1.
Pants
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Trousers or pants are an item of clothing worn from the waist to the ankles, covering both legs separately. In the UK, the word generally means underwear and not trousers. Shorts are similar to trousers, but with legs that come only to around the area of the knee. To distinguish them from shorts, trousers may be called long trousers in certain such as school uniform. Made of wool, the trousers had straight legs and wide crotches, breeches were worn instead of trousers in early modern Europe by some men in higher classes of society. Since the mid-20th century, trousers have increasingly been worn by women as well, jeans, made of denim, are a form of trousers for casual wear, now widely worn all over the world by both sexes. Shorts are often preferred in hot weather or for sports and also often by children. Trousers are worn on the hips or waist and may be held up by their own fastenings, leggings are form-fitting trousers, of a clingy material, often knitted cotton and spandex. In Scotland, trousers are occasionally known as trews, which is the root of the word trousers. Trousers are also known as breeks in Scots, a related to breeches. The item of clothing worn under trousers is underpants, in North America and Australia pants is the general category term, whereas trousers often refers more specifically to tailored garments with a waistband, belt-loops, and a fly-front. So informal elastic-waist knitted garments would be called pants, but not trousers, North Americans call undergarments underwear, underpants, undies, jockey shorts, shorts, long johns or panties to distinguish them from other pants that are worn on the outside. The term drawers normally refers to undergarments, but in dialects, may be found as a synonym for breeches. In these dialects, the term underdrawers is used for undergarments, many North Americans refer to their undergarments by their type, such as boxers or briefs. In Australia, mens underwear also has various terms including under-dacks, undies. In New Zealand mens underwear is known as undies, or y-fronts, various people in the fashion industry use the words trouser or pant instead of trousers or pants. The words trousers and pants are pluralia tantum, nouns that generally appear in plural form—much like the words scissors. However, the form is used in some compound words, such as trouser-leg, trouser-press
Pants
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A man wearing trousers
Pants
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Scythian archer. Interior from an
Ancient Greek Attic
red-figure plate, ca. 520–500 BC, from
Vulci.
British Museum, London.
Pants
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Germanic trousers of the 4th century found in the
Thorsberg moor, Germany
Pants
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Amazon wearing trousers and carrying a shield with an attached patterned cloth and a quiver.
Ancient Greek Attic white-ground
alabastron, ca. 470 BC,
British Museum, London
2.
Denim
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Denim is a sturdy cotton warp-faced textile in which the weft passes under two or more warp threads. This twill weaving produces a diagonal ribbing that distinguishes it from cotton duck, the most common denim is indigo denim, in which the warp thread is dyed, while the weft thread is left white. As a result of the warp-faced twill weaving, one side of the textile is dominated by the warp threads. This causes blue jeans to be white on the inside, the indigo dyeing process, in which the core of the warp threads remains white, creates denims signature fading characteristics. The name denim derives from French serge de Nîmes, meaning serge from Nîmes, denim was traditionally colored blue with indigo dye to make blue jeans, although jean formerly denoted a different, lighter, cotton fabric. The contemporary use of the word comes from the French word for Genoa, Italy. Denim has been used in the USA since the mid 19th century, denim initially gained popularity in 1873 when Jacob W. Davis, a tailor from Nevada, manufactured the first pair of “rivet-reinforced” denim pants. His concept for making reinforced jeans was inspired when a female customer requested a pair of durable, when Davis was about to finish making the denim jeans, he saw some copper rivets lying on a table and used the rivets to fasten the pockets. At this time, clothes for Western labourers, such as teamsters, surveyors, soon, the popularity of denim jeans began to spread rapidly and Davis was overwhelmed with requests. He soon sold 200 pairs to workers in need of heavy work clothing, nevertheless, because of the production capacity in his small shop, Davis was struggling to keep up with the demand. He then wrote a proposal to the dry goods wholesaler Levi Strauss & Co. that had been supplying Davis with bolts of denim fabric. Davis’s proposal was “to patent the design of the rivet-reinforced denim pant, with Davis listed as inventor, in exchange for certain rights of manufacture”. Levi Strauss & Co. was so impressed by the possibilities for profit in the manufacture of the garment that they then hired Davis to be in charge of the mass-production in San Francisco, dry or raw denim is denim that is not washed after having been dyed during production. Over time, dry denim will usually fade, which is considered desirable by some people, during the process of wear, fading will usually occur on those parts of the article that receive the most stress. On a pair of jeans, this includes the upper thighs, the ankles, after being made into an article of clothing, most denim articles are washed to make them softer and to reduce or eliminate shrinkage. In addition to being washed, washed denim is sometimes artificially distressed to produce a worn look, much of the appeal of artificially distressed denim is that it resembles dry denim which has faded. In jeans made from dry denim, such fading is affected by the body of the person who wears them and this process creates what many enthusiasts feel to be a look more natural than artificially distressed denim. To facilitate the natural distressing process, some wearers of dry denim will abstain from washing their jeans for more than six months, most dry denim is made with 100% cotton and comes from several different countries
Denim
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Denim fabric dyed with indigo and black dyes and made into a shirt
Denim
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Denim fibers from an old pair of jeans through a microscope
Denim
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Natural "honeycomb" fades
Denim
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Denim jeans showing the selvedge of the fabric joined to make a seam
3.
