1.
Quechua languages
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
2.
Ch'arki
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Charki is a form of jerky common in South America made from dried and salted meat, originally llama, nowadays mostly horse meat and beef. Llama is still used in Bolivia. This was a popular way to preserve meat in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay. It was industrialized in charqueadas, also named saladeros, when encountered by the Spanish, the Inca Empire supplied tampu along the Inca road system with llama charki so that travelers would have something to eat. The Inca used a freeze drying process that took advantage of both the dry mountain air and strong sun in their homeland. The Quechua word charki is the origin of the word jerky, jerky Biltong List of dried foods Food portal
3.
Marination
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Marination is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. The origin of the word alludes to the use of brine in the pickling process, the liquid in question, the marinade, can be either acidic or enzymatic. In addition to ingredients, a marinade often contains oils, herbs. It is commonly used to flavor foods and to tenderize tougher cuts of meat, the process may last seconds or days. Different marinades are used in different cuisines, for example, in Indian cuisine the marinade is usually prepared with a mixture of spices. In meats, the causes the tissue to break down. A good marinade has a balance of acid, oil, if raw marinated meat is frozen, the marinade can break down the surface and turn the outer layer mushy. Often confused with marinating, macerating is a form of food preparation. Raw pork, seafood, beef and poultry may contain harmful bacteria which may contaminate the marinade, marinating should be done in the refrigerator to inhibit bacterial growth. Used marinade should not be made into a sauce unless rendered safe by boiling directly before use, otherwise, the container used for marinating should be glass or food safe plastic. Metal, including pottery glazes which can lead, reacts with the acid in the marinade
4.
Spice rub
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Spice rub is any mixture of ground spices that is made for the purpose of being rubbed on raw food before the food is cooked. The spice rub forms a coat on the food, the food can be marinated in the spice rub for some time for the flavors to incorporate into the food or it can be cooked immediately after it is coated in the rub. The spice rub can be left on or partially removed before cooking, the spices are usually coarsely ground. In addition to spices, salt and sugar may be added to the rub, the salt for flavor, the simplest rub is just coarsely ground black pepper as in steak au poivre. Spice rubs can also have such as herbs, crushed garlic or oil added to make a paste. Less common ingredients can include coffee beans, Spice rubs are mainly used for preparing meats and fish. There are many different recipes for rubs and most of them are targeted towards a kind of food. The exact combination of spices that makes a good rub for a kind of food varies from region to region. Cooking with rubs is almost always using the dry heat method of cooking where almost no water based liquid is used in cooking. The most popular cooking method for food prepared using a spice rub is grilling, baking and pan roasting are other dry-heat methods. Sautéing is another method, especially if the spice rub includes flour or bread crumbs, when water is used for cooking, it is usually after the food has already been partially cooked with the dry heat method. Regional variations of barbecue Spice rub video from PBS site Steven Raichlein Article About Dry Rub New York Times
5.
Smoking (cooking)
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Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make such as whisky, smoked beer. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is often used now. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley used to make whisky. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka is commonly used for hot smoking fish, in Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a building termed the smokehouse. This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the danger and because of the smoke emanations. The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the smoking of food dates back to the time of primitive cavemen. As caves or simple huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings could become very smoky, until the modern era, smoking was of a more heavy duty nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the process and smoking times were quite long. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products long distances. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food, in 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers, smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to 30 °C. In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, cold smoking does not cook foods. Meats should be cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as an enhancer for items such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops
6.
Refrigeration
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Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
7.
Curing (food preservation)
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Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams
8.
Water activity
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Water activity or aw is the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided by the standard state partial vapor pressure of water. In the field of science, the standard state is most often defined as the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Using this particular definition, pure distilled water has an activity of exactly one. As temperature increases, aw typically increases, except in some products with crystalline salt or sugar, higher aw substances tend to support more microorganisms. Bacteria usually require at least 0.91, and fungi at least 0.7, water migrates from areas of high aw to areas of low aw. For example, if honey is exposed to air, the honey absorbs water from the air. If salami is exposed to dry air, the salami dries out, definition of aw, a w ≡ p / p ∗ where p is the vapor pressure of water in the solution, and p*₀ is the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Alternate definition, a w ≡ l w x w where lw is the activity coefficient of water, relationship to relative humidity, The relative humidity of air in equilibrium with a sample is called the Equilibrium Relative Humidity. Food designers use water activity to formulate shelf-stable food, if a product is kept below a certain water activity, then mold growth is inhibited. This results in a shelf life. Water activity values can help limit moisture migration within a food product made with different ingredients. Food formulators use water activity to predict how much moisture migration affects their product, water activity is used in many cases as a critical control point for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points programs. Samples of the product are periodically taken from the production area. Measurements can be made in as little as five minutes, and are regularly in most major food production facilities. For many years, researchers tried to equate bacterial growth potential with water content and they found that the values were not universal, but specific to each food product. W. J. Scott first established that bacterial growth correlated with activity, not water content. It is firmly established that growth of bacteria is inhibited at specific water activity values, U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulations for intermediate moisture foods are based on these values. Lowering the water activity of a product should not be seen as a kill step
9.
Biltong
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Biltong is a form of dried, cured meat that originated in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia. Various types of meat are used to produce it, ranging from beef and game meats to fillets of meat cut into strips following the grain of the muscle, the word biltong is from the Dutch bil and tong. Meat preservation as a survival technique dates back to ancient times, indigenous peoples of Southern Africa, such as the Khoikhoi, preserved meat by slicing it into strips, curing it with salt, and hanging it up to dry. European seafarers preserved meat for their journeys by curing meat in salt or brine. European settlers who arrived in southern Africa in the early 17th century used vinegar in the curing process, the potassium nitrate in saltpeter kills Clostridium botulinum, the deadly bacterium that causes botulism while the acidity of the vinegar inhibits its growth. According to the World Health Organisation, C. botulinum will not grow in acidic conditions, the antimicrobial properties of certain spices have also been drawn upon since ancient times. The spices introduced to biltong by the Dutch include pepper, coriander, in the two strains that were not effectively killed, Bacillus cereus and Enterococcus faecalis, the coriander oil reduced their growth significantly. The need for preservation in the new colony was pressing. Iceboxes and refrigerators had not been invented yet, the meat was preserved and hung to be dried for a fortnight during the colder winter, with the cold temperatures aiding to further inhibit bacterial and fungal growth. After suitably dried, the biltong was ready for packing in cloth bags, prior to the introduction of refrigeration, the curing process was used to preserve all kinds of meat in South Africa. However, biltong is most commonly made today from beef, primarily because of its widespread availability, for the finest cuts, fillet, sirloin, or steaks cut from the hip such as topside or silverside are used. Other cuts can be used, but are not as high in quality, game such as kudu, springbok and wildebeest Ostrich meat Traditionally biltong was only made during the cold winter months when the risk of bacterial growth and mould would be at a minimum. Some recipes require the meat to be marinated in a solution for a few hours, then the vinegar is poured off before the meat is flavoured with salt. The spice mix is sprinkled liberally over the meat and rubbed in, saltpetre is optional and can be added as an extra preservative. The meat should then be left for a few hours. Other recipes, that were handed down generation to generation, require the biltong to be left overnight in the vinegar, salt. The spice mix traditionally consists of equal amounts of, rock salt, whole coriander slightly roasted and roughly ground, black pepper, the vinegar serves as a primary inhibitor of Clostridium botulinum bacteria according to WHO. While the salt, coriander, pepper and cloves all have antimicrobial properties, Traditionally biltong was made during the cold winters of the South African Highveld for best results
10.
