1.
Eastern philosophy
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This is because in Asia there is no single unified philosophical tradition with a single root. Some Western thinkers claim that philosophy as such is only characteristic of Western cultures, martin Heidegger is even reported to have said that only Greek and German languages are suitable for philosophizing. It is still commonplace in Western universities to teach only Western philosophy and to ignore Asian philosophy altogether, Hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life, in South Asia. It includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism among numerous other traditions, and a spectrum of laws and prescriptions of daily morality based on karma, dharma. Hinduism is a categorisation of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, Hinduism, with about one billion followers is the worlds third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some refer to it as Sanātana Dharma. Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and it prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, compassion, among others. Nevertheless, the schools are in many ways related. The āstika schools are, Samkhya, an atheistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness, Yoga, a school emphasising meditation, contemplation and liberation. Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge, vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism Mīmāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy Vedānta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the Jnan Kanda. Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period, in Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period golden age of Hinduism. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya Neo-Nyaya, while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga, Jain philosophy deals extensively with the problems of metaphysics, reality, cosmology, ontology, epistemology and divinity. Jainism is essentially a religion of ancient India. It continues the ancient Śramaṇa tradition, which co-existed with the Vedic tradition since ancient times, Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of bondage and the means to achieve liberation. It has often described as an ascetic movement for its strong emphasis on self-control, austerities. Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for decisions. Throughout its history, the Jain philosophy remained unified and single, although as a religion, Jainism was divided into various sects, the contribution of Jain philosophy in developing the Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Moksa, Samsara, Buddhism is a system of religious beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama
2.
Nagarjuna
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Nāgārjuna is widely considered one of the most important Mahayana philosophers. Along with his disciple Āryadeva, he is considered to be the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Nāgārjuna is also credited with developing the philosophy of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras and, in sources, with having revealed these scriptures in the world. Furthermore, he is supposed to have written several treatises on rasayana as well as serving a term as the head of Nālandā. Very little is known of the life of Nāgārjuna, since the surviving accounts were written in Chinese. According to some accounts, Nāgārjuna was originally from South India, some scholars believe that Nāgārjuna was an advisor to a king of the Satavahana dynasty. Archaeological evidence at Amarāvatī indicates that if this is true, the king may have been Yajña Śrī Śātakarṇi, on the basis of this association, Nāgārjuna is conventionally placed at around 150–250 CE. According to a 4th/5th-century biography translated by Kumārajīva, Nāgārjuna was born into a Brahmin family in Vidarbha, some sources claim that in his later years, Nāgārjuna lived on the mountain of Śrīparvata near the city that would later be called Nāgārjunakoṇḍa. The ruins of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa are located in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, the Caitika and Bahuśrutīya nikāyas are known to have had monasteries in Nāgārjunakoṇḍa. There exist a number of influential texts attributed to Nāgārjuna though, as there are many pseudepigrapha attributed to him, the only work that all scholars agree is Nagarjunas is the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, which contains the essentials of his thought in twenty-seven chapters. TRV Murti considers Ratnaavali, Pratitya Samutpaada Hridaya and Sutra Samuccaya to be works of Nagarjuna as the first two are quoted profusely by Chandrakirti and the third by Shantideva, in addition to works mentioned above, several others are attributed to Nāgārjuna. There is an ongoing, lively controversy over which of those works are authentic, contemporary research suggest that these works belong to a significantly later period, either to late 8th or early 9th century CE, and hence can not be authentic works of Nāgārjuna. However, several works considered important in esoteric Buddhism are attributed to Nāgārjuna and these historians try to account for chronological difficulties with various theories. For example, a propagation of later writings via mystical revelation, for a useful summary of this tradition, see Wedemeyer 2007. Lindtner considers that the Māhaprajñāparamitopadeśa Commentary on the Great Perfection of Wisdom is not a work of Nāgārjuna. This work is attested in a Chinese translation by Kumārajīva. There is much discussion as to whether this is a work of Nāgārjuna. Étienne Lamotte, who translated one third of the work into French, the Chinese scholar-monk Yin Shun felt that it was the work of a South Indian and that Nāgārjuna was quite possibly the author. These two views are not necessarily in opposition and a South Indian Nāgārjuna could well have studied the northern Sarvāstivāda, neither of the two felt that it was composed by Kumārajīva, which others have suggested
3.
Adi Shankara
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Adi Shankara was a philosopher and theologian from India who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta. He is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism and his works in Sanskrit discuss the unity of the ātman and Nirguna Brahman brahman without attributes. He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon in support of his thesis and his works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. Shankaras publications criticised the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism and he also explained the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts Atman exists, while Buddhism asserts that there is no Soul, no Self. Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers and he established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mīmāṃsā school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed to have founded four mathas, which helped in the development, revival. Adi Shankara is believed to be the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and he is also known as Adi Shankaracharya, Shankara Bhagavatpada, sometimes spelled as Sankaracharya, Śaṅkarācārya, Śaṅkara Bhagavatpāda and Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya. There are at least fourteen different known biographies of Adi Shankaras life, many of these are called the Śankara Vijaya, while some are called Guruvijaya, Sankarabhyudaya and Shankaracaryacarita. Of these, the Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts, other significant biographies are the Mādhavīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ, the Cidvilāsīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ, and the Keraļīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ. Some biographies are probably forgeries by those who sought to create a basis for their rituals or theories. Adi Shankara died in the thirty third year of his life, the Sringeri records state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of VikramAditya, but it is unclear as to which king this name refers. This conforms to the chronology calculated based off the Hindu Puranas, 44–12 BCE, the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE. 6th century CE, Telang placed him in this century, sir R. G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE. 788–820 CE, This was proposed by early 20th scholars and was accepted by scholars such as Max Müller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishna. The date 788–820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, sometime between 700-750 CE, late 20th-century scholarship has questioned the 788-820 CE dates, placing Adi Shankaras life of 32 years in the first half of the 8th century. The popularly accepted dating places Adi Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE and his father died while Shankara was very young. Shankaras upanayanam, the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, Shankaras hagiography describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of Sannyasa from early childhood. A story, found in all hagiographies, describe Shankara at age eight going to a river with his mother, Sivataraka, to bathe, Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission to become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him
4.
Laozi
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Laozi was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer. He is known as the author of the Tao Te Ching and the founder of philosophical Taoism. A central figure in Chinese culture, Laozi is claimed by both the emperors of the Tang dynasty and modern people of the Li surname as a founder of their lineage, Laozis work has been embraced by various anti-authoritarian movements as well as Chinese legalism. In traditional accounts, Laozis personal name is given as Li Er. A prominent posthumous name was Li Dan, Laozi itself is an honorific title, 老 and 子. It is usually pronounced /ˌlaʊˈdzʌ/ in English and it has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes leading to confusion. The most common present form is Laozi or Lǎozǐ, based on the Hanyu Pinyin system adopted by Mainland China in 1958, during the 20th century, Lao-tzu was more common, based on the formerly prevalent Wade–Giles system. In the 19th century, the title was romanized as Lao-tse. Other forms include the variants Lao-tze and Lao-tsu, as a religious figure, he is worshipped under the name Supreme Old Lord and as one of the Three Pure Ones. During the Tang Dynasty, he was granted the title Supremely Mysterious, the earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st-century BCE Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts. In one account, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BCE and his surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan. He was an official in the archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi, in a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century BCE reign of Duke Xian of the Qin Dynasty. The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was written on bamboo slips, according to traditional accounts, Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou. This reportedly allowed him access to the works of the Yellow Emperor. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius and he was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu. In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier, many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi, including the emperors of the Tang dynasty
5.
Confucius
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Confucius was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and his followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death. Confuciuss principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief and he championed strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. He also recommended family as a basis for ideal government and he espoused the well-known principle Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself, the Golden Rule. Confucius is also a deity in Daoism. According to tradition, three generations before Confucius time, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state, Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings through the Dukes of Song. Confucius family and personal name respectively was Kong Qiu, in Chinese, he is most often known as Kongzi. He is also known by the honorific Kong Fuzi, in the Wade–Giles system of romanization, the honorific name is rendered as Kung Fu-tzu. The Latinized name Confucius is derived from Kong Fuzi, and was first coined by 16th-century Jesuit missionaries to China, within the Analects, he is often referred to simply as the Master. In 1 AD, Confucius was given his first posthumous name, in 1530, he was declared the Extremely Sage Departed Teacher. He is also known separately as the Great Sage, First Teacher and it is generally thought that Confucius was born on September 28,551 BC. His birthplace was in Zou, Lu state and his father Kong He, also known as Shuliang He, was an officer in the Lu military. Kong died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai in poverty and his mother would later die at less than 40 years of age. At age 19 he married his wife Qiguan, and a year later the couple had their first child, Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died early in her life as a child. Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts, Confucius was born into the class of shi, between the aristocracy and the common people. When his mother died, Confucius is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition, the Lu state was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy
6.
