1.
Delaware River
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The Delaware River is a major river on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Its watershed drains an area of 14,119 square miles in five U. S. states—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, not including Delaware Bay, the rivers length including its two branches is 388 miles. The Delaware River is one of nineteen Great Waters recognized by the Americas Great Waters Coalition, the Delaware River rises in two main branches that descend from the western flank of the Catskill Mountains in New York. The West Branch begins near Mount Jefferson in the Town of Jefferson in Schoharie County, the rivers East Branch begins at Grand Gorge near Roxbury Delaware County. These two branches flow west and merge near Hancock in Delaware County and the waters flow as the Delaware River south. The river meets tide-water at the junction of Morrisville, Pennsylvania and Trenton, the rivers navigable, tidal section served as a conduit for shipping and transportation that aided the development of the industrial cities of Trenton, Camden, and Philadelphia. The mean freshwater discharge of the Delaware River into the estuary of Delaware Bay is 11,550 cubic feet per second, in 1609, the river was first visited by a Dutch East India Company expedition led by Henry Hudson. Hudson, an English navigator, was hired to find a route to Cathay. Early Dutch and Swedish settlements were established along the section of river. Both colonial powers called the river the South River, compared to the Hudson River, lord de la Warr waged a punitive campaign to subdue the Powhatan after they had killed the colonys council president, John Ratcliffe, and attacked the colonys fledgling settlements. Lord de la Warr arrived with 150 soldiers in time to prevent colonys original settlers at Jamestown from giving up, the name of barony is pronounced as in the current spelling form Delaware and is thought to derive from French de la Guerre. It has often reported that the river and bay received the name Delaware after English forces under Richard Nicolls expelled the Dutch. However, the river and bay were known by the name Delaware as early as 1641, the state of Delaware was originally part of the William Penns Pennsylvania colony. In 1682, the Duke of York granted Penns request for access to the sea and leased him the territory along the western shore of Delaware Bay which became known as the Lower Counties on the Delaware. The Delaware Rivers watershed drains an area of 14,119 square miles and encompasses 42 counties and 838 municipalities in five U. S. states—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. This total area constitutes approximately 0. 4% of the mass in the United States. In 2001, the watershed was 18% agricultural land, 14% developed land, there are 216 tributary streams and creeks—an estimated 14,057 miles of streams and creeks—in the watershed. The waters of the Delaware Rivers basin are used to fishing, transportation, power, cooling, recreation
2.
Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct
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Roeblings Delaware Aqueduct, also known as the Roebling Bridge, is the oldest existing wire suspension bridge in the United States. It runs 535 feet over the Delaware River, from Minisink Ford, New York, to Lackawaxen, opened in 1849 as an aqueduct connecting two parts of the Delaware & Hudson Canal, it has since been converted to carry automotive traffic and pedestrians. The bridge was begun in 1847 as one of four suspension aqueducts on the D&H Canal, the canal opened in 1828, was enlarged after the 1840s, and closed in 1898. Russell F. Lord and John A. Roebling designed the bridge, Roebling would design the Brooklyn Bridge 20 years later. Two important local industries with conflicting needs brought about construction of Roeblings Delaware and Lackawaxen Aqueducts, canal traffic, since the mid-18th century, timber from the Delaware valley had been floated down the river to shipyards and industries in Trenton and Philadelphia. The D&H Canals rope ferry crossing of the Delaware at Lackawaxen created a bottleneck, in 1846, to alleviate both problems, the D&H Canal Company approved Russell F. Lords plan to substitute two new aqueducts in place of the rope ferry, after evaluating several options, Lord recommended designs submitted by John A. Roebling, who had already built a wire suspension aqueduct at Pittsburgh in 1845. To raise the canal enough to allow the passage of ice floes and river traffic, after the canal closed in 1898, the aqueduct was drained and converted into a vehicular bridge. Eventually, the sides and towpaths were removed. It operated as a bridge for wagons and, later. Portions of the D&H Canal, including the Delaware Aqueduct, were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1968, the Delaware Aqueduct is also designated a National Civil Engineering Landmark. The National Park Service bought the bridge in 1980, the bridge is now part of the Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River. PA-1, Delaware & Hudson Canal, Delaware Aqueduct HAER No, nY-205, Delaware & Hudson Canal, Delaware Aqueduct Toll House Delaware Aqueduct Bridge at Structurae
3.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
4.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
5.
Covington, Kentucky
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Covington is a city in Kenton County, Kentucky. It is located at the confluence of the Ohio and Licking rivers, cincinnati, Ohio, lies to its north across the Ohio and Newport, Kentucky, to its east across the Licking. Part of the Cincinnati–Northern Kentucky metropolitan area, Covington had a population of 40,640 at the time of the 2010 U. S. census and it is one of its countys two seats, along with Independence. The city was incorporated by the Kentucky General Assembly a year later. Stewart Iron Works was established in 1862 and became the largest iron fence maker in the world, Covington experienced growth during most of the 19th century, only to decline during the Great Depression and the middle 20th century. The city has seen some redevelopment during the late 20th and early 21st centuries, instead, Covington was awarded a team in the new outlaw circuit, the Federal League. The city raised $13,500, with $6,000 budgeted to build the ballpark, bernard Wisehall, a prominent local architect, designed Federal Park with a capacity to 6,000. The playing field was tiny, believed to be smallest for any pro baseball park ever built, by June, Covington was seeing only a few hundred fans per contest. On June 26, the moved to Kansas City and ownership of the team reverted to creditors. Federal Park was used for other events the next few years, Covington has not hosted a professional team in any sport since. Covington claims 19 distinct neighborhoods, ranging in population from several hundred to 10,000 people, many of the neighborhoods are located in 12 historic districts that are predominantly found in the northern portion of the city. According to the United States Census Bureau, Covington has an area of 13.7 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 43,370 people,18,257 households, the population density was 3,301.3 people per square mile. There were 20,448 housing units at a density of 1,556.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 87. 05% White,10. 14% African American,0. 24% Native American,0. 34% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 63% from other races, and 1. 57% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 1. 38% of the population,36. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the family size was 3.08. The age distribution was 25. 9% under the age of 18,10. 0% from 18 to 24,33. 3% from 25 to 44,19. 0% from 45 to 64, the median age was 33 years
6.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
7.