Bakkwa
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Bakkwa, also known as rougan, is a Chinese salty-sweet dried meat product similar to jerky. It originated from the Fujian province in China where it is considered a Hokkien delicacy, bakkwa is made with a meat preservation and preparation technique originating from China. The general method for production have remained unchanged throughout the centuries. It is traditionally made of pork, which is prepared with spices, sugar, salt and soy sauce, nowadays, products with a softer texture, lighter colour and less sugar are preferred. The bakkwa products with the water content, thus having softer texture. Nevertheless, shafu can have similar life as other types of bakkwa. The meat is most commonly served plain and in square-shaped slices in the form of thin sheets. Bakkwa is immensely popular in Singapore and Malaysia where it is eaten during Chinese New Year. When Chinese immigrants brought this delicacy over to Singapore and Malaysia, a notable example lies in the preparation of bakkwa, where the meat once still being air-dried is instead grilled over charcoal. This imparts a smokier flavour to the meat, the Singaporean and Malaysian versions of bakkwa are also sweeter than its mainland China counterpart with many different variations adapted to suit the local palate such as chilli bakkwa. Rousong Dried shredded squid Jerky Dendeng List of dried foods List of pork dishes
11.
Beef
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Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle. Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times, Beef is a complete source of protein, and provides many of the essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that humans need. Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak, Some cuts are processed, and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in varieties of blood sausage. Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock, Beef from steers and heifers is very similar. According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit, heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses, depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older bulls is usually tougher, so it is used for mince. Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. According to the data from OECD, the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014, cattle are considered sacred in the culture of India and there is prohibition on selling and consumption of beef in much of India. Though India is the largest producer and exporter of meat in the world. In 2015, the worlds largest exporters of beef including the meat, were India, Brazil. Beef production is important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus. The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou, after the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal by the peasants, Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times, some of the earliest known paintings, such as those of Lascaux. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide access to beef, milk. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids, examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent
12.
Pork
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Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail
13.
Goat meat
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Goat meat or goats meat is the meat of the domestic goat. In France, goat meat from adults is often called chevon and cabrito, capretto, cabrito, a word of Spanish and Portuguese origin, refers specifically to young, milk-fed goat. Goat is a staple in Africa, Asia and South/Central America, the cuisines best known for their use of goat include African cuisine, Middle Eastern, North African, Indian, Indonesian, Nepali, Pakistani, Mexican, and Caribbean. Cabrito, or baby goat, is the food of Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico. As of 2011 the number of goats slaughtered in the United States has doubled every 10 years for three decades, rising to one million annually. While in the past goat meat in the West was confined to ethnic markets, it can now be found in a few restaurants and purveyors, especially in cities such as New York. Brady, Texas has held its Annual World Championship BBQ Goat Cook-Off annually since 1973, Goat meat is savory and less sweet than beef but slightly sweeter than lamb. It can be prepared in a variety of ways, such as being stewed, curried, baked, grilled, barbecued, minced, canned, fried, Goat jerky is also another popular variety. In Okinawa, goat meat is served raw in slices as yagisashi. On the Indian subcontinent, the rice dish mutton biryani uses goat meat as an ingredient to produce a rich taste. Curry goat is a common traditional Indo-Caribbean dish, in West Bengal, traditional meat dishes like kosha mangsho and rezala are prepared using meat from a Khashi, a castrated goat with a meat that has richer taste and a milder, less gamey flavour. In Indonesia, goat meat is skewered and grilled as sate kambing, or curried in soups such as sup kambing. There are many dishes, which together include all edible parts of the animal. Bhutun is made from the gut, Rakhti from the blood, Karji-marji from the liver and lungs, sukuti is a kind of jerky, while Sekuwa is made from roasted meat and often eaten with alcoholic beverages. In addition to dishes, goat meat is often eaten as part of momos, thukpa, chow mein. Taas is another popular fried goat meat dish in Nepal, particularly popular in Chitwan district of Nepal, cabrito, a specialty especially common in Latin American cuisines such as Mexican, Peruvian, Brazilian, and Argentine, is usually slow roasted. In Africa, the Chaga people of Tanzania, a goat would be gutted and roasted as whole as part of tradition that spans hundreds of years. The ceremonial goat is the replacement to the Wedding cake used in many weddings around the world
14.
Lamb and mutton
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Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of domestic sheep at different ages. A sheep in its first year is called a lamb, the meat of a juvenile sheep older than one year is hogget, outside North America this is also a term for the living animal. The meat of a sheep is mutton, a term only used for the meat. The term mutton is almost always used to refer to meat in the Indian subcontinent. Lamb is the most expensive of the three types, and in recent decades sheep meat is increasingly only retailed as lamb, sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, in Australia, the term prime lamb is often used to refer to lambs raised for meat. The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries, younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal, baby lamb meat will be pale pink, while regular lamb is pinkish-red. Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear, hogget — A term for a sheep of either sex having no more than two permanent incisors in wear, or its meat. Still common in farming usage, it is now rare as a domestic or retail term for the meat, Much of the lamb sold in the UK is hogget to an Antipodean farmer. Mutton — a female or castrated male sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear, under United States law, lamb is defined in terms of mutton, The term lamb means meat, other than mutton, produced from sheep. Under current federal regulations, only the lamb is used, Lamb — ovine animals of any age, including ewes and rams The terms mutton. Nevertheless, the use of lamb in the United States may be confusing. Under the previous definition, lamb meant meat, other than mutton, the term mutton is applied to goat meat in most of these countries, and the goat population has been rising. For example, mutton-curry is always made from goat meat and it is estimated that over one-third of the goat population is slaughtered every year and sold as mutton. The flavour and texture of milk-fed lamb when grilled or roasted is generally thought to be finer than that of older lamb, the areas in northern Spain where this can be found include Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, and La Rioja. Milk-fed lambs are prized for Easter in Greece, when they are roasted on a spit
15.
Deer
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Deer are the ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the deer and the chital, and the Capreolinae, including the elk, reindeer, the Western roe deer. Female reindeer, and male deer of all species, grow, in this they differ from permanently horned antelope, which are in the same order, Artiodactyla. The musk deer of Asia and water chevrotain of tropical African and Asian forests are not usually regarded as true deer and form their own families, Moschidae and Tragulidae, respectively. Deer appear in art from Palaeolithic cave paintings onwards, and they have played a role in mythology, religion and their economic importance includes the use of their meat as venison, their skins as soft, strong buckskin, and their antlers as handles for knives. Deer hunting has been a sport since at least the Middle Ages. Deer live in a variety of biomes, ranging from tundra to the tropical rainforest, while often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets and prairie and savanna. The majority of deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, additionally, access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. However, adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow, however, fallow deer have been introduced to South Africa. There are also species of deer that are highly specialized, and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps. Some deer have a distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the caribou that live in Arctic tundra and taiga and moose that inhabit taiga, huemul deer of South Americas Andes fill the ecological niches of the ibex and wild goat, with the fawns behaving more like goat kids. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at altitudes in the subalpine meadows. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region, elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, the adjacent Great Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, American bison, and pronghorn antelope
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Kudu
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Kudu, or koodoo, is the Khoikhoi name for this antelope. Tragos denotes a he-goat and elaphos a deer, strepho means twist, and strephis is twisting. Keras refers to the horn of the animal, lesser kudus come from the savanna near Acacia and Commiphora shrubs. They have to rely on thickets for protection, so they are seen in the open. Their brown and striped pelts help to them in scrub environments. Like many other antelope, male kudus can be found in bachelor groups and their dominance displays tend not to last long and are generally fairly peaceful, consisting of one male making himself look big by making his hair stand on end. When males do have a face-off, they lock their horns in a competition to determine the stronger puller. Sometimes two competing males are unable to unlock their horns and, if unable to disengage, will die of starvation or dehydration, males are seen with females only in the mating season, when they join in groups of 5–15 kudus, including offspring. Calves grow very quickly and at six months are fairly independent of their mothers, a pregnant female will leave the herd to give birth to a single offspring. She will leave the newborn lying hidden for 4–5 weeks while coming back only to nurse it, then the calf will start meeting its mother for short periods. At 3 or 4 months, the calf will be with its mother constantly, when threatened, the kudu will often run away rather than fight. Wounded bulls have been known to charge the attacker, hitting the attacker with their sturdy horn base rather than stabbing it, wounded females can keep running for many miles without stopping to rest for more than a minute. They are great kickers and are capable of breaking a wild dogs or jackals neck or back and they are good jumpers and can clear a 5-foot fence from a standing start. Kudus are browsers and eat leaves and shoots, in dry seasons they eat wild watermelons and other fruit for their liquid content and the natural sugars that they provide. The lesser kudu is less dependent on water sources than the greater kudu, many predators, such as lions and leopards, African wild dogs, hyenas, and pythons, hunt kudu and their young. Kudu numbers are affected by humans hunting them for their meat, hides and horns. Kudus were highly susceptible to the rinderpest virus, and many scientists think recurring epidemics of the disease reduced kudu populations in East Africa, kudus are highly susceptible to rabies in times of extended drought. They have been known to enter houses and other buildings when infected
17.
