ruisdael, probably to indicate their origin, two of De Goyers sons became painters, Jacobs father Isaack van Ruisdael and his well-known uncle Salomon van Ruysdael. Jacob himself always spelled his name with an i, while his cousin, Salomons son Jacob Salomonszoon van Ruysdael, also a landscape artist, spelled his name with a y. It is not known whether Ruisdaels mother was Isaack van Ruisdaels first wife, whose name is unknown, or his second wife, Isaack and Maycken married on 12 November 1628. It is often assumed Ruisdael studied with his father and uncle and he appears to have been strongly influenced by other contemporary local Haarlem landscapists, most notably Cornelis Vroom and Allaert van Everdingen. The earliest date that appears on Ruisdaels paintings and etchings is 1646, two years after this date he was admitted to membership of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke. By this time landscape paintings were as popular as history paintings in Dutch households, though at the time of Ruisdaels birth and this growth in popularity of landscapes continued throughout Ruisdaels career. Around 1657, Ruisdael moved to Amsterdam, by then a city which was likely to have offered a bigger market for his work. His fellow Haarlem painter Allaert van Everdingen had already moved to Amsterdam, on June 17,1657 he was baptized in Ankeveen, near Naarden. Ruisdael lived and worked in Amsterdam for the rest of his life, in 1668, his name appears as a witness to the marriage of Meindert Hobbema, his only registered pupil, a painter whose works have been confused with Ruisdaels own
20.
Aelbert Cuyp
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Aelbert Jacobsz Cuyp was one of the leading Dutch landscape painters of the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp, Aelbert Cuyp was born in Dordrecht on October 20,1620, and also died there on November 15,1691. Known as the Dutch equivalent of Claude Lorrain, this landscape artist went on to inherit a considerable fortune and his family were all artists, with his uncle Benjamin and grandfather Gerrit being stained glass cartoon designers. Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp, his father, was a portraitist, the amount of biographical information regarding Aelbert Cuyp is tremendously limited. Even Arnold Houbraken, a historian of Dutch Golden Age paintings. The year after his marriage Cuyp became the deacon of the reformed church, even Houbraken recalled that Cuyp was a devout Calvinist and the fact that when he died, there were no paintings of other artists found in his home. Generally, Cuyp learned tone from the exceptionally prolific Jan van Goyen, light from Jan Both and form from his father, Cuyps van Goyen phase can be placed approximately in the early 1640s. Cuyp probably first encountered a painting by van Goyen in 1640 when van Goyen was, as Stephen Reiss points out at the height of powers. Cuyp took from van Goyen the straw yellow and light brown tones that are so apparent in his Dunes and this technique, a precursor to impressionism, is noted for the short brush strokes where the colors are not necessarily blended smoothly. In the mid-1640s Both, a native and resident of Utrecht, had just returned to his hometown from a trip to Rome and it is around this same time that Cuyps style changed fundamentally. In Rome, Both had developed a new style of composition due, at least in part and this new style was focused on changing the direction of light in the painting. Instead of the light being placed at angles in relation to the line of vision. In this new form of lighting, the artist faced the sun more or less contre-jour, Both, and subsequently Cuyp, used the advantages of this new lighting style to alter the sense of depth and luminosity possible in a painting. To make notice of new capabilities, much use was made of elongated shadows. Cuyps third stylistic phase is based on the influence of his father, as has been mentioned and as will be explained in depth below, there are pieces where Aelbert provided the landscape background for his fathers portraits. The evidence for Aelberts evolution to foreground figure painter is in the production of paintings from 1645-50 featuring foreground animals that do not fit with Jacobs style. Adding to the confusion that is, Aelberts stylistic development and the problem of attribution is of course the fact that Jacobs style was not stagnant either, sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. The richly varnished medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers, Cuyps landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be
21.