Indian philosophy
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Indian philosophy comprises the ancient philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. There are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta. However, there are methods of classification, Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised chiefly between 1000 BCE to the centuries of the Common Era. Competition and integration between the schools was intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BCE and 200 CE. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Śaiva and Advaita Vedanta survived, ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on Ontology, reliable means of knowledge, value system and other topics. They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation and their ancient doctrines span the diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures. These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons, Nyaya-Vaishesika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta. The Vedanta school is divided into six sub-schools, Advaita, also includes the concept of Ajativada, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitadvaita, Suddhadvaita. This orthodox-heterodox terminology is a construct of Western languages, and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit, Cārvāka is a materialistic and atheistic school of thought and, is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. Several Śramaṇic movements have existed before the 6th century BCE, notable philosophies that arose from Śramaṇic movement were Jainism, early Buddhism, Cārvāka, Ajñana and Ājīvika. Jainism, like Buddhism, is a religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism and ahimsa as a means of spiritual liberation, Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, or awakened one. Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared concepts, states Paul Williams, however it is now difficult to identify. The influence of 3rd-century CE Buddhist Tathagatagarbha Sutras on the Advaita Vedanta Hindu scholar Gaudapada – a major school of thought within Hinduism, is clear, Buddhism rejected the Vedic concepts of Brahman and Atman at the foundation of Hindu philosophies. A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a soul in favour of anatta. The philosophy of Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement, Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle
7.
Vedas
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The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
8.
Agastya
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Agastya is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism. In the Indian traditions, he is a recluse and an influential scholar in diverse languages of the Indian subcontinent. He and his wife Lopamudra are the authors of hymns 1.165 to 1.191 in the Sanskrit text Rigveda. Agastya is considered by many to be the father of the Tamil language, Agastya is a character in numerous inconsistent mythologies and regional epics including the major Ramayana and Mahabharata. He is also revered in the Puranic literature of Shaktism and Vaishnavism and he is one of the Indian sages found in ancient sculpture and reliefs in Hindu temples of South Asia, and Southeast Asia such as in the early medieval era Shaiva temples on Java Indonesia. He is the figure and Guru in the ancient Javanese language text Agastyaparva. He is also referred to as Mana, Kalasaja, Kumbhaja, the etymological origin of Agastya is unclear and there are several theories. One states that it is derived from a tree called Agati gandiflora. This theory suggests that Agati evolved into Agastih, and favors Dravidian origins of the Vedic sage, a third theory links it to Indo-European origins, through the Iranian word gasta which means sin, foul, and a-gasta would mean not sin, not foul. The word is written as Agasti and Agathiyar. The origins of Agastya are mythical, unlike most Vedic sages, he has neither a human mother nor a father. According to Hindu mythology, his miraculous birth follows a yajna being done by gods Varuna and Mitra and they are overwhelmed by her extraordinary sexuality, and ejaculate. Their semen falls into a mud pitcher, which is the womb in which the fetus of Agastya grows and he is born from this jar, along with his twin sage Vashistha in some mythologies. This mythology gives him the name kumbhayoni, which means he whose womb was a mud pot. Agastya leads a life, educates himself, becoming a celebrated sage. He is not born to Brahmin parents, but is called a Brahmin in many Indian texts because of his learning, in the Tamil traditions, he is considered a form of the Hindu god Shiva, one well versed in Sanskrit and a symbol of Tamil learning. According to inconsistent legends in the Puranic and the epics, the ascetic sage Agastya proposed to Lopamudra and her parents were unwilling to bless the engagement, concerned that she would be unable to live the austere lifestyle of Agastya in the forest. Therewith, Lopamudra becomes the wife of Agastya, Agastya and Lopamudra have a son named Drdhasyu, sometimes called Idhmavaha
9.
Ashtavakra
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Ashtavakra is a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism. His name literally means eight bends, reflecting the eight physical handicaps he was born with and his maternal grandfather was the Vedic sage Aruni, his parents were both vedic students at Arunis school. Ashtavakra studied, became a sage and a character in the mythologies of the Hindu Epics. Ashtavakra is the author of the text Aṣṭāvakra Gītā, also known as Aṣṭāvakra Saṃhitā, the text is a treatise on Brahman, Atman and monism. Little is known about the life or century in which Ashtavakra actually lived, except for the found in the major Indian Epics. The legends state that sage Aruni, mentioned in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, kahoḍa was one of his students, along with Arunis daughter Sujata. She got pregnant, and during her pregnancy, the developing baby heard the chanting of the Vedas, according to one version of the legends surrounding Ashtavakra, his father was once reciting the Vedas, but erred in correct intonation. The fetus corrected his father, the father got angry and cursed him, the curse caused him to be born crooked, with eight bends, which is what his name Ashtavakra means. The different versions of the legends chronologically place him with Janaka, Aṣṭāvakra is credited as the author of the Ashtavakra Gita, which means song of Ashtavakra. The text is known as Aṣṭāvakra Saṃhitā. Results in consistency building by the audience, which enables the transcendence of these two viewpoints, Aṣṭāvakra is referenced in verse 6.119.17 of Yuddha Kāṇḍa in Vālmikīs Rāmāyaṇa. When the Gandharva then bowed down to Ashtavakra, Ashtavakra said that he would be released from the curse by Rama in Treta Yuga, in the Vana Parva of the Mahābhārata, the legend of Aṣṭāvakra is described in greater detail. On losing the game of dice with the Kauravas, the five Pāṇḍava princes, on their pilgrimage, they meet the sage Lomaśa, and he narrates to the Pāṇḍava princes the legend of Aṣṭāvakra, over three chapters of Vana Parva of the Mahābhārata. Aṣṭāvakras wisdom on various aspects of existence is recited in the Mahābhārata. For example, Aṣṭāvakra and Śvetaketu made his way to Janakas palace, Aṣṭāvakra first faced the gatekeeper who tried to keep the young boy out. On convincing the gatekeeper that he was versed in the scriptures and hence old. Then Janaka tested Aṣṭāvakra with cryptic questions which Aṣṭāvakra answered with ease, Janaka decided to let Aṣṭāvakra face Vandin. Vandin and Aṣṭāvakra began the debate, with Vandin starting and they alternately composed six extempore verses on the numbers one to twelve
10.
Atri
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Atri or Attri is a Vedic sage, who is credited with composing a large number of hymns to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities of Hinduism. Atri is one of the Saptarishi in the Hindu tradition, the fifth Mandala of Rigveda is called the Atri Mandala in his honour, and the eighty seven hymns in it are attributed to him and his descendants. Atri is also mentioned in the Puranas and the Hindu Epics such as the Ramayana, Atri is one of the seven great Rishi or saptarshi along with Marichi, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya and Vashistha. According to the legends of the Vedic era, sage Atri was married to Anasuya Devi and they had three sons, Dattatreya, Durvasas and Soma. As per divine account, he is the last among the seven saptharishis and is believed to have originated from the tongue, the wife of Atri was Anusuya, who is considered one of the seven female pathivrathas. When instructed by divine voice to do penance, Atri readily agreed, pleased by his devotion and prayers, the Hindu trinity, namely, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva appeared before him and offered him boons. He sought all the three to be born to him, another version of the legend states that Anusuya, by the powers of her chastity, rescued the three gods and in return, they were born as children to her. Brahma was born to her as Chandra, Vishnu as Dattatreya, the mention about Atri is found in various scriptures, with the notable being in Rig Veda. He is also associated with various ages, the notable being in Dvapara Yuga during Ramayana, the pair is also attributed to bringing river Ganga down to earth, the mention of which is found in Shiva Purana. He is the seer of the fifth Mandala of the Rigveda, Atri had many sons and disciples who have also contributed in the compilation of the Rig Veda and other Vedic texts. Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, but also to the Visvedevas, the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna, two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas and to Savitr. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the Atri clan composers and these hymns of Rigveda was composed in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between c. The Atri hymns of the Rigveda are significant for their structure as well as for featuring spiritual ideas in the form of riddles. These hymns include lexical, syntactic, morphological and verb play utilizing the flexibility of the Sanskrit language, the hymn 5.44 of the Rigveda in Atri Mandala is considered by scholars such as Geldner to be the most difficult riddle hymn in all of the Rigveda. The verses are known for their elegant presentation of natural phenomenon through metaphors. While the fifth mandala is attributed to Atri and his associates, sage Atri is mentioned or credited with other verses of the Rigveda in other Mandalas. In the Ramayana, Rama, Sita and Lakshmana visit Atri, a number of sages named Atri are mentioned in the various medieval era Puranas. The mythical legends therein about Atri are diverse and inconsistent and it is unclear if these refer to the same person, or to different Rishis who had the same name
11.