Dungaree (fabric)
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Dungaree fabric is a historical term for coarse thick 2/2 twill-weave cotton cloth, often coloured blue. Cotton twill with indigo dyed warp thread is now commonly referred to as denim. The word is derived from Dongri, a dockside village near Mumbai. In US English the term is used for hard-wearing work trousers made from such fabric, by 1891 Kipling was using the word to refer to a kind of garment as well as a fabric. Dungaree appears to be a subset of denim and typically refers to the most common style of blue denim, typically only the warp threads are pre-dyed with the traditional colouring agent indigo, the weft threads are left uncoloured, resulting in the unique fade patterns of the fabric. Denim however refers to cotton twill which may be dyed, undyed. Denim may be 2x1 or 3x1 twill and its unclear what types of twill dungaree fabric was available in traditionally
Dungaree (fabric)
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Dungaree is typically associated with working clothes, here seen on mechanics working on a
Texan trainer during the
Second World War.
4.
Jacob W. Davis
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Jacob W. Davis was a Latvian-Jewish tailor and American immigrant who is credited with inventing modern jeans. Jacob Youphes was born to a Jewish family in the city of Riga, then Russian Empire, today Latvia, during his time in Riga city, he trained and worked as a tailor. In 1854, at the age of 23, he emigrated from the Russian Empire to the United States, there he ran a tailors shop before moving to Maine and then, in 1856, San Francisco before moving on to Weatherville. There, Davis met a German immigrant, Annie Parksher, whom he married and together, Jacob, during his time in Canada, Davis worked at the Fraser River panning for gold. In January 1867, Davis returned to San Francisco with Annie, later that year, they moved to Virginia City, Nevada where he sold wholesale tobacco and pork before beginning work once more as a tailor. By 1868, the family had moved, this time to Reno, Nevada which at time was a tiny railroad town. 1869 saw Davis revert to his trade, opening a tailor shop in the main street of the town. In his tailor shop, Davis made functional items such as tents, horse blankets, the fabric Davis worked with was a heavy duty cotton “duck” cloth and a heavy duty cotton “denim” cloth which he bought from Levi Strauss & Co. a dry goods company in San Francisco. To strengthen the stress points of the items he was making. In December 1870, Davis was asked by a customer to make a pair of strong working pants for her husband who was a woodcutter. To create suitably robust pants for working, he used duck cloth and reinforced the weak points in the seams, such was the success of these pants that word spread throughout the labourers along the railroad. Davis was making these working pants in duck cotton and, as early as 1871, before long, he found he could not keep up with demand. Davis had previously applied for patents for other inventions, Strauss agreed, and on May 20. 1873, US Patent No.139,121 for “Improvements in fastening pocket openings” was issued in the name of Jacob W. Davis and Levi Strauss and Company. That same year, Davis started sewing a double orange threaded stitched design onto the pocket of the jeans to distinguish them from those made by his competitors. This trademark feature became Registered U. S. Trade Mark No.1,139,254. By this time, Strauss had set up a sizeable tailor shop in San Francisco for the production of Davis working pants and Jacob, as demand continued to grow, the shop was superseded by a manufacturing plant which Davis managed for Strauss. Davis continued to work there for the remainder of his life, overseeing production of the work pants as well as other lines including work shirts, Davis died in San Francisco in 1908
Jacob W. Davis
–
Jacob Davis ca. 1905
Jacob W. Davis
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Figure from US Patent No. 139,121
5.
Levi Strauss
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Levi Strauss was an American businessman of German origin who founded the first company to manufacture blue jeans. His firm, Levi Strauss & Co. began in 1853 in San Francisco, Levi Strauss was born in Buttenheim, Germany, on February 26,1829, in the Franconian region of Bavaria, Germany, to an Ashkenazi Jewish family. He was the son of Hirsch Strauss and his second wife Rebecca Strauss, Levis sister Fanny and her husband David Stern moved to St. Louis, Missouri, while Levi went to live in Louisville, Kentucky, and sold his brothers supplies in Kentucky. In January 1853, Levi Strauss became an American citizen, the family decided to open a West Coast branch of the family dry goods business in San Francisco, which was the commercial hub of the California Gold Rush. Levi was chosen to represent the family and he took a steamship for San Francisco, arriving in early March 1853, where he joined his sisters family. Strauss opened his dry goods wholesale business as Levi Strauss & Co. and imported fine dry goods—clothing, bedding, combs, purses and he made tents, and later jeans. Levi lived with Fannys growing family, Jacob Davis, one of Strausss customers and one of the inventors of riveted denim pants in 1871, went into business with Strauss to produce blue jeans. The two men patented the new style of work pants in 1873, Levi Strauss died on September 26,1902, in San Francisco at the age of 73. He never married, and left the business to his four nephews, Jacob, Sigmund, Louis, and Abraham Stern and he also left bequests to a number of charities, such as the Pacific Hebrew Orphan Asylum and the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum. Before his death, he had also established scholarships at the University of California Berkeley, Levis fortune was estimated to be around $6 million. He was buried in Colma, California, the Levi Strauss museum in Buttenheim, Germany, is located in the 1687 house where Strauss was born. There is also a Visitors Center at Levi Strauss & Co. headquarters in San Francisco, the Levi Strauss Foundation started with an 1897 donation to the University of California, Berkeley. Https, //sites. google. com/site/levistraussfamily/, http, //archive. is/ELJXG Levi Strauss & Company Biography of Levi Strauss from the Official Levi Strauss Site, Levi Strauss at Findagrave Levis Levis India Levi Strauss Museum in Buttenheim, Germany Levi Strauss at the Fashion Model Directory
Levi Strauss
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Levi Strauss
Levi Strauss
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Birthplace of Levi Strauss
6.