Hendrick Avercamp
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Hendrick Avercamp was a Dutch painter. Avercamp was born in Amsterdam, where he studied with the Danish-born portrait painter Pieter Isaacks, in 1608 he moved from Amsterdam to Kampen in the province of Overijssel. Avercamp was mute and was known as de Stomme van Kampen, as one of the first landscape painters of the 17th-century Dutch school, he specialized in painting the Netherlands in winter. Avercamps paintings are colorful and lively, with carefully crafted images of the people in the landscape, many of Avercamps paintings feature people ice skating on frozen lakes. Avercamps work enjoyed popularity and he sold his drawings, many of which were tinted with water-color. The Royal Collection has a collection of his works. Avercamp died in Kampen and was interred there in the Sint Nicolaaskerk, Avercamp probably painted in his studio on the basis of sketches he had made in the winter. Avercamp is famous even abroad for his winter landscapes, the passion for painting skating characters probably came from his childhood, he was practicing this hobby with his parents. The last quarter of the 16th century, during which Avercamp was born, was one of the coldest periods of the Little Ice Age, the Flemish painting tradition is mainly expressed in Avercamps early work. This is consistent with the landscapes of Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Avercamp painted landscapes with a high horizon and many figures who are working on something. The paintings are narrative, with many anecdotes, for instance, naughty details are included in the painting Winter landscape with skaters, a couple making love, buttocks and a peeing male. Later in his drawing the atmosphere was also important in his work. The horizon also gradually dropped down under more and more air, Avercamp used the painting technique of aerial perspective. The depth is suggested by change of color in the distance, to the front objects are painted, such as trees or a boat. This technique strengthens the impression of depth in the painting, Avercamp has also painted cattle and seascapes. Sometimes Avercamp used paper frames, which were an alternative to oil paintings. He first drew with pen and ink and this work was then covered with finishing paint. The contours of the drawing remained, even with this technique Avercamp could show the pale wintry colors and nuances of the ice
22.
Ludolf Bakhuizen
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Ludolf Bakhuizen was a German-born Dutch painter, draughtsman, calligrapher and printmaker. He was the leading Dutch painter of maritime subjects after Willem van de Velde the Elder and Younger left for England in 1672 and he also painted portraits of his family and circle of friends. He was born in Emden, East Frisia, and came to Amsterdam in about 1650, working as a merchants clerk and he discovered so strong a genius for painting that he relinquished the business and devoted himself to art from the late 1650s, initially in pen drawings. He studied first under Allart van Everdingen and then under Hendrik Dubbels and he was an ardent student of nature, and frequently exposed himself on the sea in an open boat in order to study the effects of storms. His compositions, which are numerous, are all variations of one subject, the sea. In his later years Bakhuizen employed his skills in etching, he painted a few examples each of several other genres of painting, such as portraits, landscapes. During his life Bakhuizen was visited by Cosimo III de Medici, Peter the Great, in 1699 he opened a gallery on the top floor of the famous Amsterdam townhall. After a visit to England he died in Amsterdam on 17 November 1708, Bakhuizen painted portraits of his large circle of friends. These are of artistic value but provide an insight into his good relations with contemporary scholars
23.
Meindert Hobbema
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Hobbema was born and died in Amsterdam. Son of a carpenter named Lubbert Meyndertsz, he adopted the surname Hobbema quite early on and his signed pictures come from 1658 to 1689. For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas as Ruisdaels, meindert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to Eeltije Vinck of Gorcum, who was his serving maid, in the Oude Kerk at Amsterdam, on 2 November 1668. Witnesses to the marriage were the brides brother Cornelius Vinck and Jacob Ruisdael, of Hobbemas marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four children. In 1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the section of the Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived till December 1709, receiving burial on the 14th of that month in the section of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam. Husband and wife had lived during their lifetime in the Rozengracht, at no great distance from Rembrandt, Rembrandt, Hals, Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike. They all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their toil, posterity has recognised that Hobbema and Ruisdael together represent the final development of landscape art in Holland. De Vries, Cornelis Gerritsz Decker, Jan Looten, Adriaen Hendriksz Verboom, Guillam Dubois, Jan van Kessel, in the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all conception. It is doubtful whether any one ever so completely mastered as he did the life of woods and hedges. If the chance be given him he mirrors all these things in the pool near a cottage. The same spot will furnish him with several pictures and it has been said that Hobbema did not paint his own figures, but transferred that duty to Adriaen van de Velde, Lingelbach, Barend Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to this much is conjecture, the best of Hobbemas dated pictures are those of the years 1640 to 1642. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St Petersburg, of several pieces in the National Gallery, including the Avenue at Middelharnis, which some assign to 1689, and the Ruins of Brederode Castle, two are dated 1667. A sample of the last of these years is also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, there are other fine Hobbemas in the Antwerp Museum and the Scottish National Gallery. In 1891 a hamlet in Alberta was called Hobbema after the painter, on 1 January 2014 the name was changed to Maskwacis on request of the native Cree who live in the area. The landscape and pastoral painters of Holland pp. 39–62 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hobbema, Meyndert. Hobbema online Web Gallery of Art Works and literature at PubHist Hobbema biography A monumental Hobbema A Pond in the Forest,1868 The Avenue at Middelharnis
24.