Springbok
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The springbok /ˈsprɪŋˌbɒk/ is a medium-sized antelope found mainly in southern and southwestern Africa. The sole member of the genus Antidorcas, this bovid was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1780, a slender, long-legged antelope, the springbok reaches 71 to 86 cm at the shoulder and weighs between 27 and 42 kg. Both sexes have a pair of black, 35-to-50-centimetre long horns that curve backward, active mainly at dawn and dusk, springbok form harems. In earlier times, springbok of the Kalahari desert and Karoo would migrate in large numbers across the countryside, primarily a browser, the springbok feeds on shrubs and succulents, this antelope can live without drinking water for years, meeting its requirements through eating succulent vegetation. Breeding takes place year-round, and peaks in the rainy season, a single calf is born after a five- to six-month-long pregnancy, weaning occurs at nearly six months of age, and the calf leaves its mother a few months later. Springbok inhabit the dry areas of south and southwestern Africa, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources classifies the springbok as a Least Concern species. There are no threats to the long-term survival of the species. They are popular animals, and are valued for their meat. The springbok is the animal of South Africa. The common name comes from the Afrikaans words spring and bok. The scientific name of the springbok is Antidorcas marsupialis, anti is Greek for opposite, the specific epithet marsupialis comes from the Latin marsupium, it refers to a pocket-like skin flap which extends along the midline of the back from the tail. In fact, it is this feature that distinguishes the springbok from true gazelles. The springbok is the member of the genus Antidorcas and is placed in the family Bovidae. It was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1780, Zimmermann assigned the genus Antilope to the springbok. In 1845, Swedish zoologist Carl Jakob Sundevall placed the springbok in Antidorcas, in 2013, Eva Verena Bärmann and colleagues undertook a revision of the phylogeny of the tribe Antilopini on the basis of nuclear and mitochondrial data. They showed that the springbok and the form a clade with saiga as sister taxon. The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study, fossil springbok are known from the Pliocene, the antelope appears to have evolved about three million years ago from a gazelle-like ancestor. Three fossil species of Antidorcas have been identified, in addition to the extant form, two of these, A. bondi and A. australis, became extinct around 7,000 years ago
18.
Kangaroo
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The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae. The Australian government estimates that 34.3 million kangaroos lived within the commercial harvest areas of Australia in 2011, as with the terms wallaroo and wallaby, kangaroo refers to a polyphyletic grouping of species. All three refer to members of the taxonomic family, Macropodidae, and are distinguished according to size. The largest species in the family are called kangaroos and the smallest are generally called wallabies, the term wallaroos refers to species of an intermediate size. There is also the tree-kangaroo, another genus of macropod, which inhabits the rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Queensland. Kangaroos have large, powerful legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular tail for balance. Like most marsupials, female kangaroos have a pouch called a marsupium in which joeys complete postnatal development, the large kangaroos have adapted much better than the smaller macropods to land clearing for pastoral agriculture and habitat changes brought to the Australian landscape by humans. Many of the species are rare and endangered, while kangaroos are relatively plentiful. The kangaroo is important to both Australian culture and the image, and consequently there are numerous popular culture references. Wild kangaroos are shot for meat, leather hides, and to grazing land. Although controversial, kangaroo meat has perceived health benefits for human consumption compared with traditional meats due to the low level of fat on kangaroos, the word kangaroo derives from the Guugu Yimithirr word gangurru, referring to grey kangaroos. Cook first referred to kangaroos in his entry of 4 August. Guugu Yimithirr is the language of the people of the area, a common myth about the kangaroos English name is that kangaroo was a Guugu Yimithirr phrase for I dont understand you. According to this legend, Cook and Banks were exploring the area when they happened upon the animal and they asked a nearby local what the creatures were called. The local responded Kangaroo, meaning I dont understand you, which Cook took to be the name of the creature and this myth was debunked in the 1970s by linguist John B. Haviland in his research with the Guugu Yimithirr people, Kangaroos are often colloquially referred to as roos. Male kangaroos are called bucks, boomers, jacks, or old men, females are does, flyers, or jills, the collective noun for kangaroos is a mob, troop, or court. There are four species that are referred to as kangaroos
19.
Bison
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Bison are large, even-toed ungulates in the genus Bison within the subfamily Bovinae. Two extant and four species are recognized. Of the four species, three were North American endemics, Bison antiquus, B. latifrons, and B. occidentalis. The fourth, B. priscus, ranged across steppe environments from Western Europe, through Central Asia, East Asia including Japan, of the two surviving species, the American bison, B. bison, found only in North America, is the more numerous. Although sometimes referred to historically as a buffalo, it is distantly related to the true buffalo. The North American species is composed of two subspecies, the Plains bison, B. b. bison, and the Wood bison, B. b. athabascae, which is the namesake of Wood Buffalo National Park in Canada. A third subspecies, the Eastern Woodland Bison is no longer considered a valid taxon, references to Woods Bison or Wood Bison from the eastern United States confusingly refer to this subspecies, not B. b. athabascae, which was not found in the region. The European bison B. bonasus, or wisent, is found in Europe, while all bison species are classified in their own genus, they are sometimes bred with domestic cattle and produce fertile offspring called beefalo or zubron. The American bison and the European bison are the largest surviving terrestrial animals in North America, Bison are good swimmers and can cross rivers over half a mile wide. They are nomadic grazers and travel in herds, the bulls leave the herds of females at two or three years of age, and join a male herd, which are generally smaller than female herds. Towards the end of the summer, for the reproductive season, American bison are known for living in the Great Plains, but formerly had a much larger range including much of the eastern United States and parts of Mexico. The American Plains bison is no longer listed as endangered, genetically pure B. b. bison currently number only ~20,000, separated into fragmented herds - all of which require active conservation measures. Although superficially similar, physical and behavioural differences exist between the American and European bison, the American species has 15 ribs, while the European bison has 14. The American bison has four lumbar vertebrae, while the European has five, adult American bison are less slim in build and have shorter legs. American bison tend to more, and browse less than their European relatives. Their anatomies reflect this difference, the American bisons head hangs lower than the Europeans. The body of the American bison is hairier, though its tail has less hair than that of the European bison. American bison are more easily tamed than their European cousins, the bovine tribe split about 5 to 10 million years ago into the buffalos and a group leading to bison and taurine cattle
20.