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
John A. Roebling
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John Augustus Roebling was a German-born American civil engineer. He designed and built wire rope suspension bridges, in particular the Brooklyn Bridge, which has designated as a National Historic Landmark. At first John attended the gymnasium in Mühlhausen, recognizing his intelligence at a young age, Roeblings mother, Friederike Dorothea Roebling arranged for him to be tutored in mathematics and science at Erfurt by Ephraim Salomon Unger. He went to Erfurt when he was 15, in 1824 he passed his Surveyors examination and returned home for a year. Roebling also attended lectures of the philosopher Hegel, Roebling developed an interest in natural philosophy and many years later he worked on a 1000-page treatise about his own concepts of the universe. In 1825 Roebling got a government job at Arnsberg, Westphalia, during this period he made sketches for suspension bridges. In 1829 he returned to his home to work out his final thesis, for unknown reasons, he never took the examination. On May 22,1831, Roebling left Prussia with his brother Carl and Johann Adolphus Etzler, economic mobility and career advancement were difficult for engineers in Prussian society. The Napoleonic Wars, which lasted until 1815, had suppressed investment in infrastructure and this period in European history left Prussia with political unrest, as authoritarian governments took the places of democratic ones. Etzler had ideas about creating a utopia in the United States, but disputes arose en route, John and Carl purchased 1582 acres of land on October 28,1831, in Butler County, Pennsylvania with the intent to establish a German settlement, called Saxonburg. Most of the settlers remained with Etzler. The John Roebling House at Saxonburg was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976, John Roebling and his brother arrived in the United States at an interesting time. The nation was in the stages of an economic boom. Farmers were deeply affected by it, a dominant mode of thought in America would be called manifest destiny by the 1840s. Transportation between eastern industrial hubs and frontier farming markets had become a matter of national and popular interest. Many transportation projects were underway near the location Roebling chose for his colony, after five years he married Johanna Herting, a tailors daughter. Agrarian work was unsatisfactory to John Roebling, and the colony attracted few settlers. In 1837, after the death of his brother and the birth of his first child, Roeblings first engineering work in America was devoted to improving river navigation and canal building
10.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
11.
Paul Brown Stadium
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Paul Brown Stadium is an outdoor football stadium in the north central United States, located in Cincinnati, Ohio. It is the venue of the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League. Named after the Bengals founder Paul Brown, the stadium is located on approximately 22 acres of land and has a seating capacity of 65,515. Paul Brown Stadium is nicknamed The Jungle, a not only to the namesake Bengal tigers natural habitat. In 1996, Hamilton County voters passed a one-half percent sales tax increase to fund the building of two new venues for both the Bengals and the Major League Baseball Cincinnati Reds. Following the 2002 baseball season, Cinergy was demolished on December 29, the Bengals have hosted four NFL playoff games at Paul Brown Stadium, with no victories. For its first four years, the field was natural Kentucky Bluegrass, Hamilton County explored other options and chose the synthetic FieldTurf system. The infilled artificial turf looks and feels like real grass, and since the field markings are actually sewn into the fabric, the reduced maintenance saves the county approximately $100,000 annually. Additionally, it opens Paul Brown Stadium to other uses without worry of damage to the turf, the FieldTurf was installed for the 2004 season. The field is one of two stadiums in the NFL to have five miles of piping running under the field to keep the rubber inlays heated. Two LED video displays at either end zone, installed in 2000, over 200 feet of ribbon display was also installed along the fascia of the stadium. On September 5,2009, the Kentucky Wildcats and the Miami Redhawks played their games there. The University of Cincinnati also played Oklahoma in 2010 at Paul Brown Stadium, the Sooners won the game 31-29 with 58,253 fans in attendance. In 2011, the Bearcats played Big East Conference opponents Louisville Cardinals, the Bearcats returned to Paul Brown Stadium for the 2014 football season due to the renovations of Nippert Stadium with the largest attendance being Miami at 41,926. The average attendance was set at 28,840 for the year, additionally, the Macys Music Festival is held there every year. Unusual for a venue the size of Paul Brown Stadium, in the spring and this marked the first time a major concert had taken place at PBS. Chesney and McGraw were also joined by Grace Potter and the Nocturnals, Paul Brown Stadium also houses the Bengals administrative offices and training and practice facilities. The game field in Paul Brown Stadium is UBU Sports Speed S5-M synthetic turf system, there are three smaller practice fields nearby
12.
Great American Ball Park
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Great American Ball Park is a baseball stadium in Cincinnati, Ohio, which is the home field of Major League Baseballs Cincinnati Reds. It opened in 2003, replacing Cinergy Field, their field from 1970 to 2002. The parks name comes from the Great American Insurance Group, the ballpark hosted the 2015 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. The Reds put in $5 million for improvements, which included two new bars and upgraded concession stands, in 1996, Hamilton County voters passed a ½% sales tax increase to fund the construction of new venues for both the Reds and the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League. Nearby Paul Brown Stadium broke ground in 1998 and was opened on August 19,2000, Great American Ball Park was built by the architectural firms Populous and GBBN at a cost of approximately US$290 million. It is located on the plot of land between the site of Cinergy Field and US Bank Arena, it was known locally as the wedge. The limited construction space necessitated the demolition of Cinergy Field. It was fully demolished on December 29,2002, the original address of Great American Ball Park was 100 Main Street. However, after the death of pitcher and longtime broadcaster Joe Nuxhall in 2007. A sign bearing Nuxhalls traditional signoff phrase rounding third and heading for home is located on the base side exterior of the park. The Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame and Museum is adjacent to Great American Ball Park, a 35-foot--wide break in the stands between home plate and third base called The Gap is bridged by the concourse on each level. Aligned with Sycamore Street, it provides views into the stadium from downtown, when the Reds strike out a batter, fire blows out of the stacks beginning with the 2012 season. Fireworks are launched from the stacks after every Reds home run, the seven baseball bats featured on both smokestacks symbolize the #14 of Pete Rose. Each smokestack has seven baseball bats at the top to symbolize Pete Roses No.14 jersey, local designers and artist created the piece between 2001 and 2003 with concept, design and project oversight / management by Berberich Design. The illustrative artist was Mark Riedy, the sculptors of the model used for fabrication were Todd Myers. Just inside the main gates off the Crosley Terrace you will find two mosaic panels measuring 16 feet wide by 10 feet high, the mosaics were created between 2001 and 2003 with concept, design and project oversight / management by Berberich Design. The illustrative artist was Mark Riedy and these mosaic panels are made of opaque glass tiles and were produced in Ravenna, Italy by SICIS. Panoramas of downtown Cincinnati, Mt. Adams, the Ohio River, at 217 feet,9 inches wide, the scoreboard from Daktronics is the sixth largest in Major League Baseball, and the 15th largest in the United States out of all LED screens
13.