Aert van der Neer
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He was a contemporary of Albert Cuyp and Meindert Hobbema, and like the latter he lived and died in comparative obscurity. Recent research by René van Dijk of the Gorinchem Regional Archive has established that Van Der Neer was born in Gorinchem. According to Arnold Houbraken, Van Der Neer lived in Gorinchem as a steward to the lords of Arkel and he became an amateur painter possibly upon contact with the Amsterdam painters Rafael and Jochem Govertsz Camphuysen, whose sister Lysbeth he married in 1629. They had six children, Grietje, Eglon, Cornelia, Elisabeth, Pieter, five of the children were baptized in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam, not far from where he lived. His son Eglon later became a painter himself. Van Der Neer was barely able to support his family by selling his landscapes, in 1659 it seemed necessary to supplement his income by keeping a wine tavern in the Kalverstraat, but two years later he went broke. He died in Amsterdam in abject poverty, and his art was so esteemed that the pictures left by him were valued at about five shillings apiece. Far better is the Winter Landscape, and the Moonlight Scene once in the collection in Brussels. In 1652 Van Der Neer witnessed the fire consumed the old town-hall of Amsterdam. He made this accident the subject for two or three pictures, now in the galleries of Berlin and Copenhagen, Dordrecht, the home of Albert Cuyp, is sometimes found in his pictures, and substantial evidence exists that there was friendship between the two men. At some period of their lives they laid their hands to the same canvases, on some it was the signature of the name, on others the more convincing signature of style. These are models after which Van Der Neer appears to have worked, the same feeling and similar subjects are found in Cuyp and Van Der Neer, before and after their partnership, but Cuyp was the leading genius. Van Der Neer got assistance from him, Cuyp expected none from Van Der Neer and he carefully enlivened his friends pictures, when asked to do so, with figures and cattle. It is in pictures produced by them that we discover Van Der Neers presence at Dordrecht. We are near Dordrecht in the sunset of the Louvre, in which Cuyp evidently painted the foreground. In the National Gallery, London picture Cuyp signs his name on the pail of a milkmaid, whose figure and red skirt he has painted with light effectiveness near the edge of Van Der Neers landscape. Again, a couple of fishermen with a dog, and a sportsman creeping up to surprise some ducks, are Cuyps in a capital Van Der Neer at the Staedel Institute in Frankfurt. Van Der Neers favourite subjects were the rivers and watercourses of his native country either at sunset or after dark and his peculiar skill is shown in realizing translucence which allows objects even distant to appear in the darkness with varieties of warm brown and steel greys
25.