Teenager
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Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier. For example, puberty now typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females, physical growth, and cognitive development can extend into the early twenties. Thus age provides only a marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country, Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, cognitive advances encompass both increment in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations, for example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles, developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status. Some scientists have questioned the universality of adolescence as a developmental phase, puberty is a period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The average age of onset of puberty is at 11 for girls and 12 for boys, every persons individual timetable for puberty is influenced primarily by heredity, although environmental factors, such as diet and exercise, also exert some influences. These factors can contribute to precocious and delayed puberty. Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development involve distinctive physiological changes in height, weight, body composition. These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity, puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of sex characteristics. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur
Teenager
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Two adolescents listening to music
Teenager
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Adolescents of diverse backgrounds in
Oslo
Teenager
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Upper body of a teenage boy. The structure has changed to resemble an
adult form.
Teenager
–
G. Stanley Hall
7.
Greaser (subculture)
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Greasers are a working-class youth subculture that was popularized in the late 1940s and 1950s by predominately working class and lower class teenagers and young adults in the United States. The subculture remained prominent into the mid-1960s and was embraced by certain ethnic groups in urban areas, though rural. Rock and roll music, rockabilly, and doo wop were major parts of the culture, the name greaser came from their greased-back hairstyles, which involved combing back hair using creams, tonics, or pomade. In Sweden they are called raggare and in Japan they are known as Yankee, in South Africa they were called duck-tails from the way their slicked back hair flipped over the back of their collars. The 1950s and 1960s British equivalent was the rocker, also known as a ton-up boy, both subcultures are known for being fans of 1950s Doo Wop, Rock and roll, jazz, blues, country, and rockabilly music. During the 1950s, women became a part of greaser culture. Like men, they joined motorcycle gangs and wore jackets displaying their groups or gangs name, the women who were involved in gangs typically did not fight side-by-side with male gangs, but they did fight rival female gangs in the 1950s. Women were often depicted as the property of male gang members. The term greaser reappeared in later decades as part of a revival of 1950s popular culture, One of the first manifestations of this revival was a 1971 American 7 Up television commercial that featured a 1950s greaser saying Hey remember me. The music act Sha Na Na also played a role in the revivals. Common accessories included s, black gloves, fedoras, motorcycle helmets, vintage leather caps, stingy-brim hats, flat caps. Common footwear included motorcycle boots, combact boots, winklepickers, brothel creepers, cowboy boots, typical hairstyles included the pompadour, the Ducks ass, S-Curls, Conks, Finger Waves, Afros with parts or shaped like pompadours, and the more combed-back Folsom style. These hairstyles were held in place with such as Dax, Murrays or Royal Crown. The leather jacket, as popularized by pilots during World War II, compared with the previous decades, the 1950s were considered dull and the youths craved a new sense of adventure. The leather jacket marked greaser youths as daring and adventuresome young men, greasers are usually portrayed as urban, street-wise, working-class ethnics, most often Italian American or Hispanic American. In the 1950s, Hollywood film characters portrayed by such as Marlon Brando. American youths were looking for entertainment and identity following the image of the World War II generation. The 1950s was a time for many of Americas youths
Greaser (subculture)
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Typical North American greaser
Greaser (subculture)
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1949 Mercury, a greaser favorite
8.
Hippie
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The word hippie came from hipster and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into New York Citys Greenwich Village and San Franciscos Haight-Ashbury district. The term hippie was first popularized in San Francisco by Herb Caen, the origins of the terms hip and hep are uncertain. By the 1940s, both had become part of African American jive slang and meant sophisticated, currently fashionable, fully up-to-date, the Beats adopted the term hip, and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. In the United Kingdom in 1970, many gathered at the gigantic Isle of Wight Festival with a crowd of around 400,000 people, in later years, mobile peace convoys of New Age travelers made summer pilgrimages to free music festivals at Stonehenge and elsewhere. In Australia, hippies gathered at Nimbin for the 1973 Aquarius Festival, piedra Roja Festival, a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970. Hippie fashion and values had an effect on culture, influencing popular music, television, film, literature. Since the 1960s, many aspects of culture have been assimilated by mainstream society. The religious and cultural diversity espoused by the hippies has gained widespread acceptance, lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the principal American editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, argues that the terms hipster and hippie derive from the word hip, whose origins are unknown. The term hipster was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944, by the 1940s, the terms hip, hep and hepcat were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although hep eventually came to denote an inferior status to hip. In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named hips because they were considered in the know or cool, as opposed to being square. In the April 27,1961 issue of The Village Voice, An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro, Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFKs behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the hipster and hippies to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm Xs 1964 autobiography, the hippie in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who acted more Negro than Negroes. Andrew Loog Oldham refers to all the Chicago hippies, seemingly in reference to black musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP The Rolling Stones. The word hippie was also used in reference to Philadelphia in at least two songs in 1963, South Street by The Orlons, and You Cant Sit Down by The Dovells. In both songs, the term is applied to residents of Philadelphias South Street, in that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn Cafe, using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district. New York Times editor and usage writer Theodore M. Bernstein said the paper changed the spelling from hippy to hippie to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as hippy fashions. Even the counterculture of the Ancient Greeks, espoused by philosophers like Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics were also early forms of hippie culture
Hippie
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Young hippie people near the Woodstock festival in August 1969.
Hippie
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A Hippie-painted VW bug
Hippie
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American hippies smoking cannabis in Thailand
Hippie
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Escapin' through the lily fields I came across an empty space It trembled and exploded Left a bus stop in its place The bus came by and I got on That's when it all began There was cowboy Neal At the wheel Of a bus to never-ever land -
Grateful Dead, lyrics from "That's It for the Other One"
9.
