1.
Trousers
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Trousers or pants are an item of clothing worn from the waist to the ankles, covering both legs separately. In the UK, the word generally means underwear and not trousers. Shorts are similar to trousers, but with legs that come only to around the area of the knee. To distinguish them from shorts, trousers may be called long trousers in certain such as school uniform. Made of wool, the trousers had straight legs and wide crotches, breeches were worn instead of trousers in early modern Europe by some men in higher classes of society. Since the mid-20th century, trousers have increasingly been worn by women as well, jeans, made of denim, are a form of trousers for casual wear, now widely worn all over the world by both sexes. Shorts are often preferred in hot weather or for sports and also often by children. Trousers are worn on the hips or waist and may be held up by their own fastenings, leggings are form-fitting trousers, of a clingy material, often knitted cotton and spandex. In Scotland, trousers are occasionally known as trews, which is the root of the word trousers. Trousers are also known as breeks in Scots, a related to breeches. The item of clothing worn under trousers is underpants, in North America and Australia pants is the general category term, whereas trousers often refers more specifically to tailored garments with a waistband, belt-loops, and a fly-front. So informal elastic-waist knitted garments would be called pants, but not trousers, North Americans call undergarments underwear, underpants, undies, jockey shorts, shorts, long johns or panties to distinguish them from other pants that are worn on the outside. The term drawers normally refers to undergarments, but in dialects, may be found as a synonym for breeches. In these dialects, the term underdrawers is used for undergarments, many North Americans refer to their undergarments by their type, such as boxers or briefs. In Australia, mens underwear also has various terms including under-dacks, undies. In New Zealand mens underwear is known as undies, or y-fronts, various people in the fashion industry use the words trouser or pant instead of trousers or pants. The words trousers and pants are pluralia tantum, nouns that generally appear in plural form—much like the words scissors. However, the form is used in some compound words, such as trouser-leg, trouser-press
2.
Denim
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Denim is a sturdy cotton warp-faced textile in which the weft passes under two or more warp threads. This twill weaving produces a diagonal ribbing that distinguishes it from cotton duck, the most common denim is indigo denim, in which the warp thread is dyed, while the weft thread is left white. As a result of the warp-faced twill weaving, one side of the textile is dominated by the warp threads. This causes blue jeans to be white on the inside, the indigo dyeing process, in which the core of the warp threads remains white, creates denims signature fading characteristics. The name denim derives from French serge de Nîmes, meaning serge from Nîmes, denim was traditionally colored blue with indigo dye to make blue jeans, although jean formerly denoted a different, lighter, cotton fabric. The contemporary use of the word comes from the French word for Genoa, Italy. Denim has been used in the USA since the mid 19th century, denim initially gained popularity in 1873 when Jacob W. Davis, a tailor from Nevada, manufactured the first pair of “rivet-reinforced” denim pants. His concept for making reinforced jeans was inspired when a female customer requested a pair of durable, when Davis was about to finish making the denim jeans, he saw some copper rivets lying on a table and used the rivets to fasten the pockets. At this time, clothes for Western labourers, such as teamsters, surveyors, soon, the popularity of denim jeans began to spread rapidly and Davis was overwhelmed with requests. He soon sold 200 pairs to workers in need of heavy work clothing, nevertheless, because of the production capacity in his small shop, Davis was struggling to keep up with the demand. He then wrote a proposal to the dry goods wholesaler Levi Strauss & Co. that had been supplying Davis with bolts of denim fabric. Davis’s proposal was “to patent the design of the rivet-reinforced denim pant, with Davis listed as inventor, in exchange for certain rights of manufacture”. Levi Strauss & Co. was so impressed by the possibilities for profit in the manufacture of the garment that they then hired Davis to be in charge of the mass-production in San Francisco, dry or raw denim is denim that is not washed after having been dyed during production. Over time, dry denim will usually fade, which is considered desirable by some people, during the process of wear, fading will usually occur on those parts of the article that receive the most stress. On a pair of jeans, this includes the upper thighs, the ankles, after being made into an article of clothing, most denim articles are washed to make them softer and to reduce or eliminate shrinkage. In addition to being washed, washed denim is sometimes artificially distressed to produce a worn look, much of the appeal of artificially distressed denim is that it resembles dry denim which has faded. In jeans made from dry denim, such fading is affected by the body of the person who wears them and this process creates what many enthusiasts feel to be a look more natural than artificially distressed denim. To facilitate the natural distressing process, some wearers of dry denim will abstain from washing their jeans for more than six months, most dry denim is made with 100% cotton and comes from several different countries
3.
Dungaree (fabric)
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Dungaree fabric is a historical term for coarse thick 2/2 twill-weave cotton cloth, often coloured blue. Cotton twill with indigo dyed warp thread is now commonly referred to as denim. The word is derived from Dongri, a dockside village near Mumbai. In US English the term is used for hard-wearing work trousers made from such fabric, by 1891 Kipling was using the word to refer to a kind of garment as well as a fabric. Dungaree appears to be a subset of denim and typically refers to the most common style of blue denim, typically only the warp threads are pre-dyed with the traditional colouring agent indigo, the weft threads are left uncoloured, resulting in the unique fade patterns of the fabric. Denim however refers to cotton twill which may be dyed, undyed. Denim may be 2x1 or 3x1 twill and its unclear what types of twill dungaree fabric was available in traditionally
4.
Jacob W. Davis
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Jacob W. Davis was a Latvian-Jewish tailor and American immigrant who is credited with inventing modern jeans. Jacob Youphes was born to a Jewish family in the city of Riga, then Russian Empire, today Latvia, during his time in Riga city, he trained and worked as a tailor. In 1854, at the age of 23, he emigrated from the Russian Empire to the United States, there he ran a tailors shop before moving to Maine and then, in 1856, San Francisco before moving on to Weatherville. There, Davis met a German immigrant, Annie Parksher, whom he married and together, Jacob, during his time in Canada, Davis worked at the Fraser River panning for gold. In January 1867, Davis returned to San Francisco with Annie, later that year, they moved to Virginia City, Nevada where he sold wholesale tobacco and pork before beginning work once more as a tailor. By 1868, the family had moved, this time to Reno, Nevada which at time was a tiny railroad town. 1869 saw Davis revert to his trade, opening a tailor shop in the main street of the town. In his tailor shop, Davis made functional items such as tents, horse blankets, the fabric Davis worked with was a heavy duty cotton “duck” cloth and a heavy duty cotton “denim” cloth which he bought from Levi Strauss & Co. a dry goods company in San Francisco. To strengthen the stress points of the items he was making. In December 1870, Davis was asked by a customer to make a pair of strong working pants for her husband who was a woodcutter. To create suitably robust pants for working, he used duck cloth and reinforced the weak points in the seams, such was the success of these pants that word spread throughout the labourers along the railroad. Davis was making these working pants in duck cotton and, as early as 1871, before long, he found he could not keep up with demand. Davis had previously applied for patents for other inventions, Strauss agreed, and on May 20. 1873, US Patent No.139,121 for “Improvements in fastening pocket openings” was issued in the name of Jacob W. Davis and Levi Strauss and Company. That same year, Davis started sewing a double orange threaded stitched design onto the pocket of the jeans to distinguish them from those made by his competitors. This trademark feature became Registered U. S. Trade Mark No.1,139,254. By this time, Strauss had set up a sizeable tailor shop in San Francisco for the production of Davis working pants and Jacob, as demand continued to grow, the shop was superseded by a manufacturing plant which Davis managed for Strauss. Davis continued to work there for the remainder of his life, overseeing production of the work pants as well as other lines including work shirts, Davis died in San Francisco in 1908
5.
Levi Strauss & Co.