Animal glue
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An animal glue is an adhesive that is created by prolonged boiling of animal connective tissue. These protein colloid glues are formed through hydrolysis of the collagen from skins, bones, tendons, the word collagen itself derives from Greek κόλλα kolla, glue. These proteins form a bond with the glued object. Stereotypically, the animal in question is a horse, and horses that are put down are often said to have sent to the glue factory. However, other animals are used, including rabbits and fish. Animal glue has existed since ancient times, although its usage was not widespread, the first known written procedures of making animal glue were written about 2000 BC. Between 1500–1000 BC, it was used for furnishings and mural paintings. Evidence is in the form of carvings depicting glue preparation and use. Egyptian records tell that animal glue would be made by melting it over a fire, greeks and Romans later used animal and fish glue to develop veneering and marquetry, the bonding of thin sections or layers of wood. Animal glue, known as taurokolla in Greek and gluten taurinum in Latin, were made from the skins of bulls in antiquity, broken pottery might also be repaired with the use of animal glues, filling the cracks to hide imperfections. About 906–618 BC, China utilized fish, ox, and stag horns to produce adhesives, animal glues were employed as binders in paint media during the Tang Dynasty. Records indicate that one of the components of lampblack ink was proteinaceous glue. Ox glue and stag-horn glues bound particles of pigments together, acting as a preservative by forming a film over the surface as the ink dried, the Chinese, such as Kao Gong Ji, also researched glue for medicinal purposes. During the medieval ages, fish glue remained a source for painting and illuminating manuscripts, since the 16th century, hide glue has been used in the construction of violins. Native Americans would use hoof glue primarily as a binder and as a water-resistant coating by boiling it down from leftover animal parts and they occasionally used hide glue as paint to achieve patterns after applying pigments and tanning to hides. Hoof glue would be used for purposes aside from hides, such as a hair preservative, the Assiniboins preferred longer hair, so they would plaster the strands with a mixture of red earth and hoof glue. It would also be used to bind feathers and equipment together, the first commercial glue factory opened in Holland circa 1700, manufacturing animal glue from hides. The United States’ first glue factory opened in 1899, established by the Milwaukee Tanning Industry, during the 18th and 19th centuries, ranchers disposed of old animals – horses in particular – to glue factories
26.
Groninger Museum
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The Groninger Museum is an art museum in the city of Groningen in the Netherlands. The museum exhibits modern and contemporary art of local, national, the current post-modernist building consists of three main pavilions designed individually by architects Philippe Starck, Alessandro Mendini, Coop Himmelbau, and was completed in 1994. Since 2008, it has had 173,000 to 292,000 visitors per year, the Groninger Museum was founded in 1874 and opened its own building twenty years later on the Praediniussingel, in 1894. The Menkemaborg, a mansion, was donated to the Groninger Museum by the heirs of its last inhabitants in 1921. The current building of the museum was opened in 1994, the radically modernist structures that form the Groninger Museum stand in a canal opposite Groningen railway station. They consist of three pavilions, a silver cylindrical building designed by Philippe Starck, a yellow tower by Alessandro Mendini. A bridge that connects the museum to the station is part of a cycling and walking path to the centre of the city. The architectures futuristic and colourful style echos the Italian Post Modern designs of the Memphis Group, Mendini, a former member of the firm, who is noted for his furniture and industrial designs, was asked by museum director Frans Haks in 1990 to design the new museum. Haks wanted something extravagant and insisted on non-architects to create the conceptual studies, american artist Frank Stella was originally approached to design one of the pavilions. However, his plan turned-out to be too expensive because he wanted his structure completely built out of Teflon, the municipality then invited Coop Himmelbau to replace him for the commission. The museum was paid for by Gasunie, the Dutch national natural gas company. The company was celebrating its 25th anniversary and wanted to give the city of Groningen a present, Haks, wanting to move out of the old and insufficient exhibition space, suggested a new museum building. Gasunie agreed to Haks proposal and granted 25 million guilders for the project, alderman Ypke Gietema, a strong proponent of the new museum, was responsible for siting the museum at its present location despite acrimonious objections. During site preparation, protesters managed to halt construction for one year via the high court, citizens objections centered on the controversial design, fearing their homes would not sell with such a peculiar and eccentric structure nearby. Despite the controversy, building resumed in 1992 and it was completed in 1994, local residents had to get used to the shapes and colours of the building, but it soon became a popular success. The Groninger Museum is home to exhibitions of local, national. Some have provoked controversy, such as the exhibition of Andres Serrano, but others are more conventional such as the exhibition of the works by Ilya Repin. While the exhibition David Bowie is was taking place at the museum the death of David Bowie was announced, the museum responded by opening a condolence register and opening its doors to visitors on Monday
27.