Vasistha
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Vashistha is a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism. He is one of the Saptarishis of India, Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of Rigveda. Vashistha and his family are mentioned in Rigvedic verse 10.167.4, other Rigvedic mandalas and his ideas have been influential and he was called as the first sage of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy by Adi Shankara. Yoga Vasistha, Vashistha Samhita, as well as versions of the Agni Purana. He is the subject of many mythologies, such as him being in possession of the divine cow Kamadhenu and Nandini her child and he is famous in Hindu mythologies for his legendary conflicts with sage Visvamitra. Vashistha is also spelled as Vasiṣṭha Thai, Vasit, Tamil, வசிட்டர், Telugu, वसिष्ठ literally means most excellent, best or richest. In Rigvedic hymn 7.33.9, Vasistha is described as a scholar who moved across the Indus river to establish his school and he was married to Arundhati, and therefore he was also called Arundhati Nath, meaning the husband of Arundhati. Vashistha is believed to have lived on the banks of Ganga in modern-day Uttarakhand, later, this region is believed in the Indian tradition to be the abode of sage Vyasa along with Pandavas, the five brothers of Mahabharata. In Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. Vashistha is the author of the book of the Rigveda, one of its family books. These hymns declare two gods, Indra and Varuna, as equally great, in another hymn, particularly the Rigvedic verse 8.83. The seventh mandala of the Rigveda by Vashistha is a metaphorical treatise, Vashistha reappears as a character in Hindu texts, through its history, that explore conciliation between conflicting or opposing ideologies. According to Ellison Findly – a professor of Religion, Vashista hymns in the Rigveda are among the most intriguing in many ways and influential. Vashistha is a sage in the Hindu traditions, and like other revered sages, numerous treatises composed in ancient. Some treatises named after him or attributed to him include, Vasistha samhita is a medieval era Yoga text, there is an Agama as well with the same title. Vasistha dharmasutra, an ancient text, and one of the few Dharma-related treatises which has survived into the modern era and this Dharmasūtra forms an independent text and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing. Yoga Vasistha is a medieval era text that presents Vedanta
12.
Yajnavalkya
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Yajnavalkya is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism. He is mentioned in the oldest Upanishadic scriptures, and likely lived in Videha kingdom of northern Bihar around the 8th century BCE, or 7th century. According to Ben-Ami Scharfstein – a professor emeritus of Philosophy at Tel Aviv University, Yajnavalkya was one of the earliest philosophers in recorded history, after Aruni. Yajnavalkya proposes and then debates metaphysical questions about the nature of existence and impermanence, expounds the doctrine of neti neti to discover the universal Self. He renounced worldly attachments, and his ideas have been important to the Hindu sannyasa traditions. Yajnavalkya is credited to be the one who coined the word Advaita, numerous texts are attributed to him, such as the Yajnavalkya Smriti, Yoga Yajnavalkya and texts of the Vedanta school. He is also mentioned in various Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, yanjavalkya is estimated to have lived in around the 8th century BCE, or 7th century. In contrast to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the epic Mahabharata states Maitreyi is a beauty who is an Advaita scholar. His name Yajnavalkya is derived from yajna which connotes ritual, however, states Frits Staal, Yajnavalkya was a thinker, not a ritualist. He is also mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Puranas, as well as in ancient Jainism texts such as the Isibhasiyaim, another important and influential Yoga text in Hinduism is named after him, namely Yoga Yajnavalkya, but its author is unclear. The actual author of Yoga Yajnavalkya text was probably someone who lived centuries after the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya. According to Vishwanath Narayan Mandlik, these references to Yajnavalkya in other texts, in addition to the eponymous Yoga Yajnavalkya, one of the early expositions of karma and rebirth theories appear in the discussions of Yajnavalkya. He is beyond good and evil, and neither what he has done, nor what he has omitted to do and he therefore who knows it, becomes quiet, subdued, satisfied, patient, and collected. He sees self in Self, sees all as Self, evil does not overcome him, he overcomes all evil. Evil does not burn him, he burns all evil, free from evil, free from spots, free from doubt, he became Atman-Brâhmana, this is the Brahma-world, O King, thus spoke Yajnavalkya. The section 4.3 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is attributed to Yajnavalkya, and it discusses the premises of moksha, paul Deussen calls it, unique in its richness and warmth of presentation, with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times. This dialogue appears in several Hindu texts, the earliest is in chapter 2.4 – and modified in chapter 4.5 – of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the principal and oldest Upanishads. According to Shankara, the dialogue suggests renunciation is prescribed in the Sruti, neti neti Janaka of Videha Gargi Vachaknavi Uddalaka Aruni Ashtavakra Brereton, Joel P
13.
Jaimini
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Jaimini was an ancient Indian scholar who founded the Mimansa school of Hindu philosophy. He is traditionally attributed to be the author of the Mimamsa Sutras text and he is estimated to have lived around the 4th-century BCE. His school is considered non-theistic, but one that emphasized rituals parts of the Vedas as essential to Dharma, jaiminis guru was Badarayana, the latter founded the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, emphasizing the knowledge parts of the Vedas, and credited with authoring Brahma Sutras. Jaimini is most known for his great treatise Purva Mimamsa Sutras, also called Karma-mimamsa, the text founded the Purva-Mimamsa school of Ancient Indian philosophy, one of the six Darsanas or schools of Ancient Indian philosophy. Dated to ca. the 4th century BCE, the text contains about 3,000 sutras and is the text of the Mimamsa school. The text aims at an exegesis of the Vedas with regard to practice and religious duty. Jaiminis Mimamsa is a ritualist counter-movement to the Self-knowledge speculations of the Vedanta philosophy and his Mimamsa Sutra was commented upon by many, of which Śābara was among the earliest. He divided the Veda into four, namely Rig, Yajur, Sama, the histories and the Puranas are said to be the fifth Veda. - Brahmanda Purana 1.4.21 One of the major Puranas, samaveda Guru Purnima Indian Mathematics Purva Mimansa homepage
14.
Vedanta
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Vedanta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It represents the divergent philosophical views of more than 10 schools—all developed on the basis of a textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi. The Prasthanatrayi is a term for the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras. Vedanta does not stand for one comprehensive or unifying doctrine, over time, Vedanta adopted ideas from other orthodox schools like Yoga and Nyaya, and, through this syncretism, became the most prominent school of Hinduism. Many extant forms of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism have been shaped and influenced by the doctrines of different schools of Vedanta. The word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads, Vedanta was concerned with the jñānakāṇḍa or Vedic knowledge part called the Upanishads. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the philosophical traditions based on to the Prasthanatrayi. The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses and these mark the culmination of Vedic thought. These were taught and debated last, in the Brahmacharya stage, Vedanta is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, the latter enquiry or higher enquiry, and is contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the karmakāṇḍa or rituals part in the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the Prasthanatrayi, literally, the Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna, considered the Sruti foundation of Vedanta. The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasthana / Yukti prasthana, considered the foundation of Vedanta. The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasthāna, considered the Smriti foundation of Vedanta, the Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the teaching of the Upanishads necessitated the systematization of these teachings and this was likely done in many ways in ancient India, but the only surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. The Bhagavad Gita, due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, the Upanishads do not present a rigorous philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical exegesis, varying interpretations of the Upanishads and their synthesis, the Brahma Sutras, led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time of which three, four, five or six are prominent. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a rather than a school of Vedanta
15.
Advaita Vedanta
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Advaita Vedanta is a school of Hindu philosophy and religious practice, and one of the classic Indian paths to spiritual realization. The term Advaita refers to its idea that the soul is the same as the highest metaphysical Reality, Advaita Vedanta traces its roots in the oldest Upanishads. It relies on three textual sources called the Prasthanatrayi and it gives a unifying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. Advaita Vedanta is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta, which is one of the six orthodox Hindu philosophies, though its roots trace back to the 1st millennium BCE, the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedanta is considered by the tradition to be 8th century scholar Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta emphasizes Jivanmukti, the idea that moksha is achievable in this life in contrast to Indian philosophies that emphasize Videhamukti, Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most influential schools of classical Indian thought. Many scholars describe it as a form of monism, others describe the Advaita philosophy as non-dualistic, beyond Hinduism, Advaita Vedanta interacted and developed with the other traditions of India such as Jainism and Buddhism. Advaita Vedanta texts espouse a spectrum of views from idealism, including illusionism, in modern times, its views appear in various Neo-Vedanta movements. It has been termed as the example of Hindu spirituality. The Advaita Vedanta school has referred to historically by various names, such as Advaita-vada, Abheda-darshana, Dvaita-vada-pratisedha. According to Richard King, a professor of Buddhist and Asian studies, traditional Advaita Vedanta centers on the study of the sruti especially the Principal Upanishads, along with the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Within the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism are many sub-schools, of which Advaita is one, unlike Buddhism, but like Jainism, all Vedanta schools consider the existence of Atman as self evident. The Vedanta tradition also posits the concept of Brahman as the eternal, the sub-schools of Vedanta disagree on the relation between Atman and Brahman. The Advaita darsana considers them to be identical, Advaita Vedanta believes that the knowledge of ones true self or Atman is liberating. Correct knowledge, which destroys avidya, psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman, is obtained through three stages of practice, sravana, manana and nididhyasana, the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism rejects the dualism of Samkhya. Advaita, like all Vedanta schools, states that Brahman is both the efficient and the cause, that from which the origination, subsistence. What created all existence is also present in and reflected in all beings and inert matter and this Brahman it postulates is sat-cit-ananda. Second, how did cit Brahman create material world, third, if ananda Brahman is pure bliss, why did the empirical world of sufferings arise. These are the questions that Advaita Vedanta thinkers have historically attempted to answer, Advaita establishes its truths, in part, from the oldest Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita and numerous other Hindu texts
16.