Punk subculture
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The punk subculture, which centres on punk rock music, includes a diverse array of ideologies, fashions and forms of expression, including visual art, dance, literature and film. The subculture is largely characterized by anti-establishment views and the promotion of individual freedom, the punk subculture is centered on a loud, aggressive genre of rock music called punk rock. It is usually played by small bands consisting of a vocalist, Punk politics cover the entire political spectrum. Punk-related ideologies are mostly concerned with freedom and anti-establishment views. Common punk viewpoints include anti-authoritarianism, a DIY ethic, non-conformity, direct action, there is a wide range of punk fashion, in terms of clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics, tattoos, jewelery and body modification. Early punk fashion adapted everyday objects for aesthetic effect, such as T-shirts, leather jackets, hardcore punk fans adopted a dressed-down style of T-shirts, jeans, combat boots or sneakers and crewcut-style haircuts. Women in the hardcore scene typically wore masculine clothing, one part of punk was creating explicitly outward identities of sexuality. Everything that was supposed to be hidden was brought to the front. Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually underground, minimalistic, iconoclastic. Punk artwork graces album covers, flyers for concerts, and punk zines, Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and prose. Punk has its own press in the form of punk zines, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism. Some zines take the form of perzines, important punk zines include Maximum RocknRoll, Punk Planet, No Cure, Cometbus, Flipside, and Search & Destroy. Many punk-themed films have made, as have punk rock music videos. Some punk films intercut stock footage with news clips and amateur videos of concerts, Punks can come from any and all walks of life and economic classes, and punk culture has aspects of gender equalist ideology. The punk subculture emerged in the United Kingdom, Australia, exactly which region originated punk has long been a major controversy within the movement. Various musical, philosophical, political, literary and artistic movements influenced the subculture. In the late 1970s, the subculture began to diversify, which led to the proliferation of such as new wave, post-punk,2 Tone, pop punk, hardcore punk, no wave, street punk. Hardcore punk, street punk and Oi. sought to do away with the frivolities introduced in the years of the original punk movement
Punk subculture
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Two UK punks in the 1980s
Punk subculture
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Buzzcocks at the
Cropredy Festival in 2009.
Punk subculture
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A German punk faces a line of
riot police at a 1984 protest.
Punk subculture
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Punks burning a U.S. flag in the early 1980s
10.
Heavy metal subculture
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Fans of heavy metal music have created their own subculture which encompasses more than just appreciation of the style of music. Metal fans may also write or take photos for metal zines, some critics and musicians have suggested that the subculture is largely intolerant to other musical genres. The metal scene, like the scene in general, is associated with alcohol. While there are songs that celebrate drinking, drug use and partying, there are many songs that warn about the dangers of alcohol. These vary with time and regional divisions, but headbanger and metalhead are universally accepted to refer to fans or the subculture itself, heavy metal fans have created a subculture of alienation with its own standards for achieving authenticity within the group. Metal fans formed an “exclusionary youth community” which was distinctive and marginalized from the mainstream” society, the heavy metal scene developed a strongly masculine “community with shared values, norms, and behaviors”. A “code of authenticity” is central to the metal subculture. The metal code also includes “opposition to established authority, and separateness from the rest of society”, the activities in the metal subculture include the ritual of attending concerts, buying albums, and most recently, contributing to metal websites. Attending concerts affirms the solidarity of the subculture, as it is one of the activities by which fans celebrate their music. Metal magazines help the members of the subculture to connect, find information and evaluations of bands and albums, the long hair, leather jackets, and band patches of heavy metal fashion help to encourage a sense of identification within the subculture. However, Weinstein notes that not all fans are “visible members” of the heavy metal subculture. Some metal fans may have hair and dress in regular clothes. In the musical subcultures of heavy metal and punk, authenticity is a core value, heavy metal fans began using the term sell out in the 1980s to refer to bands who turned their heavy metal sound into radio-friendly rock music. In metal, an out is. someone dishonest who adopted the most rigorous pose, or identity-affirming lifestyle. The metal bands that earned this epithet are those, who adopt the visible aspects of the orthodoxy without contributing to the underlying belief system. He claims that this made it hard for Metallica to. play their music and win over a crowd in a land where poseurs ruled and anything fast, wood claims that the. true devotee’s path to metaldom is perilous and fraught with poseurs. In an article on metal/hard rock frontman Axl Rose, entitled Ex–‘White-Boy Poseur and he notes that “We thought we were so badass. N. W. A came out rapping about this world where you walk out of your house, at this point, Rose argues that It was just so clear what stupid little white-boy poseurs we were
Heavy metal subculture
–
A man wearing
clothing typically associated with heavy metal and displaying the "
metal horns " gesture
Heavy metal subculture
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Rob Halford of
Judas Priest wearing studded
leather jacket
Heavy metal subculture
–
A man wearing a denim jacket with band patches and artwork of heavy metal bands including
Metallica,
Guns N' Roses,
Iron Maiden,
Slipknot and
Led Zeppelin
11.