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/ˌliːvaɪ ˈstraʊs/ is a privately owned American clothing company known worldwide for its Levis /ˌliːvaɪz/ brand of denim jeans. It was founded in May 1853 when Levi Strauss came from Buttenheim, Bavaria, to San Francisco, the companys corporate headquarters is located in the Levis Plaza in San Francisco. Levi Strauss started the business at the 90 Sacramento Street address in San Francisco and he next moved the location to 62 Sacramento Street then 63 &65 Sacramento Street. Jacob Davis, a Latvian Jewish immigrant, was a Reno, Davis did not have the required money to purchase a patent, so he wrote to Strauss suggesting that they go into business together. After Levi accepted Jacobs offer, on May 20,1873, Patent 139,121 from the United States Patent and Trademark Office. The patented rivet was later incorporated into the companys jean design, contrary to an advertising campaign suggesting that Levi Strauss sold his first jeans to gold miners during the California Gold Rush, the manufacturing of denim overalls only began in the 1870s. The company created their first pair of Levis 501 Jeans in the 1890s, modern jeans began to appear in the 1920s, but sales were largely confined to the working people of the western United States, such as cowboys, lumberjacks, and railroad workers. Levi’s jeans apparently were first introduced to the East during the dude ranch craze of the 1930s, another boost came in World War II, when blue jeans were declared an essential commodity and were sold only to people engaged in defense work. Between the 1950s and 1980s, Levis jeans became popular among a range of youth subcultures, including greasers, mods, rockers. Levis popular shrink-to-fit 501s were sold in a unique sizing arrangement, the indicated size referred to the size of the prior to shrinking. The company still produces these unshrunk, uniquely sized jeans, additionally, the back pocket rivets, which had been covered in denim since 1937, were removed completely in the 1950s due to complaints they scratched furniture. The acquisition led to the introduction of the modern stone washing technique, simpkins is credited with the companys record-paced expansion of its manufacturing capacity from 16 plants to more than 63 plants in the United States from 1964 to 1974 and 23 overseas. As a result, Levis plants were perhaps the highest performing, best organized, the Dockers brand, launched in 1986 and which is sold largely through department store chains, helped the company grow through the mid-1990s, as denim sales began to fade. Dockers were introduced into Europe in 1996 and led by CEO Jorge Bardina, Levi Strauss attempted to sell the Dockers division in 2004 to relieve part of the companys $2.6 billion outstanding debt. As of 2016, most Levis jeans are made outside the US, though a few of the higher-end, labor history, distributing more than $9 million in restitution to some 1,200 employees. Levi Strauss claimed no knowledge of the offenses, then severed ties to the Tan family and instituted labor reforms, during the mid- and late-1990s, Fuerza Unida picketed the Levi Strauss headquarters in San Francisco and staged hunger strikes and sit-ins in protest at the companys labor policies. The company took on debt in February 1996 to help finance a series of leveraged stock buyouts among family members. The corporations bonds are traded publicly, as are shares of the companys Japanese affiliate, Levi Strauss Japan K. K
6.
Levi Strauss
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Levi Strauss was an American businessman of German origin who founded the first company to manufacture blue jeans. His firm, Levi Strauss & Co. began in 1853 in San Francisco, Levi Strauss was born in Buttenheim, Germany, on February 26,1829, in the Franconian region of Bavaria, Germany, to an Ashkenazi Jewish family. He was the son of Hirsch Strauss and his second wife Rebecca Strauss, Levis sister Fanny and her husband David Stern moved to St. Louis, Missouri, while Levi went to live in Louisville, Kentucky, and sold his brothers supplies in Kentucky. In January 1853, Levi Strauss became an American citizen, the family decided to open a West Coast branch of the family dry goods business in San Francisco, which was the commercial hub of the California Gold Rush. Levi was chosen to represent the family and he took a steamship for San Francisco, arriving in early March 1853, where he joined his sisters family. Strauss opened his dry goods wholesale business as Levi Strauss & Co. and imported fine dry goods—clothing, bedding, combs, purses and he made tents, and later jeans. Levi lived with Fannys growing family, Jacob Davis, one of Strausss customers and one of the inventors of riveted denim pants in 1871, went into business with Strauss to produce blue jeans. The two men patented the new style of work pants in 1873, Levi Strauss died on September 26,1902, in San Francisco at the age of 73. He never married, and left the business to his four nephews, Jacob, Sigmund, Louis, and Abraham Stern and he also left bequests to a number of charities, such as the Pacific Hebrew Orphan Asylum and the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum. Before his death, he had also established scholarships at the University of California Berkeley, Levis fortune was estimated to be around $6 million. He was buried in Colma, California, the Levi Strauss museum in Buttenheim, Germany, is located in the 1687 house where Strauss was born. There is also a Visitors Center at Levi Strauss & Co. headquarters in San Francisco, the Levi Strauss Foundation started with an 1897 donation to the University of California, Berkeley. Https, //sites. google. com/site/levistraussfamily/, http, //archive. is/ELJXG Levi Strauss & Company Biography of Levi Strauss from the Official Levi Strauss Site, Levi Strauss at Findagrave Levis Levis India Levi Strauss Museum in Buttenheim, Germany Levi Strauss at the Fashion Model Directory
7.
Cowboy
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A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch-related tasks. The historic American cowboy of the late 19th century arose from the traditions of northern Mexico and became a figure of special significance. A subtype, called a wrangler, specifically tends the horses used to work cattle, in addition to ranch work, some cowboys work for or participate in rodeos. There are also cattle handlers in many parts of the world, particularly South America and Australia. The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas, over the centuries, differences in terrain, climate and the influence of cattle-handling traditions from multiple cultures created several distinct styles of equipment, clothing and animal handling. As the ever-practical cowboy adapted to the world, the cowboys equipment and techniques also adapted to some degree. The English word cowboy has an origin from several earlier terms that referred to both age and to cattle or cattle-tending work, the word cowboy appeared in the English language by 1725. It appears to be a direct English translation of vaquero, a Spanish word for an individual who managed cattle while mounted on horseback and it was derived from vaca, meaning cow, which came from the Latin word vacca. Another English word for a cowboy, buckaroo, is an anglicization of vaquero, originally, the term may have been intended literally—a boy who tends cows. By 1849 it had developed its sense as an adult cattle handler of the American West. Variations on the word cowboy appeared later, cowhand appeared in 1852, and cowpoke in 1881, originally restricted to the individuals who prodded cattle with long poles to load them onto railroad cars for shipping. Names for a cowboy in American English include buckaroo, cowpoke, cowhand, the word cowboy also had English language roots beyond simply being a translation from Spanish. Originally, the English word cowherd was used to describe a cattle herder, and often referred to a preadolescent or early adolescent boy and this word is very old in the English language, originating prior to the year 1000. In antiquity, herding of sheep, cattle and goats was often the job of minors, on western ranches today, the working cowboy is usually an adult. Responsibility for herding cattle or other livestock is no longer considered a job suitable for children or early adolescents. However, both boys and girls growing up in a ranch environment often learn to ride horses and perform basic ranch skills as soon as they are physically able, such youths, by their late teens, are often given responsibilities for cowboy work on the ranch. The term cowboy was used during the American Revolution to describe American fighters who opposed the movement for independence, in the same period, a number of guerilla bands operated in Westchester County, which marked the dividing line between the British and American forces. These groups were made up of local farmhands who would ambush convoys, there were two separate groups, the skinners fought for the pro-independence side, the cowboys supported the British
8.
Miner
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A miner is a person who extracts ore, coal, or other mineral from the earth through mining. There are two senses in which the term is used, in its narrowest sense, a miner is someone who works at the rock face, cutting, blasting, or otherwise working and removing the rock. In a broader sense, a miner is working within a mine. Mining is one of the most dangerous trades in the world, in some countries, miners lack social guarantees and in case of injury may be left to cope without assistance. Different functions of the individual miner, many of the roles are specific to a type of mining, such as coal mining. Roles considered to be miners in the narrower sense have included, Hewer, collier, a hewer who hews coal with a pick. Driller, who works a rock drill to bore holes for placing dynamite or other explosives, other roles within mines that did not involve breaking rock have included, Loader, who loads the mining carts with coal at the face. Putter, who works the carts around the mine, barrow-man, who transported the broken coal from the face in wheelbarrows. Hurrier, who transported coal carts from a mine to the surface, timberer, who fashions and installs timber supports to support the walls and ceiling in an underground mine. In addition to miners working underground, a mine employs other workers in duties at the surface, in addition to office staff of various sorts, these may include, Brakesman, who operate the winding engine. Mining engineers use the principles of math and science to develop solutions to technical problems for miners. In most cases, a degree in engineering, mining engineering or geological engineering is required. Because technology is changing, miners and mining engineers need to continue their education. The basics of mining engineering includes finding, extracting, and preparing minerals, metals and these mined products are used for electric power generation and manufacturing industries. Mining engineers also supervise the construction of mine operations and create ways to transport the extracted minerals to processing plants. Underground mining Miners apron Miners cap Miners habit Mining helmet Mooskappe, miners cap worn in the Harz
9.