Domestic turkey
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The domesticated turkey is a large poultry bird, one of the two species in the genus Meleagris and the same as the wild turkey. Female domesticated turkeys are referred to as hens, and the chicks may be called poults or turkeylings, in the United States, the males are referred to as toms, while in Europe, males are stags. The fleshy protuberance atop the beak is the snood, and the one attached to the underside of the beak is known as a wattle. The English language name for this results from an early misidentification of the bird with an unrelated species which was imported to Europe through the country of Turkey. The Aztecs associated the turkey with their trickster god Tezcatlipoca, perhaps because of its perceived humorous behavior, domestic turkeys were taken to Europe by the Spanish. Many distinct breeds were developed in Europe, in the early 20th century, many advances were made in the breeding of turkeys, resulting in breeds such as the Beltsville Small White. The 16th-century English navigator William Strickland is generally credited with introducing the turkey into England and his family coat of arms — showing a turkey cock as the family crest — is among the earliest known European depictions of a turkey. English farmer Thomas Tusser notes the turkey being among farmers fare at Christmas in 1573, the domestic turkey was sent from England to Jamestown, Virginia in 1608. A document written in 1584 lists supplies to be furnished to future colonies in the New World, turkies, prior to the late 19th century, turkey was something of a luxury in the UK, with goose or beef a more common Christmas dinner among the working classes. In Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol, Bob Cratchit had a goose before Scrooge bought him a turkey, Turkey production in the UK was centered in East Anglia, using two breeds, the Norfolk Black and the Norfolk Bronze. These would be driven as flocks, after shoeing, down to markets in London from the 17th century onwards - the breeds having arrived in the early 16th century via Spain. Intensive farming of turkeys from the late 1940s dramatically cut the price, with the availability of refrigeration, whole turkeys could be shipped frozen to distant markets. Later advances in disease control increased even more. Advances in shipping, changing consumer preferences and the proliferation of commercial poultry plants has made fresh turkey inexpensive as well as readily available, recent genome analysis has provided researchers with the opportunity to determine the evolutionary history of domesticated turkeys, and their relationship to other domestic fowl. Young domestic turkeys readily fly short distances, perch and roost and these behaviours become less frequent as the birds mature, but adults will readily climb on objects such as bales of straw. Young birds perform spontaneous, frivolous running which has all the appearance of play, commercial turkeys show a wide diversity of behaviours including comfort behaviours such as wing-flapping, feather ruffling, leg stretching and dust-bathing. Turkeys are highly social and become distressed when isolated. Many of their behaviours are socially facilitated i. e. expression of a behaviour by one animal increases the tendency for this behaviour to be performed by others
21.
Common ostrich
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The ostrich or common ostrich is either one or two species of large flightless birds native to Africa, the only living member of the genus Struthio, which is in the ratite family. In 2014, the Somali ostrich was recognized as a distinct species, the common ostrich shares the order Struthioniformes with the kiwis, emus, rheas, and cassowaries. However, phylogenetic studies have shown that it is the group to all other members of Palaeognathae. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a neck and legs, and can run at up to about 70 km/h. The common ostrich is the largest living species of bird and lays the largest eggs of any living bird, the common ostrichs diet consists mainly of plant matter, though it also eats invertebrates. It lives in groups of 5 to 50 birds. When threatened, the ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground, if cornered, it can attack with a kick of its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females. The common ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers and its skin is used for leather products and its meat is marketed commercially, with its leanness a common marketing point. Common ostriches usually weigh from 63 to 145 kilograms, or as much as two adult humans, ostriches of the East African race averaged 115 kg in males and 100 kg in females, while the nominate subspecies was found to average 111 kg in unsexed adults. Exceptional male ostriches can weigh up to 156.8 kg, at sexual maturity, male common ostriches can be from 2.1 to 2.8 m in height, while female common ostriches range from 1.7 to 2.0 m tall. New chicks are fawn in colour, with brown spots. During the first year of life, chicks grow at about 25 cm per month, at one year of age, common ostriches weigh approximately 45 kilograms. Their lifespan is up to 40–45 years, the feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff, females and young males are greyish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches is nearly bare, with a layer of down. The skin of the neck and thighs is pinkish gray. The eyes are shaded from sunlight from above, However, the head and bill are relatively small for the birds huge size, with the bill measuring 12 to 14.3 cm
22.
Salmon
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Salmon /ˈsæmən/ is the common name for several species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. Other fish in the family include trout, char, grayling. Salmon are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, many species of salmon have been introduced into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia in South America. Salmon are intensively farmed in parts of the world. Typically, salmon are anadromous, they are born in water, migrate to the ocean. However, populations of species are restricted to fresh water through their lives. Various species of salmon display anadromous life strategies while others display freshwater resident life strategies, folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they were born to spawn, tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems. The percent of straying depends on the species of salmon, homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory. The term salmon comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn may have originated from salire, the nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, the genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon, Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have established in Patagonia. † Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout, within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i. e. the Adriatic salmon and Black Sea salmon. The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, also a number of other species have common names which refer to them as being salmon. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago, Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred by 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record rejects the theory of salmon divergence. Atlantic salmon reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, landlocked salmon live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee
23.
Alligator
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An alligator is a crocodilian in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. The two living species are the American alligator and the Chinese alligator, in addition, several extinct species of alligator are known from fossil remains. Alligators first appeared during the Paleocene epoch about 37 million years ago, the name alligator is probably an anglicized form of el lagarto, the Spanish term for the lizard, which early Spanish explorers and settlers in Florida called the alligator. Later English spellings of the name included allagarta and alagarto, an average adult American alligators weight and length is 360 kg and 4.0 m, but they sometimes grow to 4.4 m long and weigh over 450 kg. The largest ever recorded, found in Louisiana, measured 5.84 m, the Chinese alligator is smaller, rarely exceeding 2.1 m in length. In addition, it considerably less, with males rarely over 45 kg. Adult alligators are black or dark olive-brown with white undersides, while juveniles have strongly contrasting white or yellow marks which fade with age, no average lifespan for an alligator has been measured. In 1937, a specimen was brought to the Belgrade Zoo in Serbia from Germany. It is now at least 80 years old, although no valid records exist about its date of birth, this alligator, officially named Muja, is considered the oldest alligator living in captivity. Alligators are native only to the United States and China, according to the 2005 Scholastic Book of World Records, Louisiana has the largest alligator population. The majority of American alligators inhabit Florida and Louisiana, with over a million alligators in each state, southern Florida is the only place where both alligators and crocodiles live side by side. American alligators live in environments, such as ponds, marshes, wetlands, rivers, lakes. When they construct alligator holes in the wetlands, they increase plant diversity and they are, therefore, considered an important species for maintaining ecological diversity in wetlands. Further west, in Louisiana, heavy grazing by coypu and muskrat are causing damage to coastal wetlands. Large alligators feed extensively on coypu, and provide a vital ecological service by reducing coypu numbers. The Chinese alligator currently is only in the Yangtze River valley and parts of adjacent provinces and is extremely endangered. Indeed, far more Chinese alligators live in zoos around the world than can be found in the wild, rockefeller Wildlife Refuge in southern Louisiana has several in captivity in an attempt to preserve the species. Miami MetroZoo in Florida also has a pair of Chinese alligators
24.