Lee (jeans)
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Lee is an American brand of denim jeans, first produced in 1889 in Salina, Kansas. The company is owned by VF Corporation, the largest apparel company in the world and its headquarters is currently in Merriam, Kansas, just outside Kansas City, Missouri. The company states that they are an international retailer and manufacturer of casual wear and work wear, in Australasia, the brand is owned by Pacific Brands since 2007, after it was acquired from Yakka. The company was formed in 1889 by Henry David Lee as the Lee Mercantile Company at Salina, Kansas producing dungarees, the growth of Lee was prompted by the introduction of the Union-All work jumpsuit in 1913 and their first overall in 1920. Later in the 1920s Lee introduced a zipper fly and continued to expand, around this time, the first childrens overall line was sold. Lee, founder and president of The H. D, during the 1930s and 1940s the company became the leading manufacturer of work clothes in the US. In 1944, the Lazy S became the official Lee back pocket, a flood wiped out Lees Kansas City distribution center. It ruined the entire stock of merchandise, except the Buddy Lee dolls, in 1954, Lee expanded into casual wear. During the 1960s the company expanded to 81 countries and in 1969 was acquired by VF Corporation, Lee aired its first television advertisement, which promoted Lee western wear. In the 1970s Lee shifted its focus from the workwear business, Lee created an all-new fit for women under the Ms. Lee label. A youth wear line for boys and girls was introduced, in 1996, the company launched Lee National Denim Day as part of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month. Working with the Entertainment Industry Foundation, Lee National Denim Day has raised over $75 million to fund breast cancer research programs. In 2014 the brand was relaunched in Paris via the Citadium Paris store, in 1981,240 factory workers in Greenock, Scotland, staged a sit-in in protest against plans to move the factory to Northern Ireland. What was planned as a one-night protest continued for 7 months, as of 2005, Lee Jeans have been manufactured by Arvind Mills in a number of small factories in Chamarajanagar, India. 60,000 workers produce 5,000 pairs of jeans a day, within the USA, the company spends more than $40 million per year on advertising. In 2009, Olson was appointed as the interactive agency for the American brand. Barkley Inc. had previously handled interactive advertising for the brand, arnold Worldwide continues to provide offline advertising services for the brand. Demim, From Cowboys to Catwalks, A Visual History of the Worlds Most Legendary Fabric, Lee Jeans Lee Jeans Australia Lee National Denim Day
Lee (jeans)
–
The identification patch on a set of Lee jeans.
Lee (jeans)
12.
Wrangler (jeans)
–
Wrangler is an American manufacturer of jeans and other clothing items, particularly workwear. The brand is owned by the VF Corporation, who also own Lee, JanSport and its headquarters is in downtown Greensboro, North Carolina in the United States, with production plants in a variety of locations throughout the world. Wrangler Jeans were first made by Blue Bell, who acquired the brand when they took over Casey Jones in the mid-1940s, Blue Bell employed Bernard Lichtenstein, a Polish tailor from Łódź who worked closely with cowboys, to help design jeans suitable for rodeo use. This was the origin of Wrangler Jeans, the 13MWZ style, introduced in 1947 as lot number 11MWZ, is still available worldwide. In addition to this, Wrangler has since introduced several lines that are more designated towards a specific group or demographic. Some examples of this are 20X, Riggs, and Aura, Wrangler exports its goods to many countries with Europe and Australia being some of its main export markets. Wrangler has acquired iconic status worldwide and, particularly, in US, UK, Wrangler also has a line of music accessories targeted toward country music fans. Wrangler also has a series of television commercials with Brett Favre playing a game of touch football in the mud. Hudson leaves Spring Hill Farm in Williamson County, Tennessee, and makes his way to North Carolina and he finds work in a factory making overalls, where he earns 25 cents a day sewing on buttons. He and a few others buy several of the machines, lease space above a downtown grocery store. 1919, The business builds its first factory on the corner of South Elm Street, legend has it that a group of railroad workers who bought overalls at the Hudson store gave C. C. Hudson a bell, and after spending time in the factory,1936, Blue Bell launches Super Big Ben Overalls made out of 100% Sanforized Fabric that reduces shrinkage after washing to less than 1%. This sets a new standard for the industry,1943, Blue Bell acquires the Casey Jones Work-Clothes Company and the rights to a rarely used Casey Jones brand name, Wrangler. 1946, Blue Bell starts to develop a line for cowboys. Blue Bell workers take part in a contest to give the jeans a brand name, the winning name is Wrangler, synonymous with the name for a working cowboy. 1947, After designing and testing 13 pairs of prototype jeans, a promotional campaign is launched featuring 11MWZ test riders and rodeo legends Freckles Brown, Bill Linderman, and Jim Shoulders. 1952, Lot number 11MWZ is renamed 13MWZ to conform to the 13 oz. per yard denim weight being used to manufacture the style,1962, Blue Bell opens a factory in Belgium and the Wrangler brand name enjoys a successful launch in Europe. 1973, Wrangler jeans become an icon of youth culture, synonymous with teenagers the world over,1974, The Pro Rodeo Cowboys Association of America officially endorses Wrangler Jeans
Wrangler (jeans)
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Dale Earnhardt in his Wrangler Jeans racing suit at 1985 Pocono
13.
Genoa
–
Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
Genoa
–
A collage of Genoa, clockwise from top left:
Torre della Lanterna,
Piazza de Ferrari, Galleria Mazzini, Brigata Liguria Street, view of San Teodoro from
Port of Genoa
Genoa
–
The Polcevera bronze tablet, evidence of the Roman and pre-Roman past of Genoa.
Genoa
–
Portrait of
Christopher Columbus by
Ridolfo Ghirlandaio
Genoa
–
The iconic
Lanterna, renaissance lighthouse of Genoa built in 1543
14.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
15.