Gaudapada
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Gauḍapāda, also referred as Gauḍapādacharya, was an early medieval era scholar of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. While details of his biography are uncertain, his ideas inspired others such as Adi Shankara who called him a Paramaguru, Gaudapada was the author or compiler of the Māṇḍukya Kārikā, also known as Gaudapada Karika. The text consists of four chapters, of which Chapter Four uses Buddhist terminology thereby showing it was influenced by Buddhism, however, doctrinally Gaudapadas work is Vedantin, and not Buddhist. The first three chapters of Gaudapadas text have been influential in the Advaita Vedanta tradition, the century in which Gaudapada lived and his life details are uncertain. Estimates vary from early 6th to 7th century CE and he is generally dated from estimates for Adi Shankara, whose teacher Govinda Bhagavatpada is presumed to be the direct disciple of Gaudapada. Shankara in some texts, refers to Gaudapada as the teacher who knows the tradition of the Vedānta. Assuming how long each lived and when, Gaudapada is estimated to have lived sometime in the 7th century CE, alternatively, states Potter, the phrase teachers teacher should not be taken literally, and more in the sense of another phrase he uses for Gaudapada, namely Paramaguru. He may have been the guru of Sankaras teacher, but was likely a more distant guru, another estimate places him around the early 6th century. This estimate is based on Buddhist literature, and particularly those of scholars Bhavaviveka, Santaraksita, Bhavaviveka was a contemporary of Dharmapala, states Karl Potter, while Chinese texts and travel accounts place Dharmapala in the mid 6th century CE. Assuming the Buddhist and Chinese records are reliable, and for Bhavaviveka to have quoted Gauḍapada kārikās, Gaudapada must have lived around 500 CE, or sometime in the first half of 6th century CE. But, it is certain that Gaudapada lived after the 4th century because he cites some Buddhist views of Nāgārjuna and Asanga, Gaudapada wrote or compiled the Māṇḍukya Kārikā, also known as the Gauḍapāda Kārikā and as the Āgama Śāstra. Some scholars, states Karl Potter, doubt that Gaudapada Karika was written by one author, the Māṇḍukya Kārikā is a concise explanation, in verse form, of the doctrines in Mandukya Upanishad, one of the shortest but a profound Upanishad, consisting of just 12 sentences. Even before the time of Adi Shankara, Mandukya Upanishad was considered to be a Śruti, in later periods it acquired a higher value, and expressing the Upanishadic essence. Gaudapadas text, adds Nakamura, was treasured but not considered a Sruti by Advaita scholars, while Ramanuja, most of Chapter Three of the compilation of Gaudapada Karika was complete by 400–500 CE, states Nakamura. He estimates that most of Chapter One was complete by 300–400 CE, while Chapter Two which presupposes Chapter One can be dated to have been complete after Chapter One. Most of the Chapter Four was written sometime between 400 and 600 CE, the Self resides in ones body in three forms, waking state, sleeping dreamy state and in deep sleep state, according to Potters translation. The description of these states of self are similar, states Arvind Sharma, to found in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Gaudapada presents the traditional theories about life in vogue, before and in his times
17.
Madhvacharya
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Madhva Acharya, also known as Purna Prajña and Ananda Teertha, was a Hindu philosopher and the chief proponent of the Dvaita school of Vedanta. Madhva called his philosophy as Tattvavada meaning the realist viewpoint, madhvācārya was born on the west coast of Karnataka state in 13th-century India. As a teenager, he became a Sanyasin joining Brahma-sampradaya guru Achyutapreksha, Madhva studied the classics of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Principal Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras. He commented on these, and is credited with thirty seven works in Sanskrit and his writing style was of extreme brevity and condensed expression. His greatest work is considered to be the Anuvyakhyana, a supplement to his bhasya on the Brahma Sutras composed with a poetic structure. In some of his works, he proclaimed himself to be an avatar of Vayu and he was a critic of Adi Shankaras Advaita Vedanta and Ramanujas Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings. He toured India several times, visiting places such as Bengal, Varanasi, Dwarka, Goa and Kanyakumari, engaging in philosophical debates, Madhva established the Krishna Mutt at Udupi with a murti secured from Dwarka Gujarat in AD1285. His schools theistic dualism teachings disagreed with the monist teachings of the two most influential schools of Vedanta based on Advaitas nondualism and Vishishtadvaitas qualified nondualism. Salvation, asserted Madhva, is only through the grace of God. Madhvas historical influence in Hinduism, state Kulandran and Kraemer, has been salutary, the biography of Madhvacharya is unclear. Many sources date him to 1238–1317 period, but some place him about the 1199-1278 period, madhvācārya was born in Pajaka near Udupi, a coastal Malabar region of south-west India in the state of Karnataka. Traditionally it is believed that Naddantillaya was the name of his father, born in a Vaishnavite Brahmin household, he was named Vāsudeva. Later he became famous by the names Purnaprajna, Anandatirtha and Madhvacarya, pūrnaprajña was the name given to him at the time of his initiation into sannyasa, as a teenager. The name conferred on him when he became the head of his monastery was Ānanda Tīrtha, all three of his later names are found in his works. Madhvācārya or Madhva are names most commonly found in literature on him. Madhva began his school after his Upanayana at age seven, became a monk or Sannyasi in his teenage and he joined an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka, accepted his guru to be Achyutrapreksha, who is also referred to as Achyutraprajna in some sources. Madhva never acknowledged Achyutrapreksha as his guru or his lineage in his writings. A number of semi-fictional hagiographies have been written by Madhvas disciples, of these, the most referred to is the sixteen cantos Sanskrit biography Madhvavijaya by Nārāyana Panditācārya – son of Trivikrama Pandita, who himself was a disciple of Madhva
18.
Sri Vaishnavism
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Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya or Sri Vaishnavism is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name is derived from Sri referring to goddess Lakshmi as well as a prefix that means sacred, revered, and god Vishnu who are together revered in this tradition. The tradition traces its roots to the ancient Vedas and Pancaratra texts in Sanskrit, tradition is based on the Vishistadvaita vedanta philosophy derived from Sanskrit Veda and Tamil Divya Prabandham. The tradition split into two sub-traditions around the 16th-century called the Vadakalai and Thenkalai, the name Srivaishnavism is derived from two words, Sri and Vaishnavism. The word Sri refers to goddess Lakshmi as well as a prefix that means sacred, revered, the word Vaishnavism refers to a tradition that reveres god Vishnu as the supreme god. The followers of Srivaishnavism are known as Srivaishnava, the historical basis of Sri Vaishnavism is in the syncretism of two developments. Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 10th century, after Nathamuni returned from a pilgrimage to Vrindavan in north India, nathamunis ideas were continued by Yamunacharya, who maintained that the Vedas and Pancaratras are equal, devotional rituals and bhakti are important practices. The legacy of Yamunacharya was continued by Ramanuja, but they never met, Ramanuja, a scholar who studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and disagreed with some of the ideas of Advaita, became the most influential leader of Sri Vaishnavism. Around the 18th century, the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into the Vatakalai and Tenkalai, the Vatakalai placed more emphasis on the Sanskrit traditions, while the Tenkalai relied more on the Tamil traditions. This theological dispute between the Vedic and Bhakti traditions traces it roots to the debate between Srirangam and Kanchipuram monasteries between the 13th and 15th century, the debate then was on the nature of salvation and the role of grace. Along with Vishnu, and like Shaivism, the reality and truth is considered in Sri Vaishnavism to be the divine sharing of the feminine and the masculine, the goddess. Sri is regarded as the preceptor of the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya, goddess Sri has been considered inseparable from god Vishnu, and essential to each other, and to the act of mutual loving devotion. Sri and Vishnu act and cooperate in the creation of everything that exists, according to some medieval scholars of Srivashnava theology, states John Carman, Sri and Vishnu do so using divine knowledge that is unsurpassed and through love that is an erotic union. In contrast, in Shaivism, the goddess is the energy and power of Shiva and she is the equal with different roles, supreme in the role of creator and destroyer. Sri Vaishnavisms philosophical foundation was established by Ramanuja, who started his Vedic studies with Yadava Prakasha in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and he brought Upanishadic ideas to this tradition, and wrote texts on qualified monism, called Vishishtadvaita in the Hindu tradition. His ideas are one of three subschools in Vedanta, the two are known as Adi Shankaras Advaita and Madhvacharyas Dvaita. Ramanujas Vishishtadvaita asserts that Atman and Brahman are different, a difference that is never transcended, God Vishnu alone is independent, all other gods and beings are dependent on Him. While the 13th- to 14th-century Madhvacharya asserted both qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls, Ramanuja asserted qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls, according to Sri Vaishnavism theology, moksha can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world
19.