Crocodile
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Crocodiles or true crocodiles are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. Crocodylinae, all of whose members are considered true crocodiles, is classified as a biological subfamily, a broader sense of the term crocodile, Crocodylidae that includes Tomistoma, is not used in this article. The term crocodile here applies only to the species within the subfamily of Crocodylinae, although they appear to be similar to the untrained eye, crocodiles, alligators and the gharial belong to separate biological families. The gharial having a narrow snout is easier to distinguish, while morphological differences are more difficult to spot in crocodiles and alligators. The most obvious differences are visible in the head with crocodiles having narrower and longer heads, with a more V-shaped than a U-shaped snout compared to alligators. Also, when the mouth is closed, the large fourth tooth in the lower jaw fits into a constriction in the upper jaw. For hard-to-distinguish specimens, the tooth is the most reliable feature to define the family that the species belongs to. Crocodiles have more webbing on the toes of the feet and can better tolerate saltwater due to specialized salt glands for filtering out salt. Another trait that separates crocodiles from other crocodilians is their higher levels of aggression. Crocodile size, morphology, behaviour and ecology somewhat differs between species, however, they have many similarities in these areas as well. All crocodiles are semiaquatic and tend to congregate in freshwater such as rivers, lakes, wetlands. They are carnivorous animals, feeding mostly on such as fish, reptiles, birds and mammals. All crocodiles are tropical species that, unlike alligators, are sensitive to cold. They separated from other crocodilians during the Eocene epoch, about 55 million years ago, many species are at the risk of extinction, some being classified as critically endangered. The word crocodile comes from the Ancient Greek κροκόδιλος, lizard, used in the phrase ho krokódilos tou potamoú, there are several variant Greek forms of the word attested, including the later form κροκόδειλος found cited in many English reference works. In the Koine Greek of Roman times, crocodilos and crocodeilos would have been pronounced identically, crocodilos or crocodeilos is a compound of krokè, and drilos/dreilos, although drilos is only attested as a colloquial term for penis. It is ascribed to Herodotus, and supposedly describes the habits of the Egyptian crocodile. The form crocodrillus is attested in Medieval Latin and it is not clear whether this is a medieval corruption or derives from alternative Greco-Latin forms
25.
Tuna
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A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
26.
Emu
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The emu is the second-largest living bird by height, after its ratite relative, the ostrich. It is endemic to Australia where it is the largest native bird, the emus range covers most of mainland Australia, but the Tasmanian emu and King Island emu subspecies became extinct after the European settlement of Australia in 1788. The bird is common for it to be rated as a least-concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Emus are soft-feathered, brown, flightless birds with long necks and legs, Emus can travel great distances, and when necessary can sprint at 50 km/h, they forage for a variety of plants and insects, but have been known to go for weeks without eating. They drink infrequently, but take in copious amounts of water when the opportunity arises, breeding takes place in May and June, and fighting among females for a mate is common. Females can mate several times and lay clutches of eggs in one season. The male does the incubation, during this process he hardly eats or drinks, the eggs hatch after around eight weeks, and the young are nurtured by their fathers. They reach full size after around six months, but can remain as a unit until the next breeding season. The emu is an important cultural icon of Australia, appearing on the coat of arms, the bird features prominently in Indigenous Australian mythology. The birds were known on the eastern coast before 1788, when the first Europeans settled there, total length seven feet two inches. The long spines which are seen in the wings of the sort, are in this not observable. The legs are stout, formed much as in the Galeated Cassowary, the species was named by ornithologist John Latham in 1790 based on a specimen from the Sydney area of Australia, a country which was known as New Holland at the time. In his original 1816 description of the emu, the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot used two names, first Dromiceius and later Dromaius. Most modern publications, including those of the Australian government, use Dromaius, another theory is that it comes from the word ema, which is used in Portuguese to denote a large bird akin to an ostrich or crane. In Victoria, some terms for the emu were Barrimal in the Dja Dja Wurrung language, myoure in Gunai, the birds were known as murawung or birabayin to the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin. The emu was long classified, with its closest relatives the cassowaries, in the family Casuariidae, however, an alternate classification was proposed in 2014 by Mitchell et al. based on analysis of mitochondrial DNA. This splits off the Casuariidae into their own order, the Casuariformes, the cladogram shown below is from their study. Two different Dromaius species were present in Australia at the time of European settlement, the insular dwarf emus, D. baudinianus and D. n. minor, originally present on Kangaroo Island and King Island respectively, both became extinct shortly after the arrival of Europeans
27.
Horse
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The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses anatomy enables them to use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait, female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four and they reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors, depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, the oldest verifiable record was Old Billy, a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had listed in Guinness World Records as the worlds oldest living pony. The exception is in endurance riding, where the age to compete is based on the animals actual calendar age. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages, Colt, a common terminology error is to call any young horse a colt, when the term actually only refers to young male horses. Filly, A female horse under the age of four, foal, A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling, most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects. Gelding, A castrated male horse of any age, mare, A female horse four years old and older
28.
Camel
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A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus, bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as humps on its back. Bactrian camels take their name from the historical Bactria region of Central Asia, the term camel is derived via Latin and Greek from Hebrew or Phoenician gāmāl. Most of the camels are dromedaries while Bactrian camels and wild Bactrian camels make up only 6% of the total camel population. Camel may also be used broadly to describe any of the seven camel-like mammals in the family Camelidae. The average life expectancy of a camel is 40 to 50 years, a full-grown adult camel stands 1.85 m at the shoulder and 2.15 m at the hump. Camels can run at up to 65 km/h in short bursts, Bactrian camels weigh 300 to 1,000 kg and dromedaries 300 to 600 kg. For instance, the speed for the one humped camel is about 40 km/hour while the two humped camel has around 27.2 km/hour. The male dromedary camel has in its throat an organ called a dulla and it resembles a long, swollen, pink tongue hanging out of the side of its mouth. Camels mate by having both male and female sitting on the ground, with the male mounting from behind, the male usually ejaculates three or four times within a single mating session. Camelids are the ungulates to mate in a sitting position. Camels do not directly store water in their humps as was commonly believed. In hot and dry environments, within 8 to 10 days only the dromedary camels might consume water which during this period the third of their bodys weight may be reduced due to the dehydration. When this tissue is metabolized, it more than one gram of water for every gram of fat processed. This fat metabolization, while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration, overall, Camels have a series of physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand long periods of time without any external source of water. Unlike other mammals, their red cells are oval rather than circular in shape. Camels are able to withstand changes in temperature and water consumption that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from 34 °C at dawn and steadily increases to 40 °C by sunset, in general, to compare between camels and the other livestock, camels lose only 1. Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach 49 °C, any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat, the heat of vaporization therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat
29.