U.S. Bank Arena
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Bank Arena is an indoor arena located in downtown Cincinnati, along the banks of the Ohio River, next to the Great American Ball Park. It was completed in September 1975 and named Riverfront Coliseum because of its placement next to Riverfront Stadium, the arena seats 17,556 people and is the largest indoor arena in the Greater Cincinnati region with 346,100 square feet of space. The arena underwent a $14 million renovation project in 1997, the current main tenant is the Cincinnati Cyclones, of the ECHL. The arena was the home of the Cincinnati Stingers, of the World Hockey Association, bank Arena served as a host for the Midwest Regional of the 2014 NCAA Division I Mens Ice Hockey Tournament with Miami University as the host school. Until the opening of Fifth Third Arena at the University of Cincinnati and BB&T Arena at Northern Kentucky University, the Cincinnati Royals left Cincinnati in 1972, and were the last NBA team to call Cincinnati home. The NBA Cleveland Cavaliers have played games at U. S. Bank Arena however, most recently in 2013, on that evening, there were a total of 18,348 ticketed fans attending, which included 14,770 in general admission seats. The concert was using festival seating, where seats are available on a first-come, when the waiting fans outside the Coliseum heard the band performing a late sound check, they thought that the concert was beginning and tried to rush into the still-closed doors. Some at the front of the crowd were either trampled or squeezed to death standing up as those pushing from behind were unaware that the doors were still closed. Only a few doors were in operation that night, and there are reports that management did not open more doors due to union restrictions, Cincinnati immediately outlawed festival seating at concerts. On August 4,2004, the Cincinnati City Council unanimously overturned the ban because it placed the city at a disadvantage for booking concerts. Many music acts prefer festival seating because it can allow the most enthusiastic fans to get near the stage, the city had previously made a one-time exception to the ban, allowing festival seating for a Bruce Springsteen concert on November 12,2002. Cincinnati was, for a time, the city in the United States to outlaw festival seating altogether. On June 25,1977, Elvis Presley gave his second-to-last concert in the Riverfront Coliseum,17,140 persons attended the concert, in 1979, The Bee Gees played two sold-out shows there during their Spirits Having Flown Tour. In 1987, the facility hosted the World Figure Skating Championships, the arena was also host to the 1997 NCAA Womens Division I Basketball Championship Final Four, as well as the 1996 mens Division I hockey Frozen Four, which was won by Michigan. In 2017, the site will host the NCAA Division 1 Ice Hockey Midwest Regional, the arena hosted WCW Souled Out in 2000, WWE Cyber Sunday in 2006, and TNA Lockdown in 2011. It has also hosted a number of WWE Raw and WWE Friday Night SmackDown tapings including a Raw on September 13,2010, where Chad Ochocinco hosted. Prior to the July 30,2012, live episode of Raw at the arena, an incident involving the pyrotechnic system caused fans to evacuate the arena briefly, UFC77 was held at the arena on October 20,2007, and was headlined by local fighter Rich Franklin
14.
Parking lot
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A parking lot, also known as a car lot, is a cleared area that is intended for parking vehicles. Usually, the term refers to an area that has been provided with a durable or semi-durable surface. In most countries where cars are the dominant mode of transportation, parking lots are a feature of every city, shopping malls, sports stadiums, megachurches and similar venues often feature parking lots of immense area. Parking lots tend to be sources of pollution because of their extensive impervious surfaces. Most existing lots have limited or no facilities to control runoff, many areas today also require minimum landscaping in parking lots, which means that their paved surfaces contribute to heat islands. Many municipalities require a number of parking spaces, depending on the floor area in a store or the number of bedrooms in an apartment complex. In the United States, each states Department of Transportation sets the proper ratio for disabled spaces for private business, various forms of technology are used to charge motorists for the use of a parking lot. Modern parking lots use a variety of technologies to help motorists find unoccupied parking spaces, retrieve their vehicles, parking lots tend to be sources of water pollution because of their extensive impervious surfaces. Virtually all of the rain that falls becomes urban runoff, to avoid flooding and unsafe driving conditions, the lots are built to effectively channel and collect runoff. Parking lots, along roads, are often the principal source of water pollution in urban areas. Motor vehicles are a constant source of pollutants, the most significant being gasoline, motor oil, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, many parking lots are also significant sources of trash which ends up in waterways. Treatment of pollution, Traditionally, the runoff has been shunted directly into storm sewers, streams, however, most larger municipalities now require construction of stormwater management facilities for new lots. Typical facilities include retention basins, infiltration basins and percolation trenches, some newer designs include bioretention systems, which use plants more extensively to absorb and filter pollutants. However, most existing lots have limited or no facilities to control runoff, alternative paving materials, An alternative solution today is to use permeable paving surfaces, such as brick, pervious concrete, stone, special paving blocks, or tire-tread woven mats. These materials allow rain to soak into the ground through the spaces inherent in the parking lot surface. The ground then may become contaminated in the surface of the parking lot park, but this tends to stay in a area of ground. This can however create problems if contaminants seep into groundwater, especially there is groundwater abstraction downstream for potable water supply. Many areas today also require minimum landscaping in parking lots and this usually principally means the planting of trees to provide shade
15.