Fustian
–
Fustian is a variety of heavy cloth woven from cotton, chiefly prepared for menswear. It is also used figuratively to refer to pompous, inflated or pretentious writing or speech and this literary use is because the cloth type was often used as padding, hence, the purposeless words are fustian. It embraces plain twilled cloth known as jean, and cut similar to velvet, known as velveteen, moleskin. The original medieval fustian was a stout but respectable cloth with a cotton weft and a linen warp. The term seems to have become less precise, and was applied to a coarse cloth made of wool and linen, and in the reign of Edward III of England. By the early 20th century, fustians were usually of cotton dyed various colors, in a petition to Parliament during the reign of Mary I, fustian of Naples is mentioned. In the 13th and 14th centuries priests robes and womens dresses were made of fustian, but though dresses are made from some kinds. From 1800 to 1850 it was commonly called Baragan Fustian, crucial to process of manufacture was fustian cutting. This was a process using a fustian cutting knife. This tool was around 50 cm long, and looked like a spike, about 10 cm from the tip. It was inserted along the fabric alongside two warp threads, and under the raised weft, and as it was guided forward the blade severed the weft. In corduroy, there were seven ridges to the inch, so along a 31in bolt, over a 60hr week the cutter would be expected to produce 500 yards of 7-8 ridge corduroy. Velveteen was cut the way but had 32 ridges per inch so production would be proportionately less. Cutting was one part of the process, the yarn was sized and the cloth was woven—there would be a high number of weft threads to warp. The ridges were manually cut, and the cloth sent to be finished and it was scoured to remove the size, and brushed to raise the nap. This was then singed over a gas flame, then bleached and it was now stentered to pull it out to the standard width. The cloth was woven at 31 or 32 inches and during processing has shrunk to 27 inches, stentering would stabilise the width to 28 inches. The back of the cloth would now be filled to give it stiffness and this could be with a glue based mixture that could be formed from boiled bones
Fustian
–
Textile samples: Fustian, Linen, and Moleskin.
Fustian
–
Corduroy: This modern diagram shows the warp (3) and the long (red-4) and short (green-5) weft threads; traditionally the knife (1) and the guide (2) are attached and the cutting motion is upwards.
Fustian
16.
Cotton
–
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
Cotton
–
Cotton
Cotton
–
Manually decontaminating cotton before processing at an Indian spinning mill (2010)
Cotton
–
Cotton field
Cotton
–
Cotton plant
17.
Corduroy
–
Corduroy is a textile composed of twisted fibres that, when woven, lie parallel to one another to form the cloths distinct pattern, a cord. Modern corduroy is most commonly composed of tufted cords, sometimes exhibiting a channel between the tufts, corduroy is, in essence, a ridged form of velvet. The fabric looks as if it is made from multiple cords laid parallel to each other, the word corduroy is from cord and duroy, a coarse woollen cloth made in England in the 18th century. The interpretation of the word as corde du roi is a folk etymology, as a fabric, corduroy is considered a durable cloth. Corduroy is found in the construction of trousers, jackets and shirts, the width of the cord is commonly referred to as the size of the wale. The lower the number, the thicker the width of the wale. Corduroy’s wale count per inch can vary from 1.5 to 21, wide wale is more commonly used in trousers and furniture upholstery, medium, narrow, and fine wale fabrics are usually found in garments worn above the waist. Corduroy is made by weaving extra sets of fibre into the fabric to form vertical ridges called wales. The wales are built so that lines can be seen when they are cut into pile. The dye is applied to the surface of the fabric, then the garment is cut, when washed during the final phase of the manufacturing process, the pigment dye washes out in an irregular way, creating a vintage look. The colour of each garment becomes softer with each washing, other names are often used for corduroy. Alternative names include, corded velveteen, elephant cord, pin cord, Manchester cloth, in continental Europe, corduroy is commonly known simply as Manchester, Cord, rib cord or rib velvet. Corduroy is a traditionally used in making British country clothing, such as in coat
Corduroy
–
Cotton corduroy
Corduroy
–
Cotton and woolly corduroy
Corduroy
–
1756 advertisement mentioning "corderoys"
Corduroy
18.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
19.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
20.
Rivet
–
A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed, a rivet consists of a cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite to the head is called the tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, in other words, pounding creates a new head on the other end by smashing the tail material flatter, resulting in a rivet that is roughly a dumbbell shape. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail. Because there is effectively a head on each end of a rivet, it can support tension loads, however. Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications, solid rivets consist simply of a shaft and head that are deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. A rivet compression or crimping tool can also deform this type of rivet and this tool is mainly used on rivets close to the edge of the fastened material, since the tool is limited by the depth of its frame. A rivet compression tool does not require two people, and is generally the most foolproof way to solid rivets. Solid rivets are used in applications where reliability and safety count, a typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of rivets are used to assemble the frame of a modern aircraft. Such rivets come with rounded or 100° countersunk heads, typical materials for aircraft rivets are aluminium alloys, titanium, and nickel-based alloys. Some aluminum alloy rivets are too hard to buck and must be softened by solution treating prior to being bucked, ice box aluminum alloy rivets harden with age, and must likewise be annealed and then kept at sub-freezing temperatures to slow the age-hardening process. Steel rivets can be found in structures such as bridges, cranes. The setting of these fasteners requires access to both sides of a structure, solid rivets are driven using a hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically driven squeezing tool or even a handheld hammer. Applications where only one side is accessible require blind rivets, high-strength bolts have largely replaced structural steel rivets. Indeed, the latest steel construction specifications published by AISC no longer covers their installation, the reason for the change is primarily due to the expense of skilled workers required to install high strength structural steel rivets. Whereas two relatively unskilled workers can install and tighten high strength bolts, it takes a minimum of four highly skilled riveters to install rivets, at a central location near the areas being riveted, a furnace was set up
Rivet
–
Solid rivets
Rivet
–
Sophisticated riveted joint on a railway bridge
Rivet
–
A typical technical drawing of a universal head solid rivet
Rivet
–
Riveting team working on the cockpit shell of a
C-47 transport at the plant of
North American Aviation. The woman on the left operates an air hammer, while the man on the right holds a
bucking bar
21.