Earthworm
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An earthworm is a tube-shaped, segmented worm found in the phylum Annelida. Earthworms are commonly found living in soil, feeding on live, an earthworms digestive system runs through the length of its body. It conducts respiration through its skin and it has a double transport system composed of coelomic fluid that moves within the fluid-filled coelom and a simple, closed blood circulatory system. It has a central and a nervous system. The central nervous system consists of two ganglia above the mouth, one on side, connected to a nerve cord running back along its length to motor neurons. Large numbers of chemoreceptors are concentrated near its mouth, circumferential and longitudinal muscles on the periphery of each segment enable the worm to move. Similar sets of line the gut, and their actions move the digesting food toward the worms anus. Earthworms are hermaphrodites–each individual carries both male and female sex organs and they lack either an internal skeleton or exoskeleton, but maintain their structure with fluid-filled coelom chambers that function as a hydrostatic skeleton. Earthworm is the name for the largest members of Oligochaeta. In classical systems, they were placed in the order Opisthopora, on the basis of the male pores opening posterior to the female pores, theoretical cladistic studies have placed them, instead, in the suborder Lumbricina of the order Haplotaxida, but this may again soon change. Folk names for the earthworm include dew-worm, rainworm, night crawler, larger terrestrial earthworms are also called megadriles, as opposed to the microdriles in the semiaquatic families Tubificidae, Lumbricidae, and Enchytraeidae, among others. The megadriles are characterized by having a clitellum and a vascular system with true capillaries. Earthworms are far less abundant in disturbed environments and are active only if water is present. Depending on the species, an adult earthworm can be from 10 mm long and 1 mm wide to 3 m long and over 25 mm wide, but the typical Lumbricus terrestris grows to about 360 mm long. From front to back, the shape of the earthworm is a cylindrical tube. Special ventral setae are used to anchor mating earthworms by their penetration into the bodies of their mates, generally, within a species, the number of segments found is consistent across specimens, and individuals are born with the number of segments they will have throughout their lives. Some species of earthworm can even use the prehensile prostomium to grab, an adult earthworm develops a belt-like glandular swelling, called the clitellum, which covers several segments toward the front part of the animal. This is part of the system and produces egg capsules
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Fat
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Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
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Food preservation
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Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage
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Preservative
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In general, preservation is implemented in two modes, chemical and physical. Chemical preservation entails adding chemical compounds to the product, physical preservation entails processes such as refrigeration or drying. Preservative food additives reduce the risk of infections, decrease microbial spoilage. Some physical techniques for preservation include dehydration, UV-C radiation, freeze-drying. Chemical preservation and physical preservation techniques are sometimes combined, antimicrobial preservatives prevent degradation by bacteria. This method is the most traditional and ancient type of preserving—ancient methods such as pickling and adding honey prevent microorganism growth by modifying the pH level, the most commonly used antimicrobial preservative is lactic acid. Common antimicrobial preservatives are presented in the table, nitrates and nitrites are also antimicrobial. The detailed mechanism of chemical compounds range from inhibiting growth of the bacteria to the inhibition of specific enzymes. The oxidation process spoils most food, especially those with a fat content. Fats quickly turn rancid when exposed to oxygen, antioxidants prevent or inhibit the oxidation process. The most common antioxidant additives are ascorbic acid and ascorbates, thus, antioxidants are commonly added to oils, cheese, and chips. Other antioxidants include the phenol derivatives BHA, BHT, TBHQ and these agents suppress the formation of hydroperoxides. Other preservatives include ethanol and methylchloroisothiazolinone, a variety of agents are added to sequester metal ions that otherwise catalyze the oxidation of fats. Common sequestering agents are disodium EDTA, citric acid, tartaric acid, citric and ascorbic acids target enzymes that degrade fruits and vegetables, e. g. phenolase which turns surfaces of cut apples and potatoes brown. Ascorbic acid and tocopherol, which are vitamins, are common preservatives, smoking entails exposing food to a variety of phenols, which are antioxidants. Natural preservatives include rosemary extract, hops, salt, sugar, vinegar, alcohol, diatomaceous earth, traditional preservatives, such as sodium benzoate have raised health concerns in the past. Benzoate was shown in a study to cause hypersensitivity in some asthma sufferers and this has caused reexamination of natural preservatives which occur in vegetables. Preservatives have been used since prehistoric times, smoked meat for example has phenols and other chemicals that retard spoilage
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Bacteria
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Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea
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Sodium nitrite
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Sodium nitrite is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaNO2. It is a white to yellowish crystalline powder that is very soluble in water and is hygroscopic. It is a precursor to a variety of organic compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, dyes, and pesticides. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the main use of sodium nitrite is for the industrial production of organonitrogen compounds. It is a reagent for conversion of amines into diazo compounds, nitroso compounds are produced from nitrites. These are used in the rubber industry, other applications include uses in photography. It may also be used as an electrolyte in electrochemical grinding manufacturing processes and it is used in a variety of metallurgical applications, for phosphatizing and detinning. Sodium nitrite is used together with sodium thiosulfate to treat cyanide poisoning and it is in the section antidotes and other substances used in poisonings of the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. In the early 1900s, irregular curing was commonplace, through this research, sodium nitrite has been found to inhibit growth of disease-causing microorganisms, give taste and color to the meat, and inhibit lipid oxidation that leads to rancidity. The ability of sodium nitrite to address the issues has led to production of meat with improved food safety, extended storage life. It has the E number E250, potassium nitrite is used in the same way. It is approved for usage in the EU, USA and Australia, Sodium nitrite is well known for its role in inhibiting the growth of Clostridium botulinum spores in refrigerated meats. The mechanism for this activity results from the inhibition of iron-sulfur clusters essential to energy metabolism of Clostridium botulinum, however, sodium nitrite has had varying degrees of effectiveness for controlling growth of other spoilage or disease causing microorganisms. Furthermore, the type of bacteria also affects sodium nitrites effectiveness and it is generally agreed upon that sodium nitrite is not considered effective for controlling gram-negative enteric pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. The appearance and taste of meat is an important component of consumer acceptance, Sodium nitrite is responsible for the desirable red color of meat. Very little nitrite is needed to induce this change and it has been reported that as little as 2 to 14 parts per million is needed to induce this desirable color change. However, to extend the lifespan of this change, significantly higher levels are needed. The unique taste associated with cured meat is also affected by the addition of sodium nitrite, however, the mechanism underlying this change in taste is still not fully understood
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Salting (food)
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Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. It is related to pickling in general and more specifically to brining and is one form of curing and it is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and two historically significant salt-cured foods are salted fish and salt-cured meat. Vegetables such as beans and cabbage are also often preserved in this manner. Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a highly salty environment. Any living cell in such an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and it was discovered in the 19th century that salt mixed with nitrites would color meats red, rather than grey, and consumers at that time then strongly preferred the red-colored meat. The food hence preserved stays healthy and fresh for days avoiding bacterial decay, jewish and Muslim dietary laws require the removal of blood from freshly slaughtered meat. Salt and brine are used for the purpose in both traditions, but salting is more common in Kosher Shechita than in Halal Dhabiha, curing Food preservation Food storage List of dried foods Food portal
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Oxygen scavenger