Teenager
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Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier. For example, puberty now typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females, physical growth, and cognitive development can extend into the early twenties. Thus age provides only a marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country, Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, cognitive advances encompass both increment in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations, for example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles, developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status. Some scientists have questioned the universality of adolescence as a developmental phase, puberty is a period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The average age of onset of puberty is at 11 for girls and 12 for boys, every persons individual timetable for puberty is influenced primarily by heredity, although environmental factors, such as diet and exercise, also exert some influences. These factors can contribute to precocious and delayed puberty. Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development involve distinctive physiological changes in height, weight, body composition. These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity, puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of sex characteristics. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur
10.
Greaser (subculture)
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Greasers are a working-class youth subculture that was popularized in the late 1940s and 1950s by predominately working class and lower class teenagers and young adults in the United States. The subculture remained prominent into the mid-1960s and was embraced by certain ethnic groups in urban areas, though rural. Rock and roll music, rockabilly, and doo wop were major parts of the culture, the name greaser came from their greased-back hairstyles, which involved combing back hair using creams, tonics, or pomade. In Sweden they are called raggare and in Japan they are known as Yankee, in South Africa they were called duck-tails from the way their slicked back hair flipped over the back of their collars. The 1950s and 1960s British equivalent was the rocker, also known as a ton-up boy, both subcultures are known for being fans of 1950s Doo Wop, Rock and roll, jazz, blues, country, and rockabilly music. During the 1950s, women became a part of greaser culture. Like men, they joined motorcycle gangs and wore jackets displaying their groups or gangs name, the women who were involved in gangs typically did not fight side-by-side with male gangs, but they did fight rival female gangs in the 1950s. Women were often depicted as the property of male gang members. The term greaser reappeared in later decades as part of a revival of 1950s popular culture, One of the first manifestations of this revival was a 1971 American 7 Up television commercial that featured a 1950s greaser saying Hey remember me. The music act Sha Na Na also played a role in the revivals. Common accessories included s, black gloves, fedoras, motorcycle helmets, vintage leather caps, stingy-brim hats, flat caps. Common footwear included motorcycle boots, combact boots, winklepickers, brothel creepers, cowboy boots, typical hairstyles included the pompadour, the Ducks ass, S-Curls, Conks, Finger Waves, Afros with parts or shaped like pompadours, and the more combed-back Folsom style. These hairstyles were held in place with such as Dax, Murrays or Royal Crown. The leather jacket, as popularized by pilots during World War II, compared with the previous decades, the 1950s were considered dull and the youths craved a new sense of adventure. The leather jacket marked greaser youths as daring and adventuresome young men, greasers are usually portrayed as urban, street-wise, working-class ethnics, most often Italian American or Hispanic American. In the 1950s, Hollywood film characters portrayed by such as Marlon Brando. American youths were looking for entertainment and identity following the image of the World War II generation. The 1950s was a time for many of Americas youths
11.
Hippie
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The word hippie came from hipster and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into New York Citys Greenwich Village and San Franciscos Haight-Ashbury district. The term hippie was first popularized in San Francisco by Herb Caen, the origins of the terms hip and hep are uncertain. By the 1940s, both had become part of African American jive slang and meant sophisticated, currently fashionable, fully up-to-date, the Beats adopted the term hip, and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. In the United Kingdom in 1970, many gathered at the gigantic Isle of Wight Festival with a crowd of around 400,000 people, in later years, mobile peace convoys of New Age travelers made summer pilgrimages to free music festivals at Stonehenge and elsewhere. In Australia, hippies gathered at Nimbin for the 1973 Aquarius Festival, piedra Roja Festival, a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970. Hippie fashion and values had an effect on culture, influencing popular music, television, film, literature. Since the 1960s, many aspects of culture have been assimilated by mainstream society. The religious and cultural diversity espoused by the hippies has gained widespread acceptance, lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the principal American editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, argues that the terms hipster and hippie derive from the word hip, whose origins are unknown. The term hipster was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944, by the 1940s, the terms hip, hep and hepcat were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although hep eventually came to denote an inferior status to hip. In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named hips because they were considered in the know or cool, as opposed to being square. In the April 27,1961 issue of The Village Voice, An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro, Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFKs behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the hipster and hippies to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm Xs 1964 autobiography, the hippie in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who acted more Negro than Negroes. Andrew Loog Oldham refers to all the Chicago hippies, seemingly in reference to black musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP The Rolling Stones. The word hippie was also used in reference to Philadelphia in at least two songs in 1963, South Street by The Orlons, and You Cant Sit Down by The Dovells. In both songs, the term is applied to residents of Philadelphias South Street, in that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn Cafe, using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district. New York Times editor and usage writer Theodore M. Bernstein said the paper changed the spelling from hippy to hippie to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as hippy fashions. Even the counterculture of the Ancient Greeks, espoused by philosophers like Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics were also early forms of hippie culture
12.
Punk subculture
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The punk subculture, which centres on punk rock music, includes a diverse array of ideologies, fashions and forms of expression, including visual art, dance, literature and film. The subculture is largely characterized by anti-establishment views and the promotion of individual freedom, the punk subculture is centered on a loud, aggressive genre of rock music called punk rock. It is usually played by small bands consisting of a vocalist, Punk politics cover the entire political spectrum. Punk-related ideologies are mostly concerned with freedom and anti-establishment views. Common punk viewpoints include anti-authoritarianism, a DIY ethic, non-conformity, direct action, there is a wide range of punk fashion, in terms of clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics, tattoos, jewelery and body modification. Early punk fashion adapted everyday objects for aesthetic effect, such as T-shirts, leather jackets, hardcore punk fans adopted a dressed-down style of T-shirts, jeans, combat boots or sneakers and crewcut-style haircuts. Women in the hardcore scene typically wore masculine clothing, one part of punk was creating explicitly outward identities of sexuality. Everything that was supposed to be hidden was brought to the front. Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually underground, minimalistic, iconoclastic. Punk artwork graces album covers, flyers for concerts, and punk zines, Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and prose. Punk has its own press in the form of punk zines, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism. Some zines take the form of perzines, important punk zines include Maximum RocknRoll, Punk Planet, No Cure, Cometbus, Flipside, and Search & Destroy. Many punk-themed films have made, as have punk rock music videos. Some punk films intercut stock footage with news clips and amateur videos of concerts, Punks can come from any and all walks of life and economic classes, and punk culture has aspects of gender equalist ideology. The punk subculture emerged in the United Kingdom, Australia, exactly which region originated punk has long been a major controversy within the movement. Various musical, philosophical, political, literary and artistic movements influenced the subculture. In the late 1970s, the subculture began to diversify, which led to the proliferation of such as new wave, post-punk,2 Tone, pop punk, hardcore punk, no wave, street punk. Hardcore punk, street punk and Oi. sought to do away with the frivolities introduced in the years of the original punk movement
13.
Heavy metal subculture
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Fans of heavy metal music have created their own subculture which encompasses more than just appreciation of the style of music. Metal fans may also write or take photos for metal zines, some critics and musicians have suggested that the subculture is largely intolerant to other musical genres. The metal scene, like the scene in general, is associated with alcohol. While there are songs that celebrate drinking, drug use and partying, there are many songs that warn about the dangers of alcohol. These vary with time and regional divisions, but headbanger and metalhead are universally accepted to refer to fans or the subculture itself, heavy metal fans have created a subculture of alienation with its own standards for achieving authenticity within the group. Metal fans formed an “exclusionary youth community” which was distinctive and marginalized from the mainstream” society, the heavy metal scene developed a strongly masculine “community with shared values, norms, and behaviors”. A “code of authenticity” is central to the metal subculture. The metal code also includes “opposition to established authority, and separateness from the rest of society”, the activities in the metal subculture include the ritual of attending concerts, buying albums, and most recently, contributing to metal websites. Attending concerts affirms the solidarity of the subculture, as it is one of the activities by which fans celebrate their music. Metal magazines help the members of the subculture to connect, find information and evaluations of bands and albums, the long hair, leather jackets, and band patches of heavy metal fashion help to encourage a sense of identification within the subculture. However, Weinstein notes that not all fans are “visible members” of the heavy metal subculture. Some metal fans may have hair and dress in regular clothes. In the musical subcultures of heavy metal and punk, authenticity is a core value, heavy metal fans began using the term sell out in the 1980s to refer to bands who turned their heavy metal sound into radio-friendly rock music. In metal, an out is. someone dishonest who adopted the most rigorous pose, or identity-affirming lifestyle. The metal bands that earned this epithet are those, who adopt the visible aspects of the orthodoxy without contributing to the underlying belief system. He claims that this made it hard for Metallica to. play their music and win over a crowd in a land where poseurs ruled and anything fast, wood claims that the. true devotee’s path to metaldom is perilous and fraught with poseurs. In an article on metal/hard rock frontman Axl Rose, entitled Ex–‘White-Boy Poseur and he notes that “We thought we were so badass. N. W. A came out rapping about this world where you walk out of your house, at this point, Rose argues that It was just so clear what stupid little white-boy poseurs we were
14.