Ramanuja
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Ramanuja was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism. He was born in a Tamil Brāhmin family in the village of Sriperumbudur and his philosophical foundations for devotionalism were influential to the Bhakti movement. Rāmānujas guru was Yādava Prakāsa, a scholar who was a part of the more ancient Advaita Vedānta monastic tradition, Rāmānuja is famous as the chief proponent of Vishishtadvaita subschool of Vedānta, and his disciples were likely authors of texts such as the Shatyayaniya Upanishad. Rāmānuja himself wrote influential texts, such as bhāsya on the Brahma Sutras, Rāmānuja presented the epistemic and soteriological importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God as a means to spiritual liberation. The details of historic Rāmānuja are unknown and his followers in the Vaishnava tradition wrote hagiographies, some of which were composed in centuries after his death, and which the tradition believes to be true. The traditional hagiographies of Rāmānuja state he was born in a Brāhmin family, to mother Kānthimathi and father Kesava Somayāji, in Sriperumbudur, near modern Chennai and they place his life in the period of 1017–1137 CE, yielding a lifespan of 120 years. Rāmānuja married, moved to Kānchipuram, studied in an Advaita Vedānta monastery with Yādava Prakāsa as his guru, Rāmānuja and his guru frequently disagreed in interpreting Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads. Rāmānuja and Yādava Prakāsa separated, and thereafter Rāmānuja continued his studies on his own and he attempted to meet another famed Vedanta scholar of 11th-century Yamunāchārya, but Sri Vaishnava tradition holds that the latter died before the meeting and they never met. However, some assert that the corpse of Yamunāchārya miraculously rose. One hagiography states that after leaving Yādava Prakāsa, Rāmānuja was initiated into Sri Vaishnavism by Periya Nambi, also called Māhapurna, Rāmānuja renounced his married life, and became a Hindu monk. The Muvāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva by Brahmatantra Svatantra Jīyar represents the earliest Vadakalai biography, Ārāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva, on the other hand, represents the Tenkalai biography. Other late biographies include the Yatirajavaibhavam by Andhrapurna, modern scholarship has questioned the reliability of these hagiographies. According to J. A. B. van Buitenen, the hagiographies are legendary biographies about him, Rāmānuja grew up in the Tamil culture, in a stable society during the rule of the Hindu Cholas dynasty. This period was one of pluralistic beliefs, where Vaishnava, Shaiva, Smarta traditions, in Hindu monastic tradition, Advaita Vedānta had been dominant, and Rāmānujas guru Yādava Prākāsha belonged to this tradition. Rāmānujas fame grew because he was considered the first thinker in centuries that disputed Shankaras theories, some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of all but the three of the largest works credited to Rāmānuja – Shri Bhāshya, Vedārthasangraha and the Bhagavad Gita Bhāshya. Rāmānujas philosophical foundation was qualified monism, and is called Vishishtadvaita in the Hindu tradition and his ideas are one of three subschools in Vedānta, the other two are known as Ādi Shankaras Advaita and Madhvāchāryas Dvaita. There is no reason, stated Rāmānuja, to one part of a scripture and not other. One cannot, according to Rāmānuja, attempt to give interpretations of isolated portions of any scripture, rather, the scripture must be considered one integrated corpus, expressing a consistent doctrine
20.
Swami Vivekananda
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Swami Vivekananda Bengali, Shāmi Bibekānondo,12 January 1863 –4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta, was an Indian Hindu monk, a chief disciple of the 19th-century Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a force in the revival of Hinduism in India. Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission and he is perhaps best known for his speech which began, Sisters and brothers of America. In which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the Worlds Religions in Chicago in 1893, born into an aristocratic Bengali family of Calcutta, Vivekananda was inclined towards spirituality. He was influenced by his Guru, Ramakrishna Deva, from whom he learnt that all living beings were an embodiment of the self, therefore. After Ramakrishnas death, Vivekananda toured the Indian subcontinent extensively and acquired knowledge of the conditions prevailing in British India. He later travelled to the United States, representing India at the 1893 Parliament of the World Religions, Vivekananda conducted hundreds of public and private lectures and classes, disseminating tenets of Hindu philosophy in the United States, England and Europe. In India, Vivekananda is regarded as a saint and his birthday is celebrated there as National Youth Day. Vivekananda was born Narendranath Datta at his home at 3 Gourmohan Mukherjee Street in Calcutta. He belonged to a traditional Bengali Kayastha family and was one of nine siblings and his father, Vishwanath Datta, was an attorney at the Calcutta High Court. Durgacharan Datta, Narendras grandfather was a Sanskrit and Persian scholar who left his family and his mother, Bhubaneswari Devi, was a devout housewife. The progressive, rational attitude of Narendras father and the temperament of his mother helped shape his thinking. Narendranath was interested spiritually from an age, and used to meditate before the images of deities such as Shiva, Rama, Sita. He was fascinated by wandering ascetics and monks, naren was naughty and restless as a child, and his parents often had difficulty controlling him. His mother said, I prayed to Shiva for a son, in 1871, at the age of eight, Narendranath enrolled at Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagars Metropolitan Institution, where he went to school until his family moved to Raipur in 1877. In 1879, after his familys return to Calcutta, he was the student to receive first-division marks in the Presidency College entrance examination. He was a reader in a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, religion, history, social science, art. He was also interested in Hindu scriptures, including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Narendra was trained in Indian classical music, and regularly participated in physical exercise, sports and organised activities
21.
Sri Aurobindo
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Sri Aurobindo was an Indian nationalist, philosopher, yogi, guru and poet. Aurobindo studied for the Indian Civil Service at Kings College, Cambridge and he was arrested in the aftermath of a number of bomb outrages linked to his organisation, but was only convicted and imprisoned for writing articles against British rule in India. He was released when no evidence could be provided, following the murder of prosecution-witness during the trial, during his stay in the jail he had mystical and spiritual experiences, after which he moved to Pondicherry, leaving politics for spiritual work. During his stay in Pondicherry, Aurobindo developed a method of practice he called Integral Yoga. The central theme of his vision was the evolution of life into a life divine. He believed in a spiritual realisation that not only liberated man but transformed his nature, in 1926, with the help of his spiritual collaborator, Mirra Alfassa, he founded the Sri Aurobindo Ashram. He died on 5 December 1950 in Pondicherry and his works also include philosophy, poetry, translations and commentaries on the Vedas, Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1943, Aurobindo Ghose was born into a Kayastha family in Calcutta, Bengal Presidency, India on 15 August 1872. His mother was Swarnalata Devi, whose father was Shri Rajnarayan Bose and she had been sent to the more salubrious surroundings of Calcutta for Aurobindos birth. Aurobindo had two siblings, Benoybhusan and Manmohan, a younger sister, Sarojini, and a younger brother. Young Aurobindo was brought up speaking English but used Hindustani to communicate with servants, although his family were Bengali, his father believed British culture to be superior. Darjeeling was a centre of British life in India and the school was run by Irish nuns, through which the boys would have exposed to Christian religious teachings. Krishna Dhun Ghose wanted his sons to enter the Indian Civil Service, to achieve this it was necessary that they study in England and so it was there that the entire family moved in 1879. The three brothers were placed in the care of the Reverend W. H. Drewett in Manchester, Drewett was a minister of the Congregational Church whom Krishna Dhun Ghose knew through his British friends at Rangapur. The boys were taught Latin by Drewett and his wife and this was a prerequisite for admission to good English schools and, after two years, in 1881, the elder two siblings were enrolled at Manchester Grammar School. Aurobindo was considered too young for enrolment and he continued his studies with the Drewetts, learning history, Latin, French, geography and arithmetic. Although the Drewetts were told not to teach religion, the boys inevitably were exposed to Christian teachings and events, Drewett emigrated to Australia in 1884, causing the boys to be uprooted as they went to live with Drewetts mother in London. In September of that year, Aurobindo and Manmohan joined St Pauls School there and he learned Greek and spent the last three years reading literature and English poetry
22.