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Oxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers are added to enclosed packaging to help remove or decrease the level of oxygen in the package. They are used to maintain product safety and extend shelf life. There are many types of oxygen available to cover a wide array of applications. The components of an oxygen absorber vary according to intended use, the activity of the product being preserved. Often the oxygen absorber or scavenger is enclosed in a porous sachet or packet but it can also be part of packaging films, others are part of a polymer structure. The first patent for an oxygen scavenger used a solution of pyrogallic acid in an air-tight vessel. Modern scavenger sachets use a mixture of powder and sodium chloride. Often activated carbon is included as it adsorbs some other gases and many organic molecules, further preserving products. When an oxygen absorber is removed from its packaging, the moisture in the surrounding atmosphere begins to permeate into the iron particles inside of the absorber sachet. Moisture activates the iron, and it oxidizes to form iron oxide, typically, there must be at least 65% relative humidity in the surrounding atmosphere before the rusting process can begin. To assist in the process of oxidation, sodium chloride is added to the mixture, acting as a catalyst or activator, as oxygen is consumed to form iron oxide the level of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere is reduced. Absorber technology of this type may reduce the level in the surrounding atmosphere to below 0. 01%. Complete oxidation of 1 g of iron can remove 300 cm3 of oxygen in standard conditions, though other technologies can remove more, iron is the most useful as it does not cause odor like sulfur compounds or passivate like aluminium compounds. Many other alternatives are not food safe, the moisture requirement of iron-based scavengers makes them ineffective in moisture sensitive applications. The performance of oxygen scavengers is affected by ambient temperature and relative humidity, newer packaging technologies may use oxygen scavenging polymers to prevent accidental ingestion of oxygen scavengers. Ascorbic acid is used to scavenge oxygen for generation of anaerobic environments for microbiology. 01%. Plastic sachets offer greater protection than paper as they are not prone to disintegrating in products with high fat contents, active packaging Scavenger Oxygen transmission rate
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Hong Kong cuisine
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From the roadside stalls to the most upscale restaurants, Hong Kong provides an unlimited variety of food in every class. Complex combinations and international gourmet expertise have given Hong Kong the reputable labels of Gourmet Paradise, Modern Hong Kong has a predominantly service-based economy, and restaurant businesses serve as a main economic contributor. With the third-densest population per square meters in the world and serving a population of 7 million, due to its small geographical size, Hong Kong contains a high number of restaurants per unit area. With Chinese ethnicity making up 94% of the resident population, Chinese cuisine is served at home. Rice is predominantly the main staple for home meals, home ingredients are picked up from local grocery stores and independent produce shops, although supermarkets have become progressively more popular. Take-out and dining out is very common, since people are often too busy to cook with an average 47-hour work week. The cuisine of Hong Kong traces its origins to its founding as a British colonial outpost in 1841, soon after the colony was founded, many British and other Western merchants along with Chinese from nearby Guangzhou flocked there to conduct business. Initially, much of Hong Kong society was segregated into expatriate Westerners, a majority of working class Chinese coolies, Chinese farmers and fishermen, the simple peasant cuisine was rudimentary compared to the cuisine of 19th century Canton. As the colony developed, there arose a need for meals to entertain businessmen, for the majority of Chinese who were not part of the merchant class, dining out in restaurants was non-existent and consisted of simple Cantonese country fares. Meat only appeared in festive occasions and celebrations such as birthdays were often done by catering services who prepared the meals at the celebrants home, the restaurant scene for Europeans in Hong Kong was segregated from Chinese dining. Elaborate colonial dining existed at the likes of Hongkong Hotel and subsequently Gloucester Hotel, Hong Kongs dining lagged behind the then-leader of Chinese cuisine, Canton, for a long time and many Hong Kong chefs spent their formative years in Canton. Canton was renowned for its food, and there was a saying of The food is in Canton. Cantonese cuisine in Canton reached its peak during the 1920s and was renowned in the care in preparation even for peasant fares such as char siu or boat congee. Dasanyuan was renowned for its braised shark fin dish that charged 60 silver yuan, the Guandong cooking style eventually trickled down to the culinary scene in Hong Kong. The victory of Chinese Communists in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 created a wave of refugees into Hong Kong, a sizeable number of refugees were from non-Cantonese speaking parts of China, including the Yangtze River Delta, and introduced Shanghai cuisine to Hong Kong. On the other hand, most renowned chefs of Canton, now known as Guangzhou in pinyin romanisation, egg tarts and Hong Kong-style milk tea soon became part of Hong Kongs food culture. It could be argued that the seeds of Hong Kong society as understood today were not sown until 1949, the Cantonese cuisine in Hong Kong had by then surpassed that of Guangzhou, which had witnessed a long period of decline after the Communists came to power. The rising prosperity from the mid-1960s had given birth to increasing demand for quality dining, many of the chefs, who spent their formative years in pre-Communist Guangzhou and Shanghai, started to bring out the best of fine dining specialties from pre-1949 Guangzhou and Shanghai
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Macau
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Macau, also spelled Macao, officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the western side of the Pearl River Delta in East Asia. Macau is bordered by the city of Zhuhai in Mainland China to the north, Hong Kong lies about 64 kilometres to its east across the Delta. With a population of 650,900 living in an area of 30.5 km2, Macau was administered by the Portuguese Empire and its inheritor states from the mid-16th century until late 1999, when it constituted the last remaining European colony in Asia. Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in the 1550s, in 1557, Macau was leased to Portugal from Ming China as a trading port. The Portuguese Empire administered the city under Chinese authority and sovereignty until 1887, sovereignty over Macau was transferred back to China on 20 December 1999. The Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau and Macau Basic Law stipulate that Macau operate with a degree of autonomy until at least 2049. Macau participates in international organizations and events that do not require members to national sovereignty. Macau is a city in Southern China, known for its casinos. Its gaming revenue has been the worlds largest since 2006, with the heavily dependent on gaming. According to The World Factbook, Macau has the fourth highest life expectancy in the world, the present Chinese name means Inlet Gates. Macau is otherwise known in Chinese as Haojing or Jinghai, the name Macau is thought to be derived from the A-Ma Temple, a temple built in 1448 dedicated to Mazu, the goddess of seafarers and fishermen. It is said that when the Portuguese sailors landed at the coast just outside the temple and asked the name of the place, the Portuguese then named the peninsula Macau. The history of Macau is traced back to the Qin dynasty, the first recorded Chinese inhabitants of the area were people seeking refuge in Macau from invading Mongols during the Southern Song. Under the Ming dynasty, fishermen migrated to Macau from Guangdong, the Macau native people were Tanka boat people. Macau did not develop as a settlement until the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century. In 1513, Jorge Álvares became the first Portuguese to land in China, in 1535, Portuguese traders obtained the rights to anchor ships in Macaus harbours and to carry out trading activities, though not the right to stay onshore. In 1557, the Portuguese established a permanent settlement in Macau, the Portuguese continued to pay an annual tribute up to 1863 in order to stay in Macau. By 1564, Portugal commanded western trade with India, Japan, but their pride was damaged by the indifference with which the Chinese treated them
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United States Department of Agriculture
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Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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Rousong
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Rousong, also known as meat wool, meat floss, pork floss, flossy pork, pork sung or yuk sung, is a dried meat product with a light and fluffy texture similar to coarse cotton, originating from China. Rousong is used as a topping for many foods, such as congee, tofu and it is also used as filling for various buns and pastries, and as a snack food on its own. Rousong is a popular food item in Chinese cuisine. Rousong is made by stewing cuts of pork in a soy sauce mixture until individual muscle fibres can be easily torn apart with a fork. This happens when the water insoluble collagen that holds the muscle fibres of the meat together has been converted into water-soluble gelatine, the teased-apart meat is then strained and dried in the oven. After a light drying, the meat is mashed and beaten while being dry-cooked in a large wok until it is completely dry. Additional flavourings are added while the mixture is being dry fried. Five kilograms of meat will usually yield about one kilogram of floss, fish can also be made into floss, though initial stewing is not required due to the low collagen and elastin content of fish meat. In Muslim majority Indonesia, beef floss is the most popular variant, malaysian Muslims make and consume meat floss made from chicken or beef called serunding, which is a popular delicacy during Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr. In Muslim majority Hausa cuisine, dambu nama is a dry shredded beef snack and it is fried and heavily spiced in its preparation. A very similar product is pork fu, which is fried and less shredded than rousong. Bakkwa Dried shredded squid List of dried foods Machaca Pulled pork Čvarci Pemmican Food portal
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Snuff (tobacco)