Western culture
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The term also applies beyond Europe, to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization, or influence. For example, Western Culture includes countries in the Americas and Australasia, whose language, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of Western culture, with the worlds first democratic system of government and major advances in philosophy, science, Greece was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization. European culture developed with a range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism, and mysticism. Rational thinking developed through an age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment. More often an ideology is what will be used to categorize it as a Western society. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today but were Eastern in the past. Since the context is highly biased and context-dependent, there is no agreed definition what the West is and it is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all cultures are, to some extent. Stereotyped views of the West have been labeled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism—the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of the East, as Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly considered the Orient became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Meiji Japan and Qing China for the first time. Thus, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 occurred in the Far East, the Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbors, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom, Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all cultures, it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity. Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves as something between the wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle-Easterners. In the meantime, however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, the Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity
15.
Lee (jeans)
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Lee is an American brand of denim jeans, first produced in 1889 in Salina, Kansas. The company is owned by VF Corporation, the largest apparel company in the world and its headquarters is currently in Merriam, Kansas, just outside Kansas City, Missouri. The company states that they are an international retailer and manufacturer of casual wear and work wear, in Australasia, the brand is owned by Pacific Brands since 2007, after it was acquired from Yakka. The company was formed in 1889 by Henry David Lee as the Lee Mercantile Company at Salina, Kansas producing dungarees, the growth of Lee was prompted by the introduction of the Union-All work jumpsuit in 1913 and their first overall in 1920. Later in the 1920s Lee introduced a zipper fly and continued to expand, around this time, the first childrens overall line was sold. Lee, founder and president of The H. D, during the 1930s and 1940s the company became the leading manufacturer of work clothes in the US. In 1944, the Lazy S became the official Lee back pocket, a flood wiped out Lees Kansas City distribution center. It ruined the entire stock of merchandise, except the Buddy Lee dolls, in 1954, Lee expanded into casual wear. During the 1960s the company expanded to 81 countries and in 1969 was acquired by VF Corporation, Lee aired its first television advertisement, which promoted Lee western wear. In the 1970s Lee shifted its focus from the workwear business, Lee created an all-new fit for women under the Ms. Lee label. A youth wear line for boys and girls was introduced, in 1996, the company launched Lee National Denim Day as part of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month. Working with the Entertainment Industry Foundation, Lee National Denim Day has raised over $75 million to fund breast cancer research programs. In 2014 the brand was relaunched in Paris via the Citadium Paris store, in 1981,240 factory workers in Greenock, Scotland, staged a sit-in in protest against plans to move the factory to Northern Ireland. What was planned as a one-night protest continued for 7 months, as of 2005, Lee Jeans have been manufactured by Arvind Mills in a number of small factories in Chamarajanagar, India. 60,000 workers produce 5,000 pairs of jeans a day, within the USA, the company spends more than $40 million per year on advertising. In 2009, Olson was appointed as the interactive agency for the American brand. Barkley Inc. had previously handled interactive advertising for the brand, arnold Worldwide continues to provide offline advertising services for the brand. Demim, From Cowboys to Catwalks, A Visual History of the Worlds Most Legendary Fabric, Lee Jeans Lee Jeans Australia Lee National Denim Day
16.
Wrangler (jeans)
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Wrangler is an American manufacturer of jeans and other clothing items, particularly workwear. The brand is owned by the VF Corporation, who also own Lee, JanSport and its headquarters is in downtown Greensboro, North Carolina in the United States, with production plants in a variety of locations throughout the world. Wrangler Jeans were first made by Blue Bell, who acquired the brand when they took over Casey Jones in the mid-1940s, Blue Bell employed Bernard Lichtenstein, a Polish tailor from Łódź who worked closely with cowboys, to help design jeans suitable for rodeo use. This was the origin of Wrangler Jeans, the 13MWZ style, introduced in 1947 as lot number 11MWZ, is still available worldwide. In addition to this, Wrangler has since introduced several lines that are more designated towards a specific group or demographic. Some examples of this are 20X, Riggs, and Aura, Wrangler exports its goods to many countries with Europe and Australia being some of its main export markets. Wrangler has acquired iconic status worldwide and, particularly, in US, UK, Wrangler also has a line of music accessories targeted toward country music fans. Wrangler also has a series of television commercials with Brett Favre playing a game of touch football in the mud. Hudson leaves Spring Hill Farm in Williamson County, Tennessee, and makes his way to North Carolina and he finds work in a factory making overalls, where he earns 25 cents a day sewing on buttons. He and a few others buy several of the machines, lease space above a downtown grocery store. 1919, The business builds its first factory on the corner of South Elm Street, legend has it that a group of railroad workers who bought overalls at the Hudson store gave C. C. Hudson a bell, and after spending time in the factory,1936, Blue Bell launches Super Big Ben Overalls made out of 100% Sanforized Fabric that reduces shrinkage after washing to less than 1%. This sets a new standard for the industry,1943, Blue Bell acquires the Casey Jones Work-Clothes Company and the rights to a rarely used Casey Jones brand name, Wrangler. 1946, Blue Bell starts to develop a line for cowboys. Blue Bell workers take part in a contest to give the jeans a brand name, the winning name is Wrangler, synonymous with the name for a working cowboy. 1947, After designing and testing 13 pairs of prototype jeans, a promotional campaign is launched featuring 11MWZ test riders and rodeo legends Freckles Brown, Bill Linderman, and Jim Shoulders. 1952, Lot number 11MWZ is renamed 13MWZ to conform to the 13 oz. per yard denim weight being used to manufacture the style,1962, Blue Bell opens a factory in Belgium and the Wrangler brand name enjoys a successful launch in Europe. 1973, Wrangler jeans become an icon of youth culture, synonymous with teenagers the world over,1974, The Pro Rodeo Cowboys Association of America officially endorses Wrangler Jeans
17.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
18.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
19.
Twill
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Twill is a type of textile weave with a pattern of diagonal parallel ribs. Because of this structure, twill generally drapes well, Twill weaves can be classified from four points of view, According to the stepping, Warp-way, 3/1 warp way twill, etc. Weft-way, 2/3 weft way twill, etc, According to the direction of twill lines on the face of the fabric, S-Twill or left-hand twill weave, 2/1 S, etc. Z-Twill or right-hand twill weave, 3/2 Z, etc, According to the face yarn, Warp face twill weave, 4/2 S, etc. Weft face twill weave, 1/3 Z, etc, double face twill weave, 3/3 Z, etc. According to the nature of the twill line, Simple twill weave, 1/2 S. Expanded twill weave, 4/3 S, 3/2 Z, etc, multiple twill weave, 2/3/3/1 S, etc. In a twill weave, each weft or filling yarn floats across the warp yarns in a progression of interlacings to the right or left and this diagonal pattern is also known as a wale. A float is the portion of a yarn that crosses over two or more perpendicular yarns, a twill weave requires three or more harnesses, depending on its complexity and is the second most basic weave that can be made on a fairly simple loom. The fraction 2⁄1 is read as two up, one down, the minimum number of harnesses needed to produce a twill can be determined by totaling the numbers in the fraction, for the example described, the number of harnesses is three. Twill weave can be identified by its diagonal lines, Twill fabrics technically have a front and a back side, unlike plain weave, whose two sides are the same. The front side of the twill is called the technical face, if there are warp floats on the technical face, there will be filling floats on the technical back. If the twill wale goes up to the right on one side, Twill fabrics have no up and down as they are woven. Sheer fabrics are made with a twill weave. Because a twill surface already has interesting texture and design, printed twills are much less common than printed plain weaves, when twills are printed, this is typically done on lightweight fabrics. Denim, for example, is a twill, the fewer interlacings in twills as compared to other weaves allow the yarns to move more freely, and therefore they are softer and more pliable, and drape better than plain-weave textiles. Twills also recover from creasing better than plain-weave fabrics do, when there are fewer interlacings, the yarns can be packed closer together to produce high-count fabrics. With higher counts, including high-count twills, the fabric is more durable, twills can be divided into even-sided and warp-faced
20.