Jacques Maroger
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Jacques Maroger was a painter and the technical director of the Louvre Museums laboratory in Paris. He devoted his life to understanding the oil-based media of the Old Masters and he emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became an influential teacher. His book, The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters, has been criticized by modern writers on painting who say that the painting medium Maroger promoted is unsound. In 1907, Maroger began to study with Louis Anquetin and worked under his direction until Anquetins death in 1932. Anquetin worked closely and exhibited with the artists Vincent van Gogh, Charles Angrand, Émile Bernard, Paul Gauguin, Camille Pissarro, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac and he was very active in the Impressionist movement of the time. In his later years, Anquetin became very interested in the works of the Flemish masters, as Marogers teacher, Anquetin provided guidance in the study of drawing, anatomy and master painting techniques. Maroger began to become famous around 1931, when the National Academy of Design in New York City reported Marogers painting discoveries, from 1930 to 1939, Maroger started to work at the Louvre Museum in Paris as Technical Director of the Louvre Laboratory. He served as a professor at the Louvre School, a Member of the Conservation Committee, General Secretary of the International Experts, and President of the Restorers of France. In 1937, he received the Légion dhonneur, and his pride at the honor is reflected in his self-portrait of the time and he emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became a lecturer at the Parsons School of Design in New York. His New York students, Reginald Marsh, John Koch, Fairfield Porter and Frank Mason adopted his Old Master painting techniques, in 1942, Maroger became a Professor at the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore and established a school of painting. Maroger published The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters in 1948, Marogers formula and techniques have been studied by many modern painters who wish to obtain the paint quality of the Old Masters. The secret formula that Maroger devised during his lifetime included the main ingredient white lead, white lead when cooked into linseed oil acts as a drying agent, accelerating the polymerization of the oil film. Equipped with these formulas, the artist could once again blend his paint easily without losing control of his brush, the paint stays where it is applied and does not run off the panel. It dries very fast so that he can paint on the areas the very next day. Redelius was assisting Maroger with a revision of The Secret Formulas, Frank Redelius book, published in 2009, is titled The Master Keys, A Painters Treatise On The Pictorial Technique Of Oil Painting. Maroger has been criticized by modern writers on painting because of his bold claims about having found the secret formulas of the Masters. The most commonly used of Marogers recipes today is in nothing other than a renamed version of the ages-old megilp, also known as macguilp, meglip, meguilp. Megilp/maroger medium is simply the thixotropic gel resulting from the combination of mastic varnish
28.
Netherlands Institute for Art History
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The Netherlands Institute for Art History or RKD is located in The Hague and is home to the largest art history center in the world. The center specializes in documentation, archives, and books on Western art from the late Middle Ages until modern times, all of this is open to the public, and much of it has been digitized and is available on their website. The main goal of the bureau is to collect, categorize, via the available databases, the visitor can gain insight into archival evidence on the lives of many artists of past centuries. The library owns approximately 450,000 titles, of which ca.150,000 are auction catalogs, there are ca.3,000 magazines, of which 600 are currently running subscriptions. Though most of the text is in Dutch, the record format includes a link to library entries and images of known works. The RKD also manages the Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, the original version is an initiative of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Their bequest formed the basis for both the art collection and the library, which is now housed in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Though not all of the holdings have been digitised, much of its metadata is accessible online. The website itself is available in both a Dutch and an English user interface, in the artist database RKDartists, each artist is assigned a record number. To reference an artist page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, for example, the artist record number for Salvador Dalí is 19752, so his RKD artist page can be referenced. In the images database RKDimages, each artwork is assigned a record number, to reference