Samkhya
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Samkhya or Sankhya is one of the six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy. It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepts three of six pramanas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These include pratyakṣa, anumāṇa and śabda, sometimes described as one of the rationalist school of Indian philosophy, this ancient schools reliance on reason was neither exclusive nor strong. Sāmkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities, puruṣa and prakṛti, Jiva is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi, during the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called liberation, or kaivalya, the existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya philosophers. Sāṃkhya denies the final cause of Ishvara, while the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars. A key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a personal, yet essentially inactive, Samkhya is known for its theory of guṇas. Everything, all forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three guṇas, but in different proportions. The interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of nature, the Samkhya theory of guṇas was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian philosophies, including Buddhism. Samkhyas philosophical treatises also influenced the development of theories of Hindu ethics. In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya refers to the school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration. The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numbers, some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins. For the Sankhya philosophy is, in its essence, not only atheistic, dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex. Some scholars disagreed with this view, here – in Kaushitaki Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad – the germ are to be found two of the main ideas of classical Samkhya. More recent scholarship offers another perspective, Ruzsa in 2006, for example, states, Sāṅkhya has a very long history. Its roots go deeper than textual traditions allow us to see, the ancient Buddhist Aśvaghoṣa describes Arāḍa Kālāma, the teacher of the young Buddha as following an archaic form of Sāṅkhya. Anthony Warder in 2009, summarizes that Samkhya and Mīmāṃsā schools appear to have been established before Sramana traditions in India, speculations in the direction of the Samkhya can be found in the early Upanishads
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Kapila
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Kapila is a given name of different individuals in ancient and medieval Indian texts, of which the most well-known is the founder of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. Kapila of Samkhya fame is considered a Vedic sage, estimated to have lived in the 6th-century BCE, rishi Kapila is credited with authoring the influential Samkhya-sutra, in which aphoristic sutras present the dualistic philosophy of Samkhya. Kapilas influence on Buddha and Buddhism have long been the subject of scholarly studies, many historic personalities in Hinduism and Jainism, mythical figures, pilgrimage sites in Indian religion, as well as an ancient variety of cow went by the name Kapila. The name Kapila appears in texts, and it is likely that these names refer to different people. The most famous reference is to the sage Kapila with his student Āsuri, while he pre-dates Buddha, it is unclear which century he lived in, with some suggesting 6th-century BCE. Others place him in the 7th century BCE and this places him in the late Vedic period, and he has been called a Vedic sage. Kapila is credited with authoring an influential sutra, called Samkhya-sutra and these sutras were explained in another well studied text of Hinduism called the Samkhyakarika. Beyond the Samkhya theories, he appears in many dialogues of Hindu texts, the name Kapila is used for many individuals in Hinduism, few of which may refer to the same person. The term Kapileya, meaning clans of Kapila, occurs in the Aitareya Brahmana VII.17, the pariśiṣṭa of the Atharvaveda mentions Kapila, Āsuri and Pañcaśikha in connection with a libation ritual for whom tarpana is to be offered. In verse 5.2 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, states Larson, tam agre. which when compared to other verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad Kapila likely construes to Rudra and Hiranyagarbha. Kapila, states George Williams, lived long before the composition of the Epics and the Puranas, Kapila and hermits then went to Kapilasangama, a holy place where rivers meet. The Brahma Purana also mentions Kapila in the context of Sagaras 60,000 sons who looking for their Ashvamedha horse and he woke up, the brilliance in his eyes burnt all but four of Sagaras sons to ashes, leaving few survivors carrying on the family lineage. As Vishnus incarnation, The Narada Purana enumerates two Kapilas, one as the incarnation of Brahma and another as the incarnation of Vishnu, the Puranas Bhagavata, Brahmanda, Vishnu, Padma, Skanda, Narada Purana, and the Valmiki Ramayana mentions Kapila is an incarnation of Vishnu. The Padma Purana and Skanda Purana conclusively call him Vishnu himself who descended on earth to disseminate true knowledge, Bhagavata Purana calls him Vedagarbha Vishnu. The Vishnusahasranama mentions Kapila as a name of Vishnu, in his commentary on the Sankyasutra, Vijnanabhikshu mentions Kapila, the founder of Sankya system, is Vishnu. As son of Kardama muni, The Book 3 of the Bhagavata Purana, states Kapila was the son of Kardama Prajapati, Kardama was born from Chaya, the reflection of Brahma. Vishnu advises Kardama to marry Devahuti, and blesses Kardama that he himself will be born as his son. H. H. Wilson notes the Bhagavatha adds a third daughter Devahuti to introduce the long legend of Kardama, and of their son Kapila, in the Bhagavata Purana, Kapila presents to his mother Devahuti, the philosophy of yoga and theistic dualism
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Yoga (philosophy)
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Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism. Ancient, medieval and most modern literature often refers to the Yoga school of Hinduism simply as Yoga and it is closely related to the Samkhya school of Hinduism. The Yoga schools systematic studies to better oneself physically, mentally and spiritually has influenced all schools of Indian philosophy. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a key text of the Yoga school of Hinduism, the epistemology of the Yoga school of Hinduism, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six Pramanas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge. These include Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa and Sabda, the metaphysics of Yoga is built on the same dualist foundation as the Samkhya school. The universe is conceptualized as composed of two realities in the Samhkya-Yoga schools, Puruṣa and prakriti, jiva is considered as a state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, the end of this bondage is called liberation, or moksha, by both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism. The ethical theory of the Yoga school is based on Yamas and Niyama, the Yoga school of Hinduism differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of a personal, yet essentially inactive, deity or personal god. Advaita Vedanta, and other schools of Hinduism, accept, adopt and build many of the teachings. The origins of the Yoga school of Hinduism are unclear, some of its earliest discussions are found in 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad. The root of Yoga is found in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically control their minds and their intelligence. Rigveda, however, does not describe Yoga philosophy with the meaning or context as in medieval or modern times. Early references to practices that became part of Yoga school of Hinduism, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Gavin Flood translates it as. having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self, the practice of pranayama is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and the practice of pratyahara is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad. The Katha Upanishad, dated to be from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, in verses 2.6.6 through 2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge and it influenced and was influenced by other schools and Indian philosophies. Patanjalis Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions, the third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection. The systematic collection of ideas of the Yoga school of Hinduism is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the Yoga school of Hinduism has been included as one of the six orthodox schools in medieval era Indian texts. The other schools are Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy is most closely related to the Samkhya school
25.