Fustian
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Fustian is a variety of heavy cloth woven from cotton, chiefly prepared for menswear. It is also used figuratively to refer to pompous, inflated or pretentious writing or speech and this literary use is because the cloth type was often used as padding, hence, the purposeless words are fustian. It embraces plain twilled cloth known as jean, and cut similar to velvet, known as velveteen, moleskin. The original medieval fustian was a stout but respectable cloth with a cotton weft and a linen warp. The term seems to have become less precise, and was applied to a coarse cloth made of wool and linen, and in the reign of Edward III of England. By the early 20th century, fustians were usually of cotton dyed various colors, in a petition to Parliament during the reign of Mary I, fustian of Naples is mentioned. In the 13th and 14th centuries priests robes and womens dresses were made of fustian, but though dresses are made from some kinds. From 1800 to 1850 it was commonly called Baragan Fustian, crucial to process of manufacture was fustian cutting. This was a process using a fustian cutting knife. This tool was around 50 cm long, and looked like a spike, about 10 cm from the tip. It was inserted along the fabric alongside two warp threads, and under the raised weft, and as it was guided forward the blade severed the weft. In corduroy, there were seven ridges to the inch, so along a 31in bolt, over a 60hr week the cutter would be expected to produce 500 yards of 7-8 ridge corduroy. Velveteen was cut the way but had 32 ridges per inch so production would be proportionately less. Cutting was one part of the process, the yarn was sized and the cloth was woven—there would be a high number of weft threads to warp. The ridges were manually cut, and the cloth sent to be finished and it was scoured to remove the size, and brushed to raise the nap. This was then singed over a gas flame, then bleached and it was now stentered to pull it out to the standard width. The cloth was woven at 31 or 32 inches and during processing has shrunk to 27 inches, stentering would stabilise the width to 28 inches. The back of the cloth would now be filled to give it stiffness and this could be with a glue based mixture that could be formed from boiled bones
21.
Cotton
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Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
22.
Corduroy
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Corduroy is a textile composed of twisted fibres that, when woven, lie parallel to one another to form the cloths distinct pattern, a cord. Modern corduroy is most commonly composed of tufted cords, sometimes exhibiting a channel between the tufts, corduroy is, in essence, a ridged form of velvet. The fabric looks as if it is made from multiple cords laid parallel to each other, the word corduroy is from cord and duroy, a coarse woollen cloth made in England in the 18th century. The interpretation of the word as corde du roi is a folk etymology, as a fabric, corduroy is considered a durable cloth. Corduroy is found in the construction of trousers, jackets and shirts, the width of the cord is commonly referred to as the size of the wale. The lower the number, the thicker the width of the wale. Corduroy’s wale count per inch can vary from 1.5 to 21, wide wale is more commonly used in trousers and furniture upholstery, medium, narrow, and fine wale fabrics are usually found in garments worn above the waist. Corduroy is made by weaving extra sets of fibre into the fabric to form vertical ridges called wales. The wales are built so that lines can be seen when they are cut into pile. The dye is applied to the surface of the fabric, then the garment is cut, when washed during the final phase of the manufacturing process, the pigment dye washes out in an irregular way, creating a vintage look. The colour of each garment becomes softer with each washing, other names are often used for corduroy. Alternative names include, corded velveteen, elephant cord, pin cord, Manchester cloth, in continental Europe, corduroy is commonly known simply as Manchester, Cord, rib cord or rib velvet. Corduroy is a traditionally used in making British country clothing, such as in coat
23.
Indigo
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Indigo is a deep and rich color close to the color wheel blue, as well as to some variants of ultramarine. The color indigo is named after the indigo dye derived from the plant Indigofera tinctoria, the first known recorded use of indigo as a color name in English was in 1289. Species of Indigofera were cultivated in Peru, India, East Asia, the earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BCE and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru. Pliny mentions India as the source of the dye, imported in small quantities via the Silk Road, the Greek term for the dye was Ἰνδικὸν φάρμακον, which, adopted to Latin as indicum and via Portuguese gave rise to the modern word indigo. El Salvador has lately been the biggest producer of indigo, Indigo was actually a plant that got its name because it came from the Indus Valley, discovered some 5,000 years ago, where it was called nila, meaning dark blue. And by the 7th Century BC, people starting using the plant as a dye — the Mesopotamians were even carving out recipes for making indigo dye onto clay tablets for record-keeping. By 1289, knowledge of the dye made its way to Europe, but it wasn’t until 1640 when demand started to pick up for indigo. Spanish explorers discovered an American species of Indigo and began to cultivate the product in Guatemala, the English and French subsequently began to encourage indigo cultivation in their colonies in the West Indies. Indigo dye could be made from two different types of plants — the indigo plant, which produced the best results, the British were producing indigo with woad, a plant that yielded a lesser quality dye, but a plant they could grow. They even tried to hold their monopoly on indigo dye by managing to ban the indigo plant for years, but eventually the British began to focus on tea and other crops — and meanwhile, the French started to get their fair share of the market. The French had gone to war with Britain, so the British could hardly rely on the French for this precious blue dye, consequently, the British had to turn to their colonies in America. It was Eliza Lucas from South Carolina who figured out how to grow the indigo plant, the same indigo dye is contained in the woad plant, Isatis tinctoria, for a long time the main source of blue dye in Europe. Woad was replaced by true indigo as trade routes opened up, the Early Modern English word indigo referred to the dye, and not to the color itself, and indigo is not traditionally part of the basic color-naming system. Modern sources place indigo in the spectrum between 420 and 450 nanometers, which lies on the side of color wheel blue. However, the correspondence of this definition with colors of actual indigo dyes is disputed, isaac Newton introduced indigo as one of the seven base colors of his work. In a pivotal experiment in the history of optics, the young Newton shone a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism to produce a band of colors on the wall. He linked the seven prismatic colors to the seven notes of a major scale, as shown in his color wheel, with orange. Indigo is therefore counted as one of the colors of the rainbow
24.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
25.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
26.
Rivet
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A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed, a rivet consists of a cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite to the head is called the tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, in other words, pounding creates a new head on the other end by smashing the tail material flatter, resulting in a rivet that is roughly a dumbbell shape. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail. Because there is effectively a head on each end of a rivet, it can support tension loads, however. Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications, solid rivets consist simply of a shaft and head that are deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. A rivet compression or crimping tool can also deform this type of rivet and this tool is mainly used on rivets close to the edge of the fastened material, since the tool is limited by the depth of its frame. A rivet compression tool does not require two people, and is generally the most foolproof way to solid rivets. Solid rivets are used in applications where reliability and safety count, a typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of rivets are used to assemble the frame of a modern aircraft. Such rivets come with rounded or 100° countersunk heads, typical materials for aircraft rivets are aluminium alloys, titanium, and nickel-based alloys. Some aluminum alloy rivets are too hard to buck and must be softened by solution treating prior to being bucked, ice box aluminum alloy rivets harden with age, and must likewise be annealed and then kept at sub-freezing temperatures to slow the age-hardening process. Steel rivets can be found in structures such as bridges, cranes. The setting of these fasteners requires access to both sides of a structure, solid rivets are driven using a hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically driven squeezing tool or even a handheld hammer. Applications where only one side is accessible require blind rivets, high-strength bolts have largely replaced structural steel rivets. Indeed, the latest steel construction specifications published by AISC no longer covers their installation, the reason for the change is primarily due to the expense of skilled workers required to install high strength structural steel rivets. Whereas two relatively unskilled workers can install and tighten high strength bolts, it takes a minimum of four highly skilled riveters to install rivets, at a central location near the areas being riveted, a furnace was set up
27.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
28.
Hindi
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Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
29.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
30.