Northern Kentucky
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Northern Kentucky is the name often given to the northernmost counties in Kentucky. Historically, Trimble, Mason, and Lewis counties have also included in Northern Kentucky. Immediately on the side of the Ohio River from Covington and Newport is Cincinnati. However, the core region is relatively densely populated, with these cities surrounded by many smaller towns which have little other than a city limit sign between them. The periphery of Boone, Kenton, and Campbell counties, namely the western half of Boone County, the area, primarily the three northernmost counties, has a high amount of German heritage and moderate Irish heritage, being across the river from Cincinnati. The four outer counties are primarily rural. Combined with the southeast corner of Indiana, and Southwestern Ohio, all seven counties are a part of the Greater Cincinnati area, beginning in the 1970s, many factors combined to create major growth. Its geographically central location makes it ideal for distribution centers, in addition to location, the Northern Kentucky area hosts several organizations which strive to enhance the quality of life and the local economy. The primary airport serving Cincinnati is located in Northern Kentucky, nickname, the nky Northern Kentucky is located within a climatic transition zone and is at the extreme northern limit of the humid subtropical climate. The common wall lizard, introduced from Italy in the 1950s, is an example of fauna in the area that lends a subtropical ambiance to areas near the core of Cincinnati. Northern Kentucky is considered to be within the periphery of both the Midwest and the Upland South, Northern Kentucky Convention and Visitors Bureau Northern Kentucky Area Directory
16.
Dixie Terminal
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The Dixie Terminal buildings in Cincinnati, Ohio, were completed in 1921 and served as a streetcar terminal, stock exchange and office building in the citys downtown business district. They were designed by Cincinnati architect Frederick W. Garbers Garber & Woodward firm, the main building includes an Adamesque barrel-vaulted concourse and Rookwood Architectural Faience entry arch. The Rookwood tiles were manufactured by the local Rookwood Pottery Company, located at Fourth and Walnut Streets, the Terminal was constructed of reinforced concrete and finished in gray brick, Bedford limestone, and granite. A long and elaborate arcade runs through from main entrance through the building, the terminal was used for bus service after streetcar service ceased in the 1950s. Buses arriving from northern Kentucky crossed the Roebling Suspension Bridge and took ramps from the bridge into the terminal, the ramps were removed and the bus service ceased using the terminal in 1998. A scene in the 1988 film Rain Man was shot at Dixie Terminal, joseph Francis Beller is believed responsible for the original gold-leafing and the frolicking cherubs in the building. Beller had a studio at 1229 Hopkins Street in Cincinnati, List of stock exchanges List of stock exchanges in the Americas
17.
Streetcars in Cincinnati
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Streetcars were the main form of public transportation in Cincinnati, Ohio, at the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th century. The first electric streetcars began operation in 1889, and at its maximum, a very unusual feature of the system was that cars on some of its routes traveled via inclined railways to serve areas on hills near downtown. With the advent of automobiles and improved roads, transit ridership declined in the 20th century. Construction of a new system, now known as the Cincinnati Bell Connector. Consisting initially of a route, the new system opened on September 9,2016. Cincinnatis first settlers made their home on the flat basin that now includes downtown, Over-the-Rhine. By the 1850s, the population was too large for the basin alone. Horsecars were the first form of transportation, with operation beginning on September 14,1859. S. However, horse-drawn vehicles were inadequate because the animals would fatigue, cities with hilly terrain such as Cincinnati and San Francisco began adopting cable cars, because they were faster and more reliable than horses. The first cable car routes in Cincinnati were on Gilbert Avenue, Mount Auburn, cable cars require that the car be pulled by a constantly running cable hidden under the street. Electricity proved to be cheaper and more reliable than cable cars, consequently, starting on August 17,1889, the first streetcars were introduced, and the existing cable cars were converted to electric streetcars or abandoned. The lines grew until there were 222 miles of tracks in Cincinnati. The track gauge was 5 ft 2 1⁄2 in, some of the interurban lines serving Cincinnati also used this gauge, while others used standard gauge track. For decades Cincinnatis streetcar system carried over 100 million passengers a year. Comparatively, in 2000 approximately 25 million people rode Cincinnatis Metro bus system, all routes used double trolley wire, the only exception being on route 78, a portion of which outside the city limits had only a single wire for each track. In Cincinnati, the early streetcar operating company, the Cincinnati Street Railway, chose to install double-wire from the beginning. The city was home to one of the countrys larger streetcar manufacturers, the Cincinnati Car Company. The streetcars were used in conjunction with four of Cincinnatis inclined railways, the Mount Adams Incline, Mount Auburn Incline, Bellevue Incline, except for the Fairview Incline, these originally conveyed horsecars, but were later equipped to carry electric streetcars
18.