Bombay
–
Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
Bombay
–
Clockwise from top:
Cuffe Parade skyline,
Taj Mahal Palace Hotel,
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus,
Bandra–Worli Sea Link, and the
Gateway of India.
Bombay
–
The temple of local Hindu goddess
Mumbadevi, from whom the city of Mumbai derives its name
Bombay
–
Kanheri Caves served as a centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient times
Bombay
–
The
Haji Ali Dargah was built in 1431, when Mumbai was under the rule of the
Gujarat Sultanate
22.
Hindi
–
Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
Hindi
–
The word "Hindi" in
Devanagari script
23.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
24.
Jean-Gabriel Eynard
–
Jean-Gabriel Eynard was a Swiss banker. Jean-Gabriel Eynard although belonging to a family who had settled in Switzerland since the 17th century was born in Lyon. During the French Revolution the family fled France and took refuge in Rolle, in 1795, Jean-Gabriel and his brother Jacques went to Genoa and both were soon heading a flourishing commercial concern. In 1800 Massenas troops entered the town and Jean-Gabriel was entrusted with their supply, in particular he furnished them with uniforms cut from the blue cloth called bleu de Genes whence later derives the famous garment known worldwide as blue jeans. In 1801, he entered in a speculative and hazardous financial venture becoming the sole subscriber to a bond issued by the duke of Etruria. That audacious move was crowned with success and constituted the foundation of his immense fortune, under the reign of Elisa Bonaparte, Napoleons sister, as Grand-Duchess of Tuscany he continued his work with much success and was showered with honours and privileges. In 1810 he moved to Geneva and he was ambassador of the Geneva republic at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. In the following year he helped to organize the administration of Tuscany, being a friend of Ioannis Kapodistrias, he was very enthusiastic for the cause of the Greeks during the Greek War of Independence. He was the chief of the community in Europe. For his services to this cause, he was made a Greek citizen and his recommendation of Otho of Bavaria for the throne of Greece was adopted. In 1842, he one of the co-founders of the National Bank of Greece. In 1839, he was one of the first Swiss to use the daguerreotype and he had this passion until his death in 1863. He bequeathed his fortune to charitable enterprises. Lettres et documents relatifs aux divers événements de Grèce Vie de la baronne Krüdener Rines, George Edwin, ed. Eynard. This work in turn cites, Rothpletz, Der Genfer Jean Gabriel Eynard als Philhellene Media related to Jean-Gabriel Eynard at Wikimedia Commons
Jean-Gabriel Eynard
–
Jean-Gabriel Eynard
25.
Massena
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André Masséna 1st Duc de Rivoli, 1st Prince dEssling was a French military commander during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original eighteen Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon, many of Napoleons generals were trained at the finest French and European military academies, but Masséna was among those who achieved greatness without benefit of formal education. His military career is equaled by few commanders in European history, in addition to his battlefield successes, Massénas leadership aided the careers of many. A majority of the French marshals of the time served under his command at some point, andré Masséna was born in Nice, which was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the time, on 6 May 1758. He was the son of shopkeeper Jules Masséna and Marguerite Fabre and his father died in 1764, and after his mother remarried he was sent to live with relatives. At the age of thirteen, Masséna became a cabin boy aboard a merchant ship, while aboard he sailed in the Mediterranean Sea and on two extended voyages to French Guiana. In 1775, after four years at sea, he returned to Nice, by the time he left in 1789, he had risen to the rank of warrant officer, the top rank achievable by non-noblemen. On August 10 of that year he married Anne Marie Rosalie Lamare, daughter of a surgeon in Antibes, after a brief stint as a smuggler in Northern Italy, he rejoined the army in 1791 and was made an officer, rising to the rank of colonel by 1792. When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in April 1792, Masséna, Masséna prepared his battalion for battle in the hope that it would be incorporated into the regular army. That October, a month after the occupation of Nice, the battalion was one of four battalions that became part of the French Armée dItalie. Masséna distinguished himself in battle and was promoted, attaining the rank of general of brigade in August 1793. He was prominent in every campaign on the Italian Riviera over the two years, including the attack on Saorgio in 1794 and the battle of Loano in 1795. When Napoleon Bonaparte took command in March 1796, Masséna was commanding the two divisions of the advance guard. During the campaign in Italy in 1796-1797 Masséna became one of Bonapartes most important subordinates, when an Austrian relief army was sent to aid Mantua in January 1797, the French forces were overrun near Rivoli, while other enemy columns advanced on Verona and Mantua. At 5,00 P. M. on 13 January, Masséna was ordered to march from Verona to Rivoli, following a forced night march across the snow-covered roads, the first of his troops reached the battlefield at 6,00 A. M. Bonaparte deployed them on the flank when the battle began. They were shifted to strengthen the sagging center and then deployed to crush an Austrian flanking maneuver, Massénas troops played a decisive role in the victory. The next day, with little rest, Masséna and his troops marched 39 miles in 24 hours to intercept a second Austrian army advancing to relieve Mantua
Massena
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André Masséna,
Marshal of France
Massena
–
Masséna at the
Second Battle of Zurich
Massena
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Masséna's sabre, on display at the musée d'Art et d'Histoire de Neuchâtel
Massena
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Tomb of Massena at the
Père Lachaise Cemetery
26.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
San Francisco
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San Francisco and the
Golden Gate Bridge from
Marin Headlands
San Francisco
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Mission San Francisco de Asís (Mission Dolores)
San Francisco
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1853
United States Coast Survey Map
San Francisco
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Francis Samuel Marryat, Hilltop of San Francisco, California, Looking toward the Bay, 1849. M.& N. Hanhart Chromolithograph
27.