Jean-Gabriel Eynard
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Jean-Gabriel Eynard was a Swiss banker. Jean-Gabriel Eynard although belonging to a family who had settled in Switzerland since the 17th century was born in Lyon. During the French Revolution the family fled France and took refuge in Rolle, in 1795, Jean-Gabriel and his brother Jacques went to Genoa and both were soon heading a flourishing commercial concern. In 1800 Massenas troops entered the town and Jean-Gabriel was entrusted with their supply, in particular he furnished them with uniforms cut from the blue cloth called bleu de Genes whence later derives the famous garment known worldwide as blue jeans. In 1801, he entered in a speculative and hazardous financial venture becoming the sole subscriber to a bond issued by the duke of Etruria. That audacious move was crowned with success and constituted the foundation of his immense fortune, under the reign of Elisa Bonaparte, Napoleons sister, as Grand-Duchess of Tuscany he continued his work with much success and was showered with honours and privileges. In 1810 he moved to Geneva and he was ambassador of the Geneva republic at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. In the following year he helped to organize the administration of Tuscany, being a friend of Ioannis Kapodistrias, he was very enthusiastic for the cause of the Greeks during the Greek War of Independence. He was the chief of the community in Europe. For his services to this cause, he was made a Greek citizen and his recommendation of Otho of Bavaria for the throne of Greece was adopted. In 1842, he one of the co-founders of the National Bank of Greece. In 1839, he was one of the first Swiss to use the daguerreotype and he had this passion until his death in 1863. He bequeathed his fortune to charitable enterprises. Lettres et documents relatifs aux divers événements de Grèce Vie de la baronne Krüdener Rines, George Edwin, ed. Eynard. This work in turn cites, Rothpletz, Der Genfer Jean Gabriel Eynard als Philhellene Media related to Jean-Gabriel Eynard at Wikimedia Commons
31.
Massena
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André Masséna 1st Duc de Rivoli, 1st Prince dEssling was a French military commander during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original eighteen Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon, many of Napoleons generals were trained at the finest French and European military academies, but Masséna was among those who achieved greatness without benefit of formal education. His military career is equaled by few commanders in European history, in addition to his battlefield successes, Massénas leadership aided the careers of many. A majority of the French marshals of the time served under his command at some point, andré Masséna was born in Nice, which was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the time, on 6 May 1758. He was the son of shopkeeper Jules Masséna and Marguerite Fabre and his father died in 1764, and after his mother remarried he was sent to live with relatives. At the age of thirteen, Masséna became a cabin boy aboard a merchant ship, while aboard he sailed in the Mediterranean Sea and on two extended voyages to French Guiana. In 1775, after four years at sea, he returned to Nice, by the time he left in 1789, he had risen to the rank of warrant officer, the top rank achievable by non-noblemen. On August 10 of that year he married Anne Marie Rosalie Lamare, daughter of a surgeon in Antibes, after a brief stint as a smuggler in Northern Italy, he rejoined the army in 1791 and was made an officer, rising to the rank of colonel by 1792. When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in April 1792, Masséna, Masséna prepared his battalion for battle in the hope that it would be incorporated into the regular army. That October, a month after the occupation of Nice, the battalion was one of four battalions that became part of the French Armée dItalie. Masséna distinguished himself in battle and was promoted, attaining the rank of general of brigade in August 1793. He was prominent in every campaign on the Italian Riviera over the two years, including the attack on Saorgio in 1794 and the battle of Loano in 1795. When Napoleon Bonaparte took command in March 1796, Masséna was commanding the two divisions of the advance guard. During the campaign in Italy in 1796-1797 Masséna became one of Bonapartes most important subordinates, when an Austrian relief army was sent to aid Mantua in January 1797, the French forces were overrun near Rivoli, while other enemy columns advanced on Verona and Mantua. At 5,00 P. M. on 13 January, Masséna was ordered to march from Verona to Rivoli, following a forced night march across the snow-covered roads, the first of his troops reached the battlefield at 6,00 A. M. Bonaparte deployed them on the flank when the battle began. They were shifted to strengthen the sagging center and then deployed to crush an Austrian flanking maneuver, Massénas troops played a decisive role in the victory. The next day, with little rest, Masséna and his troops marched 39 miles in 24 hours to intercept a second Austrian army advancing to relieve Mantua
32.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
33.
Wholesaling
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In general, it is the sale of goods to anyone other than a standard consumer. Wholesalers frequently physically assemble, sort and grade goods in large lots, break bulk, repack, while wholesalers of most products usually operate from independent premises, wholesale marketing for foodstuffs can take place at specific wholesale markets where all traders are congregated. Traditionally, wholesalers were closer to the markets they supplied than the source from which they got the products, however, with the advent of the internet and e-procurement there are an increasing number of wholesalers located nearer to the manufacturers in China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Often, in the United States, wholesalers are not required to charge their buyers sales tax, the alternative to selling wholesale to distributors or retailers is to sell retail either through company owned stores or online. Advantages include receiving a slice of the price paid by the consumer. Top U. S wholesalers according to report in 2012. Cash and carry Distribution Jobbing house Retail Supply chain Supply network B2B
34.
Copper
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
35.
Cotton duck
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Cotton duck, also simply duck, sometimes duck cloth or duck canvas, is a heavy, plain woven cotton fabric. Duck canvas is more tightly woven than plain canvas, There is also linen duck, which is less often used. Cotton duck is used in a range of applications, from sneakers to painting canvases to tents to sandbags. Duck fabric is woven with two yarns together in the warp and a single yarn in the weft, Duck is classified according to weight in a numerical system, with grade 1 the heaviest and grade 12 the lightest variety. Besides this, traditional names exist, which are used today. The classification system used today dates back to the 1920s, according to the Department of Commerce, The number of the duck is based on the following computation, Number of Duck =19 −. A numbering system is used to describe the various weights of duck cloth, weights below 19 ounces are called numbered duck. Those above 19 ounces are called naught duck, the grade of numbered duck refers to the number of ounces subtracted from 19 for a 36-by-22-inch piece of fabric. For example, a piece of No.8 numbered duck with dimensions of 36 by 22 inches weighs 11 ounces. Number duck classifications per linear yard 22 inches wide Numbered duck is nominally made in weights from 1 to 12, but numbers 7,9, some typical uses of various grades are, No. 6, large boat covers, heavy work clothes No,8, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, work clothes, shower curtains No,12, light clothes Number duck classifications per square yard There is often confusion when it comes to matching up weights and the correct number duck classification. The table below represents the weight and number duck classification per square yard instead of linear yard 22 inches wide. 1, floor & wall covering, sound absorption, equipment covers, heavy bags, horse packs,4, heavy-duty work clothes, hammocks, sand bags, director chairs, place mats, belting No. 6, utility bags, place mats, belting No,8, backpacks, painted floor cloths, tents, tarps, awnings, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, artist canvas, murals, shower curtains, painted floor cloths, hammocks,12, stretched artist canvas, furniture slip covers, light clothes Duct tape
36.
Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
37.
Fly (clothing)
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A fly on clothing is a covering over an opening concealing the mechanism, such as a zip, velcro, or buttons, used to close the opening. The term is most frequently applied to an opening over the groin in trousers, shorts. The term is used of overcoats, where a design of the same shape is used to hide a row of buttons. This style is common on a range of coats, from single-breasted Chesterfields to covert coats. An open fly is a fly that has been left unzipped or unbuttoned, trousers have varied historically in whether or not they have flies. Originally, trousers did not have flies or other openings, being pulled down for sanitary functions, the use of a codpiece, a separate covering attached to the trousers, became popular in 16th-century Europe, eventually evolving into an attached fall-front. The panelled front returned as an option, such as in riding breeches. Most flies now use a zip, though button flies continue in use
38.
James Dean
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James Byron Dean was an American actor. The other two roles that defined his stardom were loner Cal Trask in East of Eden and surly ranch hand Jett Rink in Giant, Deans premature death in a car crash cemented his legendary status. He became the first actor to receive a posthumous Academy Award nomination for Best Actor, in 1999, the American Film Institute ranked him the 18th best male movie star of Golden Age Hollywood in AFIs 100 Years.100 Stars list. James Dean was born February 8,1931, at the Seven Gables apartment on the corner of 4th Street and McClure Street in Marion, Indiana and his parents were of mostly English ancestry, with smaller amounts of German, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh. Six years after his father had left farming to become a technician, Dean and his family moved to Santa Monica. He was enrolled at Brentwood Public School in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, the family spent several years there, and by all accounts, Dean was very close to his mother. According to Michael DeAngelis, she was the only capable of understanding him. In 1938, she was struck with acute stomach pain. She died of cancer when Dean was nine years old. Unable to care for his son, Deans father sent him to live with Deans aunt Ortense and her husband, Marcus Winslow, on a farm in Fairmount, Indiana, Deans father served in World War II and later remarried. According to Billy J. Harbin, Dean had a relationship with his pastor. Their alleged sexual relationship was suggested in the 1994 book Boulevard of Broken Dreams, The Life, Times, in 2011, it was reported that Dean once confided in Elizabeth Taylor that he was sexually abused by a minister approximately two years after his mothers death. Other reports on Deans life also suggest that he was sexually abused by DeWeerd as a child or had a sexual relationship with him as a late teenager. Deans overall performance in school was exceptional and he was a popular student and he played on the baseball and varsity basketball teams, studied drama, and competed in public speaking through the Indiana High School Forensic Association. After graduating from Fairmount High School in May 1949, Dean moved back to California with his dog, Max and he enrolled in Santa Monica College and majored in pre-law. He transferred to UCLA for one semester and changed his major to drama and he pledged the Sigma Nu fraternity but was never initiated. While at UCLA, Dean was picked from a group of 350 actors to portray Malcolm in Macbeth, at that time, he also began acting in James Whitmores workshop. In January 1951, he dropped out of UCLA to pursue a career as an actor
39.