Cincinnati Subway
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The Cincinnati Subway is a set of incomplete, derelict tunnels and stations for a rapid transit system beneath the streets of Cincinnati, Ohio. It is recognized as the largest abandoned subway system in the United States. In 1928, the construction of the system in Cincinnati was indefinitely canceled. To date, there are no plans to revive the project. Rapid transit was seen as the solution for downtown congestion during the first quarter of the 20th century, six million dollars were allocated for the project, but construction was delayed due to World War I. Unexpected post-war inflation doubled the cost of construction, so the project could not be finished at the estimated price. Various attempts to use the tunnels for mass transit have been unsuccessful. Political squabbling, the Great Depression, World War II, today, many Cincinnatians are unaware of the tunnels underneath them. From 1825 to 1920 the Miami and Erie Canal divided Cincinnatis residential neighborhood of Over-the-Rhine from the district of downtown. The canal became unprofitable by 1856 and was abandoned by the city in 1877, on September 15,1883 a weekly Cincinnati magazine called The Graphic proposed that the dead old ditch be used to provide an unobstructed route for a subway system, with a large boulevard above. In 1888, Cincinnati began adopting electric streetcars, which became the main form of public transportation. During this period Cincinnati was one of the seven most populous US citiesand had a rate of growth and economic importance that was similar to that of New York City and Chicago. The slow streetcars shared the streets with horse-drawn carriages and people. It was not unusual for trips between downtown and the suburbs to take 45 minutes to an hour. Despite having 222 miles of tracks, the city found itself in a growing traffic nightmare. In 1910, Henry Thomas Hunt spearheaded plans for a new transit system. The next year City Council convinced the Ohio State Legislature to lease the citys portion of the canal for use as a boulevard, the city hired experts that worked on Bostons and Chicagos rapid transit systems to research the best possible implementation for Cincinnatis rapid transit system. The result were four Schemes, or proposed routes, the chosen plan, Scheme IV, modification H, looped around the city hitting the central suburbs of St. Bernard and Norwood, the eastern suburbs of Oakley and Hyde Park, and then returned into downtown
19.
Carte de visite
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The carte de visite, abbreviated CdV, was a type of small photograph which was patented in Paris by photographer André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri in 1854, although first used by Louis Dodero. It was usually made of a print, which was a thin paper photograph mounted on a thicker paper card. The size of a carte de visite is 54.0 mm ×89 mm mounted on a card sized 64 mm ×100 mm, in 1854, Disdéri had also patented a method of taking eight separate negatives on a single plate, which reduced production costs. The Carte de Visite was slow to gain widespread use until 1859 and this made the format an overnight success. The new invention was so popular it was known as cardomania and it spread throughout Europe and then quickly to America, each photograph was the size of a visiting card, and such photograph cards were traded among friends and visitors. Albums for the collection and display of cards became a fixture in Victorian parlors. The immense popularity of these card photographs led to the publication and collection of photographs of prominent persons. By the early 1870s, cartes de visite were supplanted by cabinet cards, which were also usually albumen prints, cabinet cards remained popular into the early 20th century, when Kodak introduced the Brownie camera and home snapshot photography became a mass phenomenon. The carte de visite photograph proved to be a popular item during the American Civil War. Soldiers, friends and family members would have a means of obtaining photographs. Photos of Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and other celebrities of the era became an instant hit in the North, people were not only buying photographs of themselves, but also collecting photographs of celebrities. Cabinet card Postcard Business card Gernsheim, Helmut, dr. Robert Leggat MA M. Ed Ph. D. The history of photograph Silkenat, David, a Typical Negro, Gordon, Peter, Vincent Coyler, and the Story Behind Slaverys Most Famous Photograph. Available on Wisconsin Historical Images, the Wisconsin Historical Societys online image database, also included are 64 photographs attributed to Mathew Brady. Southern Cartes de Visite Collection, A. S, williams III American Collection, Division of Special Collections, University of Alabama Libraries. Over 3300 digitized cartes-de-visite, the majority of them from southern studios, the Carte de Visite file at the New-York Historical Society Cartes de Visite of California photographers at Beinecke Library
20.
Steamboat
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A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S. S. or S/S or PS, the term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, Early attempts at powering a boat by steam were made by the French inventor Denis Papin and the English inventor Thomas Newcomen. Papin invented the steam digester and experimented with closed cylinders and pistons pushed in by atmospheric pressure, Papin proposed applying this steam pump to the operation of a paddlewheel boat and tried to market his idea in Britain. He was unable to convert the piston motion into rotary motion. Newcomens design did solve the first problem, but remained shackled to the inherent limitations of the engines of the time, a steamboat was described and patented by English physician John Allen in 1729. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls was granted a patent in England for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat, William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, having learned of Watts engine on a visit to England, made his own engine. In 1763 he put it in a boat, the boat sank, and while Henry made an improved model, he did not appear to have much success, though he may have inspired others. At its first demonstration on 15 July 1783, Pyroscaphe travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed, presumably this was easily repaired as the boat is said to have made several such journeys. Following this, De Jouffroy attempted to get the government interested in his work, De Jouffroy did not have the funds for this, and, following the events of the French revolution, work on the project was discontinued after he left the country. Similar boats were made in 1785 by John Fitch in Philadelphia and William Symington in Dumfries and this boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour and traveled more than 2,000 miles during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a success, as this travel route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. The following year, a boat made 30-mile excursions, and in 1790. Miller sent King Gustav III of Sweden an actual version,100 feet long. Miller then engaged engineer William Symington to build his patent steam engine drove a stern-mounted paddle wheel in a boat in 1785. The boat was successfully tried out on Dalswinton Loch in 1788 and was followed by a steamboat the next year. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth to Symingtons design with a cylinder engine. Trials on the River Carron in June 1801 were successful and included towing sloops from the river Forth up the Carron and thence along the Forth, in 1801, Symington patented a horizontal steam engine directly linked to a crank
21.
Civil engineer
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The term civil engineer was established in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized, other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. In some places, an engineer may perform land surveying, in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying. Civil engineers generally work in a variety of locations and conditions, many spend time outdoors at construction sites so that they can monitor operations or solve problems onsite. The job is typically a blend of in-office and on-location work, in many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. In some jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves civil engineers, in Belgium, Civil Engineer is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course of one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their speciality can be all fields of engineering, civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and this use of the title may cause confusion to the English speaker as the Belgian civil engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact, Belgians use the adjective civil in the sense of civilian, traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished in 2004 for the Flemish Community, but is organised in the French Community. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics engineering. A civil engineer is the most well-known of the two, still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent masters degree. This is because the educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system. Today this is starting to change due to the Bologna process, a Scandinavian civilingenjör will in international contexts commonly call herself Master of Science in Engineering and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the tradition with an NTH Ring goes back to 1914, in Norway, the title Sivilingeniør will no longer be issued after 2007, and has been replaced with Master i teknologi. In the English translation of the diploma, the title will be Master of Science, since Master of Technology is not a title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts, in Spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. The earned degree is called Grado en Ingeniería Civil, further studies at a graduate school include masters and doctoral degrees
22.