Patanjali
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Patañjali is a proper Indian name. Several important ancient Sanskrit works are ascribed to one or more authors of this name, amongst the more important authors called Patañjali are, The author of the Mahābhāṣya, an ancient treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics, based on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. This Patañjalis life is dated to mid 2nd century BCE by both Western and Indian scholars and this text was titled as a bhasya or commentary on Katyayana-Paninis work by Patanjali, but is so revered in the Hindu traditions that it is widely known simply as Maha-bhasya or Great commentary. So vigorous, well reasoned and vast is his text, that this Patanjali has been the authority as the last grammarian of classical Sanskrit for 2,000 years, with Panini and Katyayana preceding him. Their ideas on structure, grammar and philosophy of language have also influenced scholars in other Indian religions such as Buddhism and Jainism, the compiler of the Yoga sūtras, a text on Yoga theory and practice, and a notable scholar of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. He is variously estimated to have lived between 5th century BCE to 4th century CE, with more scholars accepting dates between 2nd and 4th century CE, the Yogasutras is one of the most important texts in the Hindu tradition and the foundation of classical Yoga. It is the Indian Yoga text that was most translated in its medieval era into forty Indian languages, the author of a medical text called Patanjalatantra. There is a fourth Hindu scholar also named Patanjali, who lived in 8th-century CE and wrote a commentary on Charaka Samhita. According to some modern era Indian scholars such as P. V, sharma, the two medical scholars named Patanjali may be the same person, but completely different person than the Patanjali who wrote the Sanskrit grammar classic Mahabhasya. Patanjali is one of the 18 siddhars in the Tamil siddha tradition, according to Monier Monier-Williams, the word Patañjali is a compound name from patta and añj or añjali. Louis Renou was among the scholars who have suggested that the Patañjali who wrote on Yoga was a different person than the Patanjali who wrote a commentary on Paninis grammar. In 1914, James Wood proposed that they were the same person, in 1922, Surendranath Dasgupta presented a series of arguments to tentatively propose that the famed Grammar text and the Yoga text author may be identical. The view that these were two different authors is generally accepted, but some Western scholars consider them as same. Some in the Indian tradition have held that one Patañjali wrote treatises on grammar, medicine, no known Sanskrit text prior to the 10th century states that the one and the same Patanjali was behind all the three treatises. In the grammatical tradition, Patañjali is believed to have lived in the second century BCE and he wrote a Mahabhasya on Paninis sutras, in a form that quoted the commentary of Kātyāyanas vārttikas. This is an influential work on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics. Of the three ancient grammarians, the dating of Patanjali to mid 2nd century BCE is considered as reasonably accurate by mainstream scholarship. The text influenced Buddhist grammatical literature, as well as memoirs of travellers to India, for example, the Chinese pilgrim I-tsing mentions that the Mahabhasya is studied in India and advanced scholars learn it in three years
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Nyaya
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Nyāya, literally means rules, method or judgment. It is also the name of one of the six schools of Hinduism. This schools most significant contributions to Indian philosophy was systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, Nyaya schools epistemology accepts four out of six Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Upamāṇa and Śabda. In its metaphysics, Nyaya school is closer to Vaisheshika school of Hinduism than others and it holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge. Moksha, it states, is gained through right knowledge and this premise led Nyaya to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyyayikas, it includes delusion, correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming ones delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality. Naiyyayika scholars approached philosophy as a form of realism, stating that anything that really exists is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding is different than simple, reflexive cognition, an influential collection of texts on logic and reason is the Nyayasutras, attributed to Aksapada Gautama, variously estimated to have been composed between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE. Nyaya is a Sanskrit word which means method, rule, specially a collection of general or universal rules, in some contexts, it means model, axiom, plan, legal proceeding, judicial sentence, or judgment. In the theory of logic, and Indian texts discussing it, in philosophical context, Nyaya encompasses propriety, logic and method. Nyaya is related to other concepts and words used in Indian philosophies, Hetu-vidya, Anviksiki, Pramana-sastra, Tattva-sastra, Tarka-vidya, Vadartha. Some of these subsume or deploy the tools of Nyaya, the historical development of Nyaya school is unclear, although Nasadiya hymns of Book 10 Chapter 129 of Rigveda recite its spiritual questions in logical propositions. In early centuries BCE, states Clooney, the early Nyaya scholars began compiling the science of rational, coherent inquiry, by 2nd century CE, Aksapada Gautama had composed Nyayasutras, a foundational text for Nyaya school, that primarily discusses logic, methodology and epistemology. The Nyaya scholars that followed refined it, expanded it, later Nyaya scholars, such as Udayana, examined various arguments on theism and attempted to prove existence of God. Other Nyaya scholars offered arguments to disprove the existence of God, the Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padarthas or categories and includes all six categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya. These sixteen categories are pramāṇa, prameya, saṁśaya, prayojana, dṛṣṭānta, siddhānta, avayava, tarka, nirṇaya, vāda, jalpa, vitaṇḍā, hetvābhāsa, chala, jāti and nigrahasthāna. The Nyaya school of Hinduism developed and refined many treatises on epistemology that widely influenced other schools of Hinduism, Nyaya treated it as theory of knowledge, and its scholars developed it as Pramana-sastras. Pramana, a Sanskrit word, literally is means of knowledge and it encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge
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Kashmir Shaivism
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Kashmir Shaivism is a group of nondualist Tantric Shaiva exegetical traditions from Kashmir that originated after 850 CE. This tradition is also termed the Trika school and was actually pan-Indian, also flourishing in Orissa, Kashmir Shaivism claimed to supersede Shaiva Siddhanta, a dualistic tradition which scholars consider normative tantric Shaivism. The Shaiva Siddhanta goal of becoming an ontologically distinct Shiva was replaced by recognizing oneself as Shiva who, the Shiva Sutras appeared to Vasugupta in a dream, according to tradition. The Spandakārikā was either composed by Vasugupta or his student Bhatta Kallata, somananda, the first theologian of monistic Shaivism, was the teacher of Utpaladeva, who was the grand-teacher of Abhinavagupta, who in turn was the teacher of Ksemaraja. Jayaratha wrote a commentary on the Tantrāloka, nondualist Kashmir Shaivism went underground for a number of centuries. While there may have been yogis and practitioners quietly following the teachings, in the 20th century Swami Lakshman Joo, himself a Kashmiri Brahmin, helped revive both the scholarly and yogic streams of Kashmir Shaivism. He inspired a generation of scholars who made Kashmir Shaivism a legitimate field of inquiry within the academy, acharya Rameshwar Jha, a disciple of Swami Lakshman Joo, is often credited with firmly establishing the roots of Kashmir Shaivism in the learned community of Varanasi. His original writings of Sanskrit verses have been compiled and published as books Purnta Pratyabhijna, nor should the contribution of Swami Muktananda be overlooked. While himself not belonging to the lineage of Kashmir Shaivism. He encouraged and endorsed Motilal Banarsidass to publish Jaideva Singhs translations of Shiva Sutras, Pratyabhijnahrdayam, Spanda Karikas and he also introduced Kashmir Shaivism to a wide audience of western meditators through his writings and lectures on the subject. The Vijnana Bhairava Tantra, a chapter from the Rudrayamala Tantra, was introduced to the West by Paul Reps, Reps brought the text to wider attention by including an English translation in his popular book Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. Cast as a discourse between the god Shiva and his consort Devi or Shakti, it briefly presents 112 meditation methods or centering techniques, to attain moksha, sādhana or spiritual practice is necessary. Kashmir Shaivism describes four methods, āṇavopāya, the method of the body, śaktopāya, the method of the mind, śāmbhavopāya, while most other paths observe offering incense and external objects to the deity, this path takes on to offering breaths. The individual controls his heart and pulse by reducing it significantly, the final stage is renouncing consumption of food and water. As a result, he/she connects the state of the supreme in the form of Shiva which results in purification of the body, although domesticated into a householder tradition, Kashmir Shaivism recommended a secret performance of Kaula practices in keeping with its heritage. This was to be done in seclusion from public eyes, therefore allowing one to maintain the appearance of a typical householder. This creation, a play, is the result of the natural impulse within Consciousness to express the totality of its self-knowledge in action. The unbounded Light of Consciousness contracts into finite embodied loci of awareness out of its own free will, then one’s perception fully encompasses the reality of a universe dancing ecstatically in the animation of its completely perfect divinity
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Abhinavagupta
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Abhinavagupta was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian and he was born in Kashmir in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen teachers and gurus. In his long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is Tantrāloka, Another one of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabhāratī commentary of Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata Muni. Abhinavaguptas thought was influenced by Buddhist logic. Abhinavagupta was not his name, rather a title he earned from his master, carrying a meaning of competence. In his analysis, Jayaratha – who was Abhinavaguptas most important commentator – also reveals three more meanings, being vigilant, being present everywhere and protected by praises. As an author he is considered a systematiser of the philosophical thought, various contemporary scholars have characterised Abhinavagupta as a brilliant scholar and saint, the pinnacle of the development of Kasmir Śaivism and in possession of yogic realization. The term by which Abhinavagupta himself defines his origin is yoginībhū, in Kashmir Shaivism and especially in Kaula it is considered that a progeny of parents established in the divine essence of Bhairava, is endowed with exceptional spiritual and intellectual prowess. Such a child is supposed to be the depository of knowledge, the father, Narasiṃha Gupta, after his wifes death favoured an ascetic lifestyle, while raising his three children. He had a mind and a heart outstandingly adorned with devotion to Mahesvara. He was Abhinavaguptas first teacher, instructing him in grammar, logic, Abhinavagupta had a brother and a sister. The brother, Manoratha, was a well versed devotee of Shiva and his sister, Ambā, devoted herself to worship after the death of her husband in late life. His cousin Karṇa demonstrated even from his youth that he grasped the essence of Śaivism and was detached of the world and his wife was presumably Abhinavaguptas older sister Ambā, who looked with reverence upon her illustrious brother. Ambā and Karṇa had a son, Yogeśvaridatta, who was talented in yoga. Abhinavagupta also mentions his disciple Rāmadeva as faithfully devoted to scriptural study, Another cousin was Kṣema, possibly the same as Abhinavaguptas illustrious disciple Kṣemarāja. Mandra, a friend of Karṇa, was their host in a suburban residence, he was not only rich and in possession of a pleasing personality. The emerging picture here is that Abhinavagupta lived in a nurturing and protected environment, everyone around him was filled with spiritual fervor and had taken Abhinavagupta as their spiritual master. Such a supporting group of family and friends was equally necessary as his qualities of genius
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Tantra
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Tantra is the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that co-developed most likely about the middle of 1st millennium CE. The term tantra, in the Indian traditions, also means any systematic broadly applicable text, theory, system, method, instrument, in Hinduism, the tantra tradition is most often associated with its goddess tradition called Shaktism, followed by Shaivism and Vaishnavism. In Buddhism, the Vajrayana tradition is known for its extensive tantra ideas, Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have influenced other religious traditions such as Jainism, Sikhism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, and the Japanese Shintō tradition. Tantra as genre of literature in Hinduism have been influential to its arts, icons, Hindu puja, temples and iconography are tantric in nature. The Hindu texts that describe these topics are called Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās, in Buddhism, its tantra-genre literature has influenced the artworks in Tibet, historic cave temples of India, and imagery in southeast Asia. Tantra literally means loom, warp, weave, the connotation of the word tantra to mean an esoteric practice or religious ritualism is a colonial era European invention. The term is based on the metaphor of weaving, states Ron Barrett and it implies interweaving of traditions and teachings as threads into a text, technique or practice. The word appears in the hymns of the Rigveda such as in 10.71 and it is found in many other Vedic era texts, such as in section 10.7.42 of the Atharvaveda and many Brahmanas. In these and post-Vedic texts, the meaning of Tantra is that which is principal or essential part, main point, model, framework. The term “Tantra” after about 500 BCE, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism is a bibliographic category, the same Buddhist texts are sometimes referred to as tantra or sutra, for example, Vairocabhisambodhi-tantra is also referred to as Vairocabhisambodhi-sutra. The various contextual meaning of the word Tantra varies with the Indian text, the earliest definitions and expositions on Tantra come from the ancient texts of Panini, Patanjali and the literature of the language-focussed, ritual-oriented Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. The word tantra, states Patanjali, means principal, main, Patanjali also offers a semantic definition of Tantra, stating that it is structural rules, standard procedures, centralized guide or knowledge in any field that applies to many elements. The ancient Mimamsa school of Hinduism uses the term tantra extensively, for example, When an action or a thing, once complete, becomes beneficial in several matters to one person, or to many people, that is known as Tantra. For example, a lamp placed amidst many priests, in contrast, that which benefits by its repetition is called Āvāpa, such as massaging with oil. Medieval texts present their own definitions of Tantra, in modern era scholarship, Tantra has been studied as an esoteric practice and ritualistic religion, sometimes referred to as Tantrism. There is wide gap between what Tantra means to its followers, and what Tantra has been represented or perceived as since colonial era writers began commenting on Tantra, many definitions of Tantra have been proposed ever since, and there is no universally accepted definition of Tantra. André Padoux in his review of Tantra definitions offers two, then rejects both, another definition, more common among observers and non-practitioners, is some set of mechanistic rituals, omitting entirely the ideological side. According to David N. Lorenzen, two different kinds of definitions of Tantra exist, a definition and a broad definition
30.