an artwork page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, //rkd. nl/en/explore/images/ followed by the artworks record number. For example, the record number for The Night Watch is 3063. The Art and Architecture Thesaurus also assigns a record for each term, rather, they are used in the databases and the databases can be searched for terms. For example, the painting called The Night Watch is a militia painting, the thesaurus is a set of general terms, but the RKD also contains a database for an alternate form of describing artworks, that today is mostly filled with biblical references. To see all images that depict Miriams dance, the associated iconclass code 71E1232 can be used as a search term. Official website Direct link to the databases The Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus
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Cornelis de Bie
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Cornelis de Bie was a Flemish rederijker, poet, jurist and minor politician from Lier. He is the author of about 64 works, mostly comedies and he is known internationally today for his biographical sketches of Flemish and Dutch painters in his Het Gulden Cabinet der Edel Vry Schilderconst, first printed in 1662. He was the son of the painter Adriaan de Bie and member of the Chamber of Rhetoric in Lier known as den Groeyenden Boom, after his study at the propedeuse faculty of Arts at the University of Leuven, he returned to Lier where he became a notary and bookseller. He was married twice, the first time to Elisabeth Smits who died in 1662 and he had eight children, four from each wife. He died after 1712 and before 1715, when the publisher Jan Meyssen asked Cornelis de Bie to write a book on painters, he started out to write the most important Dutch book on painters of the seventeenth century. This book of artist biographies continues the traditions of Karel van Manders Schilder-Boeck, because it is written in verse form, it is rather difficult to read today, but it is longer than 500 pages and includes engravings of more than 50 painters from period paintings and drawings. He was an important source for Arnold Houbraken, who refers to him as K. de Bie, the work included the biographies of painters, sculptors and architects, both already deceased and living. Most of the work is written in verse and therefore, it is rather a panegyric, there are also indications that it was rapidly set and printed and therefore, it is possible that it was mainly meant as a commercial work. Like Vasari and Van Mander before him, De Bies biographies are interspersed with amusing anecdotes, examples are when Cornelis de Bie describes apprenticeships that were considered improbable because the artist painted in a completely different genre than the teacher. An example is De Bies statement that Philips Wouwerman trained with Frans Hals, later historians claimed this was improbable, because Wouwerman painted landscapes with horses and Hals was a portrait painter. Today this is considered by some to be improbable, though Hals clearly had a large workshop. Het Gulden Cabinet der Edel Vry Schilderconst Domghekeerde maet der liefde, faems Weer-galm der Neder-duytsche poësie Den weerschijn van t leven in de doodt. Den zedigen toetsteen van de onverdragelijcke weelde, verthoont in t leven van den verloren soon, Den wegh der deughden beset met scherpe dornen van quellinghen. Antiquiteyten der stadt Lier, in Brabant, byeen vergadert uyt verscheyde annotatie boeken ende curieuse stukken, echos weder-clanck, passende op den gheestelijcken wecker, tot godtvruchtige oeffeninghen. Den spiegel van de verdrayde werelt, te sien in den bedriegelijcken handel, cluchte van een misluckt overspel, op den sin, Daer dongheregheltheyt van een onkuys ghedacht, Den grooten hertoghe van Moskovien oft gheweldighe heerschappye, Bly-eyndich treurspel. De cluchte van den jaloursen dief, afbeldende donghetrouwicheyt, bemonden achterclap en onversaefde lichtveerdicheyt der menschen, Den verloren zoon Osias oft bekeerden Zondaer Het goddelijck ransoen der zielen salicheyt, in dry deelen. Clucht-wijse comedie van de Mahometaensche slavinne Sultana Bacherach, De verlichte waerheyt van Godts vleesch-gheworden woordt in de gheboorte Christi. T geloofs beproevinghe verthoont in de stantvastighe verduldigheyt van de seer edele Roomsche princesse de heylighe Eugenia, beschermde suyverheyt in de twee heylige Theodora en Didymus, martelaren om t Rooms geloof onthooft, treurspel
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Jan Coelenbier
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Jan Coelenbier, was a Dutch Golden Age landscape painter. According to the RKD he was a pupil of Pieter de Molijn and he married in 1638 and is mentioned in archives as a merchant in 1675 and 1676. He is known for landscapes in the manner of Jan van Goyen and he was listed as coming from Utrecht and being a pupil of Van Goyen, whose works he imitated so closely that they passed for the originals, in Bryans Dictionary of Painters and Engravers
31.