Saxonburg, Pennsylvania
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Saxonburg is a borough in Butler County and part of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area, in the United States. It was founded in 1832 by John A. Roebling, the city was first named Germania and Sachsenburg before arriving at its present name. The population was 1,525 as of the 2010 census, founded in 1832 by John A. Roebling had set out with his brother Karl and a group of pioneers from Germany in 1831 to flee the general unrest and oppression in Europe. The two men, along with a handful of the people who accompanied them on the trans-Atlantic journey secured 1,582 acres of land on October 28,1831, from Mrs. Sarah Collins. In November 1920, KDKA radio, regarded as the worlds first commercial station, began broadcasting from East Pittsburgh. The Roebling Museum in the borough maintains several artifacts, by June 6,1946, a leading-edge 450 MeV proton synchrocyclotron was built at the Nuclear Research Center near Saxonburg, just south of the Saxonburg limits. The research program there flourished up to the mid-1970s when the accelerator was dismantled. The site was converted to industrial purposes, and is now occupied by II-VI Corporation, as of 1997, only one or two of the original Nuclear Research Center buildings remained, including the original laboratory building, more or less intact. On the afternoon of December 4,1980, Donald Eugene Webb allegedly killed police officer Gregory Adams in Saxonburg, Webb was on the FBI Most Wanted List longer than any other fugitive since its creation in 1950. He was removed from the list on March 31,2007, in November 2009, Jody Pflueger, Saxonburgs first Democratic and first female mayor, was elected as a write-in candidate, defeating the 12-year incumbent. While in office Mayor Pflueger had the position of Police Chief reinstated, Pflueger was succeeded by the late Pamela Bauman in 2013. William Gillespie held the office to complete her term until 2017, Saxonburg is located in southeastern Butler County at 40°45′15″N 79°48′56″W. Butler, the county seat, is 9 miles to the northwest, according to the United States Census Bureau, Saxonburg has a total area of 0.89 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,629 people,655 households, the population density was 1,852.8 people per square mile. There were 713 housing units at a density of 811.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 99. 32% White,0. 25% African American,0. 31% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 53% of the population. 35. 3% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.75. In the borough the population was out, with 16. 8% under the age of 18,5. 9% from 18 to 24,21. 9% from 25 to 44,21. 0% from 45 to 64
23.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
24.
Ohio General Assembly
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The Ohio General Assembly is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Ohio. It consists of the 99-member Ohio House of Representatives and the 33-member Ohio Senate, both houses of the General Assembly meet at the Ohio Statehouse in Columbus. The Legislative Service Commission is one of several legislative agencies and it serves as a source for legal expertise and staffing and drafts proposed legislation. The General Assembly first convened in Chillicothe, then the Ohio capital, the second constitution of Ohio, effective in 1851, took away the power of the General Assembly to choose the states executive officers, granting that right to the voters. A complicated formula apportioned legislators to Ohio counties and the number of seats in the houses varied from year-to-year. The Ohio Politics Almanac by Michael F. Curtin described apportionment thus, contained a complicated formula for apportionment, the so-called major fraction rule. Under it, the population was divided by 100, with the resulting quotient being the ratio of representation in the House of Representatives. To determine Senate districts, a procedure was followed, the starting point. The ratios for the House and Senate and the apportionment was determined by a board consisting of the governor, auditor. In 1903, the apportionment system was modified by the Hanna amendment, which gave the governor veto power over the assemblys acts. The last state constitutional convention, held in 1912, gave the governor a line-item veto, in 1956, a referendum increased the terms of state senators from two to four years. The Hanna amendment guaranteed that rural areas of Ohio would dominate the legislature, several decisions by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1960s, however, mandated apportionment proportional to population. Starting with the 1966 election, the number of seats in the two chambers were fixed at their present numbers of 33 and 99, republican activists, led by Fred A. Years in office are considered consecutive if they are separated by less than four years, a former member of the legislature who had served eight years becomes eligible for election to the legislature after four years out of office. Representative history of the Ohio Senate Representative history of the Ohio House of Representatives Curtin, democracy In Session, A History of the Ohio General Assembly. A Guidebook For Ohio Legislators, 2013-2014, little, Thomas H. Ogle, David B. eds. The Legislative Branch of State Government, People, Process, scarselli, Gino J. Steinglass, Steven H
25.
Wheeling Suspension Bridge
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The Wheeling Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the main channel of the Ohio River at Wheeling, West Virginia. It was the largest suspension bridge in the world from 1849 until 1851 and it was designed by Charles Ellet Jr. who also worked on the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge. The Wheeling bridge was the first to span the Ohio River, the main span is 1,010 feet from tower to tower. The east tower rests on the Wheeling shore, while the west tower is on Wheeling Island, the east tower is 153.5 feet above the low-water level of the river, or 82 feet from the base of the masonry. The west tower is 132.75 feet above low water, the Wheeling Suspension Bridge was designated a National Historic Landmark on May 15,1975. It is located in the Wheeling Island Historic District, a charter was granted to the Wheeling and Belmont Bridge Company in 1816 to construct a bridge to extend the Cumberland Pike, which was to be completed in 1818, to Ohio. After a number of delays, a new charter was obtained in 1847. Charles Ellet and John A. Roebling were invited to submit designs, in doing so, the design was set as a suspension bridge, as Ellet and Roebling were the foremost authorities on the topic. Ellet received the award in 1847 and began the same year. The bridge was completed in 1849, on May 17,1854 a strong windstorm destroyed the deck of the bridge through torsional movement and vertical undulations that rose almost as high as the towers. Ellet rebuilt it, followed by improvements in 1859 by Elletts partner William McComas, a 1953 report indicates that the suspension cables are either original or the work of the 1860 reconstruction. The deck stiffening truss is believed to be from the same period, auxiliary stay cables were added in 1871-72 to a design by Washington Roebling and Hildebrand. The deck was rebuilt in 1956, when the road was widened from 16.25 feet to 20 feet. The road and sidewalk were reconstructed with a steel grating that reduces wind resistance. In the early 1980s, the West Virginia Division of Highways restored the bridge, the bridge remains in active service. The bridge spans a distance of 1,010 feet across the Ohio River and it remains the oldest vehicular suspension bridge in the United States still in use and is listed as both a National Historic Landmark and Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. On February 17,2011, a vehicle driving at high speed lost control, the damage to the bridge was enough that it was closed for inspection. The bridge was closed for four to five days so the panels could be fixed, the bridge has since been reopened to all traffic after WVDOH inspected the bridge
26.