Rebel Without a Cause
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Rebel Without a Cause is a 1955 American drama film about emotionally confused suburban, middle-class teenagers filmed in CinemaScope. Directed by Nicholas Ray, it offered both social commentary and an alternative to previous films depicting delinquents in urban slum environments, the film stars James Dean, Sal Mineo and Natalie Wood. The film was an attempt to portray the moral decay of American youth, critique parental style. The title was adopted from psychiatrist Robert M. Lindners 1944 book, Rebel Without a Cause, the film itself, however, does not reference Lindners book in any way. Warner Bros. released the film on October 27,1955 and this was the only film during Deans lifetime in which he received top billing. In 1990, Rebel Without a Cause was added to Library of Congresss National Film Registry as being deemed culturally, historically, behind the opening credits, the film opens on a suburban Los Angeles street with teenager Jim Stark drunkenly lying down on a sidewalk. He is arrested and taken to the division of the police station for plain drunkenness. At the station he meets John Plato Crawford, who was brought in for shooting a litter of puppies with his mothers gun, and Judy and his frustrations are made manifest to officer Ray Fremick when Jim is released to their custody. Plato comes from a broken family and his father abandoned them when he was a toddler, and his mother is often away from home, leaving Plato in the care of his housekeeper. Jim sets out for his first day at Dawson High School and again meets Judy waiting on the corner and offers her a ride. Seemingly unimpressed by Jim at first, she declines and sarcastically says, You know, I bet youre a real yo-yo, and then is picked up by her friends, arriving at school, Jim immediately gets in hot water for unknowingly stepping on the school insignia. While shunned by most of the student body, Jim befriends Plato, as he walks out, Buzz and his gang slash one of Jims tires and then begin taunting him by clucking and calling him chicken, which is sure to set him off. When Jim asks Judy, revealed to be the property of Buzz, why she hangs around with them, Buzz pushes Jim away from her, then out a switchblade. Having no knife, Jim refuses, so Buzz orders one of his gang to lend Jim his knife, but even then Jim still refuses. When Buzz again calls Jim chicken he goes off, and the two fighting, each one getting minor jabs on the other until Jim knocks Buzzs knife away. Buzz wants another shot at Jim, which he accepts but not with knives, Buzz suggests stealing a couple of cars to have a Chickie Run at Millertown Bluff, a high seaside cliff. Jim agrees to them that evening before the observatory security guard runs the gang off. After they leave, Jim asks Plato what a Chickie Run is, at home, before leaving for the chickie run, Jim ambiguously asks Frank for advice about defending ones honor in a risky, dangerous situation
40.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
41.
Zipper
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A zipper, zip, fly, or zip fastener, formerly known as a clasp locker, is a commonly used device for binding the edges of an opening of fabric or other flexible material, like on a garment or a bag. It is used in clothing, luggage and other bags, sporting goods, camping gear, Whitcomb L. Judson was an American inventor from Chicago who invented and constructed a workable zipper. The method, still in use today, is based on interlocking teeth, initially it was called the “hookless fastener” and was later redesigned to become more reliable. The bulk of a zipper/zip consists of two rows of protruding teeth, which may be made to interdigitate, linking the rows and these teeth can be either individual or shaped from a continuous coil, and are also referred to as elements. The slider, operated by hand, moves along the rows of teeth, inside the slider is a Y-shaped channel that meshes together or separates the opposing rows of teeth, depending on the direction of the sliders movement. The word Zipper is onomatopoetic, because it was named for the sound the device makes when used, in many jackets and similar garments, the opening is closed completely when the slider is at one of the ends of the tape. The mechanism allows for partial fastening where only some of the tape is fastened together, in many kinds of luggage, there are two sliders on the tape, mounted in opposite directions head to head, the part of the zipper between them is unfastened. When the sliders are on opposite ends of the then the jacket is closed. If the lower slider is raised then the two sides of the jacket may be opened to allow more comfortable sitting or bicycling. When both sliders are lowered then the zipper may be totally separated, although potentially convenient, there are often problems getting this type of zipper to start or to separate. Zippers may increase or decrease the size of an opening to allow or restrict the passage of objects, as in the fly of trousers or in a pocket. Join or separate two ends or sides of a garment, as in the front of a jacket, or on the front. Attach or detach a part of the garment to or from another. Attach or detach a small pouch or bag to or from a larger one, one example of this is military rugsacks has smaller pouches or bags attached on its side using one or two zippers. Be used to decorate an item and these variations are achieved by sewing one end of the zipper together, sewing both ends together, or allowing both ends of the zipper to fall completely apart. A zipper costs relatively little, but if it fails, the garment may be unusable until the zipper is repaired or replaced—which can be quite difficult, problems often lie with the zipper slider, when it becomes worn it does not properly align and join the alternating teeth. With separating zippers, the pin may tear loose from the tape. If a zipper fails, it can either jam or partially break off, in 1851, Elias Howe received a patent for an Automatic, Continuous Clothing Closure
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Overall
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An overall, over all, overalls, bib-and-brace overalls, dungarees or party bibs are a type of garment which is usually used as protective clothing when working. Some people call an overall a pair of overalls by analogy with pair of trousers, overalls are usually made of denim and often have riveted pockets, similar to those on jeans. Bib overalls have long associated with rural men and boys in the Southern United States. They are often worn with no shirt at all by children, teen boys, the bib overalls fashion trend among American youth culture peaked in the latter half of the 1970s, and again for females in the late 1990s. In the 20th century, overalls were also worn as casual clothes, due to their comfort, handiness. Overalls are also made in corduroy in addition to denim, in British English such bib type overalls are usually called pairs of dungarees. Shortalls are a type of overalls in which the legs of the garment resemble those of shorts, the word is a contraction of these two words. They are often worn during the summer, also seen now are skirtalls which are like shortalls except that the bottom of the garment resembles a skirt. Sometimes it could be capri overalls which are a type of overalls whose legs are like the legs of capri pants, shortalls designed for toddlers often have crotch and leg snaps to facilitate diaper changes. Salopettes is the French word for bib-and-brace overalls
43.
Stone washing
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Stone washing is a textile manufacturing process used to give a newly manufactured cloth garment a worn-in appearance. Stone-washing also helps to increase the softness and flexibility of otherwise stiff and rigid fabrics such as canvas, the process uses large stones to roughen up the fabric being processed. The garments are placed in a large horizontal industrial clothes washer that is filled with large stones. As the wash cylinder rotates, the fibers are repeatedly pounded and beaten as the tumbling stones ride up the paddles inside the drum. A number of people and organizations have claimed to have invented stone-washing, according to Levi Strauss & Co. Donald Freeland, an employee of the Great Western Garment Company, inventor Claude Blankiet has also been credited with having invented the technique in the 1970s. The jeans company Edwin claims to have invented the technique in the 1980s, stonewashed jeans are jeans that have been treated to produce a faded, worn appearance. This is usually accomplished either by washing the jeans with pumice in a rotating drum, stonewashed jeans were a popular 1970s fashion trend, before commercial acid wash denim was introduced in the 1980s. In the 2000s, stonewashed jeans were distressed, with pre-made holes, frayed edges. Claude Blankiet with American Garment Finishers from Texas promoted the use of enzymes in the finishing industry. Cellulase was already used in the pulp, food processing industry. Cellulase is produced primarily by fungi, bacteria and protozoan that catalyze the hydrolysis of cellulose, since the enzyme decomposes cellulose fibers this enhanced the characteristic appearance that the jeans have been abraded with stones. Selecting the most suitable type of enzyme and their application for ageing jeans was the key to success, American Garment Finishers used a new cellulolytic agent patented in 1991 by Novo Nordisk from Denmark because of its safer effect on cotton fiber. Other finishers used an acid side Trichoderma fungi enzyme, cheaper and faster acting, but resulting in excessive fabric tear, acid-washed denim, is washed with pumice stones and chlorine until it is bleached almost white. California surfers and members of the 1960s counterculture prized Levi 501s and other jeans that had been bleached by the water due to their authentic. As natural wear took weeks, or even months, it was not uncommon to hang a few new pairs of jeans to fade in the sun, then turn them over to fade the other side. For many surfers, this process took too long, so they sped up the process by soaking the jeans in diluted bleach. Simple chlorine bleach and muriatic acid were readily available at the time, during the early 1980s, skinheads and punk rockers would spatter bleach on their jeans and battle jackets for a mottled effect similar to camouflage
44.