Cornelis van Noorde
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Cornelis van Noorde, was an 18th-century landscape painter and draughtsman from the Northern Netherlands. According to the Netherlands Institute for Art History and he was the son of Rijkes van Noorde and Josina van de Berg, who ran a bakery on the corner of the Kleine Houtstraat and the Patientiestraat. He was the pupil of Frans Decker, and after he died in 1751 and he was still living at home when his father died in 1753. His mother continued the bakery until she died in 1761, the same year Cornelis became a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke and his brother Jacob took over the bakery, and Cornelis moved out with his sister to a house on the Schagelstraat. Cornelis lived there until he married in 1783 to the sister of the man his sister had married, since by that time they were both getting on in age, the marriage remained childless. They then moved again, to the Hof van Holland in the Warmoestraat in 1781, when Van der Vinne left Teylers Stichting, they asked Cornelis to take his place, but he refused and they hired Wybrand Hendriks instead. Cornelis seemed to have kept up the academy somewhat on his own and his pupils were Augustijn Claterbos, Warnaar Horstink, and Johannes Swertner. His sketch book is in the collection of the North Holland archives and has published as an important historical document. The North Holland Archives and Teylers Museum have drawings, water colors, etchings, engravings, of most interest to the archives are his topographical drawings of buildings before and after they were torn down. Cornelis van Noorde on Artnet Het overvloeijend herte of Nagelatene verzen van den godvruchtigen, by Jan Luyken, with 85 etchings by Cornelis van Noorde, bohn, Haarlem,1767 on Google books ^ Het schetsboek van Cornelis van Noorde, 1731-1795. By Cornelis van Noorde and Bert Sliggers, Schuyt & Co.1982 ISBN9060971477
32.
Herman Saftleven
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Herman Saftleven the Younger, was a Dutch painter of the Baroque period. Born in Rotterdam, Saftleven lived most of his life in Utrecht and his brothers, Cornelis Saftleven and Abraham Saftleven were both painters. The former was even known as a painter, specializing in genre scenes. His father, Herman Saftleven I was a painter in Rotterdam, one of Herman II’s daughters, Sara Saftleven, born in Utrecht after 1633, also became a painter of flowers in watercolors. She married Jacob Adriaensz Broers in 1671, Herman became the dean of the Guild of St Luke in Utrecht. After a storm had destroyed most of the town in the 1670s, in the 1680s, he was commissioned by the amateur botanist and horticulturalist Agnes Block, to draw flowers and plants at her country estate near Utrecht
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Pieter Jansz van Asch
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Pieter Jansz van Asch was a Dutch Golden Age painter. He was born at Delft, the son of the portrait painter Jan van Asch, according to Arnold Houbraken, he specialized in small landscapes, but his productivity was hampered by caring for his parents. Jan Verkolje knew him and made a mezzotint of him, the city of Delft paid him 100 guilders for a schoorsteenstuk or overmantel piece in the City Hall known as the Prinsenhof. His works are influenced by the painters Pieter de Bloot, Jan Both, Joachim Govertsz Camphuysen, Anthonie Jansz van der Croos, Jan Josefsz van Goyen and he in turn influenced the painter Jacobus Coert. He died and was buried in his town of Delft. van Asch has paintings in public collections including four in the United Kingdom
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Abraham van Beijeren
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Abraham Hendriksz van Beijeren or Abraham van Beyeren was a Dutch Baroque painter of still lifes. Abraham van Beijeren trained with Tyman Arentsz and he lived in Leiden in 1638-1639 where in 1639 he married Emmerentia Stercke. He was back in The Hague in 1640 where he became a master of the local Guild of Saint Luke, after the death of his first wife he was left to raise three daughters. He married with Anna van den Queborn in 1647 and his second wife was a painter and daughter of the painter Crispijn van den Queborn. Annas aunt was married to Pieter de Putter, a painter of still lifes. De Putter may have been the source of van Beijeren’s initial interest in the genre of still lifes as well as his tutor in this genre. Van Beijeren’s initial works were marine and fish still life paintings and these were not very well paid at the time and the relative poverty of van Beijeren may explain his frequent moves from one place to another. He resided in Delft from 1657 where he joined the local Guild of Saint Luke, in 1663 he returned to The Hague where he remained until 1669 when he moved to Amsterdam. Further moves followed, to Alkmaar in 1669, then Gouda in 1675, the artist may have been doing better financially in his later years as he was able to buy a house in Overschie for 1,000 guilders