Wheeling, West Virginia
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Wheeling is a city in Ohio County in the U. S. state of West Virginia. Located almost entirely in Ohio County, of which it is the county seat, Wheeling was originally a settlement in the British colony of Virginia and later an important city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Wheeling was the first state capital of West Virginia, due to its location along major transportation routes, including the Ohio River, National Road, and the B&O Railroad, Wheeling became a manufacturing center in the late nineteenth century. Wheeling is the city of the Wheeling, WV-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2010 census, the MSA had a population of 147,950, the origins of the name Wheeling are disputed. One of the more credible explanations is that the word comes from the Lenni-Lenape phrase wih link and this supposedly referred to a white settler who was scalped and decapitated. His severed head was displayed at the confluence of Wheeling Creek, the area had been inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years. In the 17th century, the Iroquois from present-day New York state conquered the upper Ohio Valley, pushing out other tribes and maintaining the area as their hunting ground. Originally explored by the French, Wheeling still has a lead plate remnant buried by the explorer Céloron de Blainville in 1749 at the mouth of Wheeling Creek to mark their claim, later, Christopher Gist and George Washington surveyed the land, in 1751 and 1770, respectively. During the fall of 1769, Ebenezer Zane explored the Wheeling area, other families joined the settlement, including the Shepherds, the Wetzels, and the McCollochs. In 1787, the United States gave Virginia this portion of lands west of the Appalachians, by the Northwest Ordinance that year, it established the Northwest Territory to cover other lands north of the Ohio River and west to the Mississippi River. Settlers began to move into new areas along the Ohio, in 1793, Ebenezer Zane divided the town into lots, and Wheeling was officially established as a town in 1795 by legislative enactment. The town was incorporated January 16,1805, on March 11,1836, the town of Wheeling was incorporated into the city of Wheeling. By an act of the Virginia General Assembly on December 27,1797, originally dubbed Fort Fincastle in 1774, the fort was later renamed Fort Henry in honor of Virginias American governor, Patrick Henry. In 1777, Native Americans of the Shawnee, Wyandot and Mingo tribes joined to attack settlements along the upper Ohio River. They hoped an alliance with the British would drive the settlers out of their territory. Local men, later joined by recruits from Fort Shepherd and Fort Holliday, the native force burned the surrounding cabins and destroyed livestock. During the first attack of the year, Major Samuel McColloch led a force of men from Fort Vanmetre along Short Creek to assist the besieged Fort Henry
27.
Collinearity
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In geometry, collinearity of a set of points is the property of their lying on a single line. A set of points with this property is said to be collinear, in greater generality, the term has been used for aligned objects, that is, things being in a line or in a row. In any geometry, the set of points on a line are said to be collinear, in Euclidean geometry this relation is intuitively visualized by points lying in a row on a straight line. However, in most geometries a line is typically an object type. For instance, in geometry, where lines are represented in the standard model by great circles of a sphere. Such points do not lie on a line in the Euclidean sense. A mapping of a geometry to itself which sends lines to lines is called a collineation, the linear maps of vector spaces, viewed as geometric maps, map lines to lines, that is, they map collinear point sets to collinear point sets and so, are collineations. In projective geometry these linear mappings are called homographies and are just one type of collineation, the de Longchamps point also has other collinearities. Any vertex, the tangency of the side with an excircle. Any vertex, the tangency of the side with the incircle. From any point on the circumcircle of a triangle, the nearest points on each of the three extended sides of the triangle are collinear in the Simson line of the point on the circumcircle, the lines connecting the feet of the altitudes intersect the opposite sides at collinear points. A triangles incenter, the midpoint of an altitude, and the point of contact of the side with the excircle relative to that side are collinear. The incenter, the centroid, and the Spieker circles center are collinear, the circumcenter, the Brocard midpoint, and the Lemoine point of a triangle are collinear. Two perpendicular lines intersecting at the orthocenter of a triangle intersect each of the triangles extended sides. The midpoints on the three sides of these points of intersection are collinear in the Droz–Farny line. In a convex quadrilateral ABCD whose opposite sides intersect at E and F, the midpoints of AC, BD, and EF are collinear, if the quadrilateral is a tangential quadrilateral, then its incenter also lies on this line. In a convex quadrilateral, the quasiorthocenter H, the area centroid G, and the quasicircumcenter O are collinear in this order, other collinearities of a tangential quadrilateral are given in Tangential quadrilateral#Collinear points. In a cyclic quadrilateral, the circumcenter, the centroid
28.