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Snuff is a smokeless tobacco made from ground or pulverised tobacco leaves. It is inhaled or snuffed into the cavity, delivering a swift hit of nicotine. It originated in the Americas and was in use in Europe by the 17th century. Traditional snuff production consists of a lengthy, multi-step process, in tobacco snuff mills, Snuff is usually scented or flavoured, with many blends of snuff requiring months to years of special storage to reach the required maturity. Typical traditional flavours are varieties of carefully blended tobacco leaves considered original fine snuff without any addition of scents or essences, varieties of spice, piquant, fruit, floral, and mentholated soon followed, either pure or in blends. Each snuff manufacturer usually has a variety of recipes and blends. Common flavours also include coffee, chocolate, bordeaux, honey, vanilla, cherry, orange, apricot, plum, camphor, cinnamon, rose, modern flavours include Bourbon, Cola and whisky. Traditional classic German snuff blends are the piquant Schmalzler and Brasil, Snuff comes in a range of texture and moistness, from very fine to coarse, and from toast to very moist. Often drier snuffs are more finely. There is also a range of tobacco-free snuffs, such as Pöschls Weiss, while strictly speaking these are not snuffs because they contain no tobacco, they are an alternative for those who wish to avoid nicotine, or for cutting a strong snuff to an acceptable strength. The indigenous populations of Brazil were the first people known to have used ground tobacco as snuff and they would grind the tobacco leaves using a mortar and pestle made of rosewood, where the tobacco would also acquire a delicate aroma of the wood. The resulting snuff was then stored airtight in ornate bone bottles or tubes to preserve its flavour for later consumption, snuff-taking by the Taino and Carib people of the Lesser Antilles was observed by the Franciscan monk Ramón Pané on Columbus second voyage to the New World in 1493. Friar Panés return to Spain with snuff signalled its arrival in Europe that would last for centuries, the Spanish called snuff polvo or rapé. At first they were independent production mills dispersed within the city, the Dutch, who named the ground powdered tobacco snuff, were using the product by 1560. By the early 1600s, snuff had become a luxury commodity. In 1611, commercially manufactured snuff made its way to North America by way of John Rolfe, the husband of Pocahontas, though most of the colonists in America never fully accepted the English style of snuff use, American aristocrats used snuff. Snuff use in England increased in popularity after the Great Plague of London as people believed snuff had valuable antiseptic properties, which added a powerful impetus to its consumption. By 1650, snuff use had spread from France to England, Scotland, and Ireland, and throughout Europe, as well as Japan, China, by the 17th century some prominent objectors to snuff-taking arose
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Dipping tobacco
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Dipping tobacco is a type of finely ground or shredded, moistened smokeless tobacco product. It is commonly and idiomatically known by various terms—most often as dip and it is used by placing a lump, pinch, or dip of tobacco between the lip and the gum. The act of using it is called dipping, typically, before dipping, the act of packing is performed, where the user places the can in between their thumb and middle finger, then flicks their index finger onto the lid of the can. Dip is colloquially called chew, snuff, or chaw among other terms, because of this, dipping tobacco evolved from the use of dry snuff in early American history. Using dry snuff orally eventually evolved into modern day moist snuff, with Copenhagen introduced in 1822, most varieties of dipping tobacco are much more recent inventions. Today, moist snuff is available throughout the United States, however, it is typically more popular in rural areas and the South than in large cities. Dipping tobacco is used by males. Also, dipping tobacco has a presence in Canada. Dipping tobacco is packaged in tins, although they are not typically completely metal anymore, dipping tobacco is also available in rolls, logs, or sleeves, which is a package of 5 tins of tobacco, a similar concept to that of a carton of cigarettes. Ten tin rolls were also available in the past, another package of dipping tobacco is the tub, available in only select brands, equivalent to 6,10, or 12 tins. Before opening the can/tin of tobacco, users typically pack the tin and this is done by placing ones thumb and middle finger on the sides of the tin, and then quickly turning the tin and flicking the wrist so that ones index finger taps the top of the tin. Unlike snus, which is most often placed between the lip and gum, dip users or dippers tend to use the lower. Dipping in the lip is unusual, though when done. The dip rests on the lining of the mouth for a period depending upon the users preference—often 20–40 minutes. Nicotine and other found in tobacco are absorbed in saliva sublabially by the inferior or superior labial arteries. Buccal and sublingual absorption may also occur, unlike snus, dip often causes the user to produce excess saliva during the act of dipping. This is typically expectorated onto the ground or in a container, because swallowing the saliva-tobacco mixture can cause irritation to the esophagus and induce nausea, spittoons can be used, but often users will simply use an empty plastic bottle or a mudjug, a portable spittoon. Smokeless tobacco is used in the workplace by employees, especially if the employer does not provide many cigarette breaks or if the employee is consistently using both hands during work
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Farmers' market
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A farmers market is a physical retail market featuring foods sold directly by farmers to consumers. Farmers markets typically consist of booths, tables or stands, outdoors or indoors, where farmers sell fruits, vegetables, meats, Farmers markets exist worldwide and reflect their local culture and economy. Their size ranges from a few stalls to several city blocks, the current concept of a farmers market is similar to past concepts, but different in relation to other forms – as aspects of consumer retailing, overall, continue to shift over time. Similar forms existed before the Industrial age, but often formed part of broader markets, trading posts began a shift toward retailers who sold others products more than their own. Modern industrial food productions advantages over prior methods depend largely on modern, cheap, fast transport, but transport costs and delays cannot be completely eliminated. So where distance strained industrial suppliers reach, where consumers had strong preference for local variety, starting in the mid-2000s, consumer demand for foods that are fresher and for foods with more variety—has led to growth of farmers markets as a food-retailing mechanism. It has been claimed that farmers markets can offer farmers increased profit over selling to wholesalers, food processors, by selling directly to consumers, produce often needs less transport, less handling, less refrigeration and less time in storage. By selling in a market, the cost of land, buildings. Farmers may also retain profit on produce not sold to consumers, by selling the excess to canneries, at the market, farmers can retain the full premium for part of their produce, instead of only a processors wholesale price for the entire lot. Some farmers may also prefer the simplicity, immediacy, transparency, with fewer intermediaries, the support of independent growers by local community members can enhance local economic opportunities and health & wellness in poor communities. Some consumers may favor farmers markets for the perceived, reduced overhead, driving, parking, etc. fresher foods seasonal foods healthier foods a better variety of foods, e. g. In some cases claimed to sell products from their own farm at first. In at least one case despite vendor claims to the contrary the farm in question was not growing any food, in many cases fraud is obvious because the type of food being sold does not grow locally or is out of season. Federal regulations in the United States require country of origin labelling for produce at supermarkets, in the United States, the FDA requires that the manufacturers name and address be listed on the food label, which can reveal this discrepancy. In New York City, there are 107 farmers markets in operation, in the Los Angeles area,88 farmers markets exist, many of which support Hispanic and Asian fare. Since the first farmers market was established in the UK in 1997, consumers were worried about the farming practices by which food is produced, processed and the health and safety aspects of certain foods. The emergence of books, magazine articles, and cookery and gardening programmes influence consumer concern of food preparation and consumption, the EU has formalized efforts to expand farmers markets to reduce food safety risks and poor nutrition through programs known as Farm to Fork. Some markets are strictly managed, with rules for pricing, quality, others are much more relaxed in their operations and vendor criteria
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Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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Pork chip
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Bakkwa, also known as rougan, is a Chinese salty-sweet dried meat product similar to jerky. It originated from the Fujian province in China where it is considered a Hokkien delicacy, bakkwa is made with a meat preservation and preparation technique originating from China. The general method for production have remained unchanged throughout the centuries. It is traditionally made of pork, which is prepared with spices, sugar, salt and soy sauce, nowadays, products with a softer texture, lighter colour and less sugar are preferred. The bakkwa products with the water content, thus having softer texture. Nevertheless, shafu can have similar life as other types of bakkwa. The meat is most commonly served plain and in square-shaped slices in the form of thin sheets. Bakkwa is immensely popular in Singapore and Malaysia where it is eaten during Chinese New Year. When Chinese immigrants brought this delicacy over to Singapore and Malaysia, a notable example lies in the preparation of bakkwa, where the meat once still being air-dried is instead grilled over charcoal. This imparts a smokier flavour to the meat, the Singaporean and Malaysian versions of bakkwa are also sweeter than its mainland China counterpart with many different variations adapted to suit the local palate such as chilli bakkwa. Rousong Dried shredded squid Jerky Dendeng List of dried foods List of pork dishes
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