of which 600 was covered by a mortgage. His wife was reported as being sick in bed in 1679 when she made her will, the date of her death is unknown. Van Beijeren died in Overschie in 1690, van Beijeren signed his canvases with the monogram AVB and invariably failed to include a date. As a result, it has been difficult to compile a precise chronology of his works, while in the 1640s most of his paintings were seascapes, van Beijeren began to develop as a skilled still life painter of fish. In his early paintings he shows the influence of Jan van Goyen. In the 1650s and 1660s he started to focus on pronkstillevens, i. e. still lifes with fine silverware, Chinese porcelain, glass and he also painted a number of floral still life paintings, dead bird paintings and vanitas paintings. The move to painting pronkstillevens may have motivated by economic necessity as they could be sold to a wealthier clientele. These still lifes are often quite elaborate displays and show the influence of Jan Davidsz. de Heem and he generally used a fairly broad technique and brown tonalities with some precision of detail. Van Beijeren was likely familiar with the other Dutch painters of pronkstillevens such as Pieter Claesz and he often worked on a larger scale than his Dutch contemporaries with his tall canvasses reaching a height of one meter. The Scottish National Gallery, the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, the Ashmolean Museum, in private collections, Ger Eenens Collection the Netherlands
35.
Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen
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Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen is an art museum in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. It is located at the Museumpark in the district Rotterdam Centrum, close to the Kunsthal and it houses the collections of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans and Daniël George van Beuningen. In the collection, ranging from medieval to contemporary art, are works of Rembrandt, Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, in 2013, the museum had 292,711 visitors and was the 14th most visited museum in the Netherlands. The museum was established in 1849 as Museum Boymans with the collection of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans, the painter and art dealer, Arie Johannes Lamme, was named the museums first Director. Much of the original collection was destroyed in a fire in 1864. The collection of businessman Daniël George van Beuningen was added in 1958, the spelling was changed to Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen in 1996. The museum has a diverse collection ranging from medieval to contemporary art, much of the collection came to the museum through the two private collections mentioned above, but many others have contributed throughout the years. The collection also includes one of the richest assembly of works on paper in the world from the Middle Ages to the present times, aRTtube is a website with videos about art and design. Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen produces, together with TV Rijnmond, a series on art. Boijmans TV is based on an idea by Wilfried de Jong, Boijmans TV is created by a team of creative specialists in different disciplines. It is more than an art magazine, apart from the artists, the visitor, the attendant. Each episode of Boijmans TV can be viewed on ArtTube after it has been broadcast, sjarel Ex has been the museum director since 2004. The museum had 292,711 visitors in 2013 and that year it was the most visited museum in Rotterdam and the 14th most visited museum in the Netherlands. It had an estimated 270,000 visitors in 2015, media related to Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen at Wikimedia Commons Official website
36.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
37.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
38.
Biografisch Portaal
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The Biografisch Portaal is an initiative based at the Huygens Institute for Dutch History in The Hague, with the aim of making biographical texts of the Netherlands more accessible. As of 2011, only information about deceased people is included. The system used is based on the standards of the Text Encoding Initiative, access to the Biografisch Portaal is available free through a web-based interface. The project is an undertaking by ten scientific and cultural bodies in the Netherlands with the Huygens Institute as main contact. In February 2012, a new project was started called BiographyNed to build a tool for use with the Biografisch Portaal that will link biographies to events in time. The main goal of the project is to formulate ‘the boundaries of the Netherlands’. List of Dutch people Official website
39.
Bibsys
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BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply
40.
National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Goyen, Jan Josephszoon van". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.