Edmonton
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Edmonton /ˈɛdməntən/ is the capital city of the Canadian province of Alberta. Edmonton is on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Capital Region, the city anchors the north end of what Statistics Canada defines as the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The city had a population of 932,546 in 2016, making it Albertas second-largest city, also in 2016, Edmonton had a metropolitan population of 1,321,426, making it the sixth-largest census metropolitan area in Canada. Edmonton is North Americas northernmost city with a population over one million. A resident of Edmonton is known as an Edmontonian, Edmontons historic growth has been facilitated through the absorption of five adjacent urban municipalities and a series of annexations ending in 1982. Known as the Gateway to the North, the city is a point for large-scale oil sands projects occurring in northern Alberta. Edmonton is a cultural, governmental and educational centre and it hosts a year-round slate of festivals, reflected in the nickname Canadas Festival City. It is home to North Americas largest mall, West Edmonton Mall, in 1754, Anthony Henday, an explorer for the Hudsons Bay Company, may have been the first European to enter the Edmonton area. By 1795, Fort Edmonton was established on the north bank as a major trading post for the Hudsons Bay Company. The new forts name was suggested by John Peter Pruden after Edmonton, London, the home town of both the HBC deputy governor Sir James Winter Lake, and Pruden. In 1876, Treaty 6, which includes what is now Edmonton, was signed between the Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Queen Victoria as Queen of Canada, as part of the Numbered Treaties of Canada. The agreement includes the Plains and Woods Cree, Assiniboine, and other governments of First Nations at Fort Carlton, Fort Pitt. The area covered by the treaty represents most of the area of the current provinces of Saskatchewan. The arrival of the CPR and the C&E Railway helped bring settlers and entrepreneurs from eastern Canada, Europe, U. S. the Edmonton areas fertile soil and cheap land attracted settlers, further establishing Edmonton as a major regional commercial and agricultural centre. Some people participating in the Klondike Gold Rush passed through South Edmonton/Strathcona in 1897, in November 1905, the Canadian Northern Railway arrived in Edmonton, accelerating growth. During the early 1900s, Edmontons rapid growth led to speculation in real estate, in 1912, Edmonton amalgamated with the City of Strathcona, south of the North Saskatchewan River, as a result, the city extended south of the North Saskatchewan River for the first time. Just prior to World War I, the boom ended, many impoverished families moved to subsistence farms outside the city, while others fled to greener pastures in other provinces. Recruitment to the Canadian army during the war contributed to the drop in population
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Azo dye
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Azo compounds are compounds bearing the functional group R–N=N–R′, in which R and R′ can be either aryl or alkyl. IUPAC defines azo compounds as, Derivatives of diazene, HN=NH, the more stable derivatives contain two aryl groups. The N=N group is called an azo group, the name azo comes from azote, the French name for nitrogen that is derived from the Greek ἀ- + ζωή. Most colored textile and leather articles are treated with azo dyes, as a consequence of п-delocalization, aryl azo compounds have vivid colors, especially reds, oranges, and yellows. Therefore, they are used as dyes, and are known as azo dyes. Some azo compounds, e. g. methyl orange, are used as acid-base indicators due to the different colors of their acid, most DVD-R/+R and some CD-R discs use blue azo dye as the recording layer. The development of azo dyes was an important step in the development of the chemical industry, azo pigments consist of colorless particles colored using an azo compound. Azo pigments are important in a variety of paints including artists paints and they have excellent coloring properties, again mainly in the yellow to red range, as well as good lightfastness. The lightfastness depends not only on the properties of the azo compound. Aryl azo compounds are stable, crystalline species. Azobenzene is the prototypical aromatic azo compound and it exists mainly as the trans isomer, but upon photolysis, converts to the cis isomer. The oxidation of hydrazines also gives azo compounds, typical aniline partners are shown below. Illustrative azo compounds that are precursors to dyes Aliphatic azo compounds are commonly encountered than the aryl azo compounds. A commercially important alkyl azo compound is azobisisobutyronitrile, which is used as an initiator in free radical polymerizations. A simple dialkyl diazo compound is diethyldiazene, EtN=NEt, because of their instability, aliphatic azo compounds pose the risk of explosion. Likewise, several studies have linked azo pigments with basal cell carcinoma. Azo dyes derived from benzidine are carcinogens, exposure to them has classically been associated with bladder cancer, accordingly, the production of benzidine azo dyes was discontinued in the 1980s in the most important western industrialized countries. Certain azo dyes can break down under reductive conditions to any of a group of defined aromatic amines
46.
Indigo dye
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Indigo dye is an organic compound with a distinctive blue color. Historically, indigo was a dye extracted from the leaves of certain plants. A large percentage of indigo dye produced today – several thousand each year – is synthetic. It is the blue often associated with blue jeans, the primary use for indigo is as a dye for cotton yarn, which is mainly for the production of denim cloth for blue jeans. On average, a pair of blue jean trousers requires 3–12 g of indigo, small amounts are used for dyeing wool and silk. Indigo carmine, or indigo, is a derivative which is also used as a colorant. About 20 thousand tons are produced annually, again mainly for blue jeans and it is also used as a food colorant, and is listed in the United States as FD&C Blue No.2. A variety of plants have provided indigo throughout history, but most natural indigo was obtained from those in the genus Indigofera, the primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true indigo. A common alternative used in the relatively colder subtropical locations such as Japans Ryukyu Islands, dyers knotweed was the most important blue dye in East Asia until the arrival of the Indigofera species from the south, which yield more dye. In Central and South America, the species grown is I. suffruticosa, in Europe woad containing the same dye was used for blue-dying. Several plants contain indigo, but low concentrations make them difficult to work with, natural sources also include mollusks, the Murex sea snails produce a mixture of indigo and dibromoindigo which together produce a range of purple hues known as Tyrian purple. Light exposure during part of the process can convert the dibromoindigo into indigo resulting in blue hues known as royal blue or hyacinth purple. The precursor to indigo is indican, a colorless, water-soluble derivative of the amino acid tryptophan, indican readily hydrolyzes to release β-D-glucose and indoxyl. Oxidation by exposure to air converts indoxyl to indigo, indican was obtained from the processing of the plants leaves, which contain as much as 0. 2–0. 8% of this compound. The leaves were soaked in water and fermented to convert the glycoside indican present in the plant to the blue dye indigotin, the precipitate from the fermented leaf solution was mixed with a strong base such as lye, pressed into cakes, dried, and powdered. The powder was mixed with various other substances to produce different shades of blue. Indigo was used in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production, the I. tinctoria species was domesticated in India. Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans, Indigo is among the oldest dyes to be used for textile dyeing and printing
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Dye
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A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. Both dyes and pigments are colored because they absorb some wavelengths of light more than others, in contrast to dyes, pigments are insoluble and have no affinity for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with a salt to produce a lake pigment. The majority of natural dyes are from plant sources, roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood, fungi, textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period. Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles using common, locally available materials, scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world. Plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron, and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia, across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth. Dyes from the New World such as cochineal and logwood were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP. Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has been carried out for over 5,000 years. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin, by far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale. The discovery of synthetic dyes late in the 19th century ended the large-scale market for natural dyes. These dyes are made from synthetic resources such as petroleum by-products, the first human-made organic aniline dye, mauveine, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856, the result of a failed attempt at the total synthesis of quinine. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared. These may be natural or synthetic, other than pigmentation, they have a range of applications including organic dye lasers, optical media and camera sensors. This is the basic classification Dyes are classified according to their solubility, acid dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber, acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors fall in this category, basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk. Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber, basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper
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