Thiruvalluvar
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Thiruvalluvar, known commonly as Valluvar, is a celebrated Tamil poet and philosopher whose contribution to Tamil literature is the Thirukkural, a work on ethics. It is believed that he was either in Thiru Mylai Chennai in Tamil Nadu or in ThirunainarKuruchi. Thiruvalluvar is thought to have lived sometime between the 4th century BC and the 1st century BC and this estimate is based on linguistic analysis of his writings, as there is no historical evidence for when and where he lived. Thirukkuṛal itself does not name its author or authors, such was her austerity and dedication towards her husband Thiruvalluvar, 2) Thiruvalluvar used to sit every day for meal with a cup of water and a wooden tooth pick. He did this to any grain of rice spilled out from his leaf when Vaasuki Ammaiyar served food. It was said that Thiruvalluvar could not even pick a grain of rice every day, such was the dedication in serving meal by Vaasuki Ammaiyar. Thiruvalluvar may have spent part of his life in Madurai because it was under the Pandiya rulers that many Tamil poets flourished. There is also the recent claim by Kanyakumari Historical and Cultural Research Centre that Valluvar was a king who ruled Valluvanadu in the tracts of the Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu. Thirukkural is one of the most revered ancient works in the Tamil language and it is considered a common creed, providing a guide for human morals and betterment in life. Thirukkural has been translated into several languages, including a translation into Latin by Constanzo Beschi in 1699 which helped make the work known to European intellectuals and these books, Pancharathnam and Gnana Vettiyan, contribute to Tamil science, literature and other ayurvedic medicines. A temple-like memorial to Thiruvalluvar, Valluvar Kottam, was built in Chennai in 1976 and this monument complex consists of structures usually found in Dravidian temples, including a temple car carved from three blocks of granite, and a shallow, rectangular pond. The auditorium adjoining the memorial is one of the largest in Asia, there is a 133-foot tall statue of Thiruvalluvar erected at Kanyakumari at the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, where the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean converge. The 133 feet denote Tirukkuṛaḷs 133 Chapters or athikarams and the show of three fingers denote the three themes Aram, Porul, and Inbam, i. e. the sections on Morals, Wealth and Love. The statue was designed by V. Ganapati Sthapati, an architect from Tamil Nadu. There is also a statue of Thiruvalluvar outside the School of Oriental and African Studies in Russell Square, the government of Tamil Nadu celebrates the 15th of January as Thiruvalluvar Day as part of the Pongal celebrations in his honour. Sarvajna and Tiruvalluvar statue installation Valluvar Kottam Avvaiyar Valluvan Parayi petta panthirukulam Works by or about Thiruvalluvar at Internet Archive Works by Thiruvalluvar at LibriVox
31.
Chanakya
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Chanakya was an Indian teacher, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya or Vishnugupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise, as such, he is considered the pioneer of the field of political science and economics in India, and his work is thought of as an important precursor to classical economics. His works were lost near the end of the Gupta Empire, Chanakya assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta in his rise to power. He is widely credited for having played an important role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire, Chanakya served as the chief advisor to both emperors Chandragupta and his son Bindusara. There is little historical information about Chanakya, most of it comes from semi-legendary accounts. Thomas Trautmann identifies four distinct accounts of the ancient Chanakya-Chandragupta katha, In all the four versions, Chanakya feels insulted by the Nanda king, after dethroning the Nandas, he installs Chandragupta as the new king. The ancient Arthashastra has been attributed to Chanakya by a number of scholars. The Arthashastra identifies its author by the name Kauṭilya, except for one verse that refers to him by the name Vishnugupta, Kauṭilya is presumably the name of the authors gotra. One of the earliest Sanskrit literatures to identify Chanakya with Vishnugupta explicitly was Vishnu Sharmas Panchatantra in the 3rd century BCE. K. C, ojha puts forward the view that the traditional identification of Vishnugupta with Kauṭilya was caused by a confusion of the texts editor and its originator. He suggests that Vishnugupta was a redactor of the work of Kauṭilya. Thomas Burrow goes even further and suggests that Chanakya and Kauṭilya may have two different people. Chanakya was the teacher of Chandragupta Maurya and he served as a minister in the court of Chandragupta and Bindusara. The legend of Chanakya and Chandragupta is detailed in the Pali-language Buddhist chronicles of Sri Lanka and it is not mentioned in Dipavamsa, the oldest of these chronicles. The earliest Buddhist source to mention the legend is Mahavamsa, which is dated between 5th and 6th centuries. Vamsatthappakasini, a commentary on Mahavamsa provides some details about the legend. Its author is unknown, and it is dated variously from 6th century CE to 13th century CE, some other texts provide additional details about the legend, for example, the Maha-Bodhi-Vamsa and the Atthakatha give names of the 9 Nanda kings who supposedly preceded Chandragupta. According to the Buddhist legend, the Nanda kings who preceded Chandragupta were robbers-turned-rulers, Chanakya was a Brahmin from Takkāsila. He was well-versed in three Vedas and politics and he had canine teeth, which were believed to be a mark of royalty
32.
Ahimsa
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Ahimsa means not to injure and compassion and refers to a key virtue in Indian religions. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, i. e. cause no injury, do no harm. Ahimsa is also referred to as nonviolence, and it applies to all living beings—including all animals—in ancient Indian religions, Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Ahimsa is a concept, inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy, therefore. Ahimsa has also related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of Ahimsa, most popularly, Mahatma Gandhi strongly believed in the principle of ahimsa. Ahimsas precept of cause no injury includes ones deeds, words, classical literature of Hinduism such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as modern scholars debate principles of Ahimsa when one is faced with war and situations requiring self-defence. The historic literature from India and modern discussions have contributed to theories of Just War, and theories of appropriate self-defence. The word Ahimsa—sometimes spelled as Ahinsa—is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, There is a debate on the origins of the word Ahimsa, and how its meaning evolved. Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the word may be han which means kill. Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the root word is hiṃs and the Sanskrit verb hinasti. Wackernagel-Debrunner concur with the latter explanation, ancient texts use ahimsa to mean non-injury, a broader concept than non-violence. Non-injury implies not killing others, as well as not hurting others mentally or verbally, in classical Sanskrit literature of Hinduism, another word Adrohi is sometimes used instead of Ahimsa, as one of the cardinal virtues necessary for moral life. One example is in Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.6.23, Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts. The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, the term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda, where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of non-injury, the Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads, Kaneda gives examples of the word Ahimsa in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as a concept that started evolving in the Vedas
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