Jacob Davis (inventor)
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Jacob W. Davis was a Latvian-Jewish tailor and American immigrant who is credited with inventing modern jeans. Jacob Youphes was born to a Jewish family in the city of Riga, then Russian Empire, today Latvia, during his time in Riga city, he trained and worked as a tailor. In 1854, at the age of 23, he emigrated from the Russian Empire to the United States, there he ran a tailors shop before moving to Maine and then, in 1856, San Francisco before moving on to Weatherville. There, Davis met a German immigrant, Annie Parksher, whom he married and together, Jacob, during his time in Canada, Davis worked at the Fraser River panning for gold. In January 1867, Davis returned to San Francisco with Annie, later that year, they moved to Virginia City, Nevada where he sold wholesale tobacco and pork before beginning work once more as a tailor. By 1868, the family had moved, this time to Reno, Nevada which at time was a tiny railroad town. 1869 saw Davis revert to his trade, opening a tailor shop in the main street of the town. In his tailor shop, Davis made functional items such as tents, horse blankets, the fabric Davis worked with was a heavy duty cotton “duck” cloth and a heavy duty cotton “denim” cloth which he bought from Levi Strauss & Co. a dry goods company in San Francisco. To strengthen the stress points of the items he was making. In December 1870, Davis was asked by a customer to make a pair of strong working pants for her husband who was a woodcutter. To create suitably robust pants for working, he used duck cloth and reinforced the weak points in the seams, such was the success of these pants that word spread throughout the labourers along the railroad. Davis was making these working pants in duck cotton and, as early as 1871, before long, he found he could not keep up with demand. Davis had previously applied for patents for other inventions, Strauss agreed, and on May 20. 1873, US Patent No.139,121 for “Improvements in fastening pocket openings” was issued in the name of Jacob W. Davis and Levi Strauss and Company. That same year, Davis started sewing a double orange threaded stitched design onto the pocket of the jeans to distinguish them from those made by his competitors. This trademark feature became Registered U. S. Trade Mark No.1,139,254. By this time, Strauss had set up a sizeable tailor shop in San Francisco for the production of Davis working pants and Jacob, as demand continued to grow, the shop was superseded by a manufacturing plant which Davis managed for Strauss. Davis continued to work there for the remainder of his life, overseeing production of the work pants as well as other lines including work shirts, Davis died in San Francisco in 1908
Jacob Davis (inventor)
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Jacob Davis ca. 1905
Jacob Davis (inventor)
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Figure from US Patent No. 139,121
28.
Wholesale
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In general, it is the sale of goods to anyone other than a standard consumer. Wholesalers frequently physically assemble, sort and grade goods in large lots, break bulk, repack, while wholesalers of most products usually operate from independent premises, wholesale marketing for foodstuffs can take place at specific wholesale markets where all traders are congregated. Traditionally, wholesalers were closer to the markets they supplied than the source from which they got the products, however, with the advent of the internet and e-procurement there are an increasing number of wholesalers located nearer to the manufacturers in China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Often, in the United States, wholesalers are not required to charge their buyers sales tax, the alternative to selling wholesale to distributors or retailers is to sell retail either through company owned stores or online. Advantages include receiving a slice of the price paid by the consumer. Top U. S wholesalers according to report in 2012. Cash and carry Distribution Jobbing house Retail Supply chain Supply network B2B
Wholesale
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Fruit wholesalers in
Haikou, Hainan, China
29.
Copper
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
Copper
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Native copper (~4 cm in size)
Copper
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A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by
continuous casting;
etched to reveal
crystallites.
Copper
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Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange
incandescence color.
Copper
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Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right).
30.
Cotton duck
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Cotton duck, also simply duck, sometimes duck cloth or duck canvas, is a heavy, plain woven cotton fabric. Duck canvas is more tightly woven than plain canvas, There is also linen duck, which is less often used. Cotton duck is used in a range of applications, from sneakers to painting canvases to tents to sandbags. Duck fabric is woven with two yarns together in the warp and a single yarn in the weft, Duck is classified according to weight in a numerical system, with grade 1 the heaviest and grade 12 the lightest variety. Besides this, traditional names exist, which are used today. The classification system used today dates back to the 1920s, according to the Department of Commerce, The number of the duck is based on the following computation, Number of Duck =19 −. A numbering system is used to describe the various weights of duck cloth, weights below 19 ounces are called numbered duck. Those above 19 ounces are called naught duck, the grade of numbered duck refers to the number of ounces subtracted from 19 for a 36-by-22-inch piece of fabric. For example, a piece of No.8 numbered duck with dimensions of 36 by 22 inches weighs 11 ounces. Number duck classifications per linear yard 22 inches wide Numbered duck is nominally made in weights from 1 to 12, but numbers 7,9, some typical uses of various grades are, No. 6, large boat covers, heavy work clothes No,8, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, work clothes, shower curtains No,12, light clothes Number duck classifications per square yard There is often confusion when it comes to matching up weights and the correct number duck classification. The table below represents the weight and number duck classification per square yard instead of linear yard 22 inches wide. 1, floor & wall covering, sound absorption, equipment covers, heavy bags, horse packs,4, heavy-duty work clothes, hammocks, sand bags, director chairs, place mats, belting No. 6, utility bags, place mats, belting No,8, backpacks, painted floor cloths, tents, tarps, awnings, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, artist canvas, murals, shower curtains, painted floor cloths, hammocks,12, stretched artist canvas, furniture slip covers, light clothes Duct tape
Cotton duck
Cotton duck
–
Woven
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