Licking River (Kentucky)
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The Licking River is a partly navigable, 303-mile-long tributary of the Ohio River in northeastern Kentucky in the United States. The river and its tributaries drain much of the region of northeastern Kentucky between the watersheds of the Kentucky River to the west and the Big Sandy River to the east, the Native Americans of the area called the river Nepernine. When the explorer Dr. Thomas Walker first saw it in 1750, an earlier name given by hunters and frontiersmen, Great Salt Lick Creek, makes reference to the many saline springs near the river that attracted animals to its salt licks. The origin of the present name is unclear, though related to the previous name. Other, older settlements of unnamed groups in Bath County on Slate Creek are also known, the river served as an important transportation and trade route for both Native Americans and, from the mid-18th Century on, colonists of European descent who began pushing into the area. In 1782, the river was the site of the Battle of Blue Licks, the Newport Barracks in Newport guarded its mouth from 1803 to 1894. The Licking River is now used extensively for recreation, including boating, canoeing and fishing. It is used for rowing practice by the Cincinnati Junior Rowing Club, the North Fork of the Licking River between Mouth of Cedar and Crooked creeks is known as sacred ground for the Chagoner tribe and Jethro the Jeep. This group has been known to be the source of spontaneous rebel yells, beer drinking, campfires, the Licking River rises in the Cumberland Plateau of eastern Kentucky, in southeastern Magoffin County. It flows northwest in a meandering course past Salyersville and West Liberty. In Rowan County in the Daniel Boone National Forest it is impounded to form the large Cave Run Lake reservoir, northwest of the reservoir it receives Fleming Creek approximately 8 miles northwest of Carlisle and flows across the Bluegrass region of northern Kentucky. It receives the North Fork from the east approximately 10 miles northwest of Mount Olivet and it joins the Ohio opposite Cincinnati, where it separates the cities of Covington and Newport. The river was used as the border of the original Mason County and is the southwest border of Fleming. The river is considered by ecologists to provide a unique ecosystem in the region, the lower river is considered to be a habitat for the relatively rare native muskellunge. The river basin supports several fish species, including, redside dace, mimic shiner, streamline chub, slender madtom, blue sucker, paddlefish. There are more than 50 species of mussels, of which 11 are endangered. The watershed provides wetland stopover habitats for about 250 species of migratory birds, several state and federal agencies, as well as private organizations such as The Nature Conservancy work to protect the diversity of this important habitat. The largest common carp taken in the state of Kentucky was caught in the South Fork of the Licking River
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Newport, Kentucky
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Newport is a home rule-class city at the confluence of the Ohio and Licking rivers in Campbell County, Kentucky, in the United States. The population was 15,273 at the 2010 census, historically, it was one of four county seats of Campbell County. Newport is part of the Cincinnati Metropolitan Area, which includes over 2 million inhabitants, Newport was settled c. 1791 by James Taylor Jr. on land purchased by his father James Sr. from George Muse, who received it as a grant. Taylors brother, Hubbard Taylor, had been mapping the land twenty years prior and it was not named for its position on the river but for Christopher Newport, the commander of the first ship to reach Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Newport was established as a town on December 14,1795, in 1803, the Ft. Washington military post was moved from Cincinnati to become the Newport Barracks. A bridge first connected Newport to Covington in 1853, and the first bridge spanning the Ohio River to Cincinnati, Newport experienced large German immigration in the 1880-90s. By 1900, Newport was the third largest city in Kentucky, after Covington and Louisville, although Newport, prohibition under the Volstead Act of 1919 resulted in a widespread illegal sale of alcohol. Many gangsters began to smuggle alcohol into the city to supply citizens, speakeasies, bribery, and corruption became a norm in Newport. Newports worst natural disaster occurred in 1937, when a flood covered a part of the city. A flood wall was completed in 1948, and remains a significant part of Newports landscape, Newport once had the reputation of Sin City due to its upscale gambling casinos on Monmouth street. Monmouth also had many stores, nice restaurants, and ice cream parlors. Investigations for racketeering pushed out the casinos, which were replaced by peep shows, many of the old businesses disappeared when parking became difficult on Monmouth Street and the commercial district opened on the hill of south Newport. A garage at 938 John Street manufacturing illegal fireworks exploded without warning in 1981, in the 1980s and 1990s, Newport made plans to develop its riverfront and core to focus primarily on family friendly tourism, instead of the Sin City tourism of the past. In May 1999 the $40-million Newport Aquarium opened, and the historic Posey Flats apartments were leveled in favor of the Newport on the Levee entertainment complex, in 1997 plans were announced for a 1, 015-foot structure called the Millennium Tower were revealed. The towers main selling point was building it would be financed by private money. The tower was expected to be completed by 2003, but investors later pulled out, today the site for the tower is a parking lot next to the World Peace Bell. Today, Newport is becoming the entertainment community of the fast-growing Northern Kentucky area while its neighboring cities--Bellevue, Newport was the county seat of Campbell County from 1797 until 1823, and again from 1824 until 1840. In the 19th century, the majority of the population lived in Newport
30.
Pump
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A pump is a device that moves fluids, or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three groups according to the method they use to move the fluid, direct lift, displacement. Pumps operate by some mechanism, and consume energy to mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes. Single stage pump - When in an only one impeller is revolving then it is called single stage pump. Double/ Multi stage pump - When in a two or more than two impellers are revolving then it is called double/ multi stage pump. In biology, many different types of chemical and bio-mechanical pumps have evolved, mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping or be placed external to the fluid. Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement into positive displacement pumps, impulse pumps, velocity pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps, there are two basic types of pumps, positive displacement and centrifugal. Although axial-flow pumps are classified as a separate type, they have essentially the same operating principles as centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump makes a move by trapping a fixed amount. Some positive displacement pumps use a cavity on the suction side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands, the volume is constant through each cycle of operation. Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, theoretically can produce the flow at a given speed no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are constant flow machines, however, a slight increase in internal leakage as the pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate. A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the side of the pump. A relief or safety valve on the side of the positive displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external, the pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve is only used as a safety precaution
31.
Tugboat
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A tug is a boat or ship that maneuvers vessels by pushing or towing them. Tugboats are powerful for their size and strongly built, and some are ocean-going, some tugboats serve as icebreakers or salvage boats. Early tugboats had steam engines, but today most have diesel engines, many tugboats have firefighting monitors, allowing them to assist in firefighting, especially in harbors. Seagoing tugs fall into four categories, The standard seagoing tug with model bow that tows its payload on a hawser. The notch tug which can be secured in a notch at the stern of a specially designed barge and this configuration is dangerous to use with a barge which is in ballast or in a head- or following sea. Therefore, notch tugs are usually built with a towing winch and these units stay combined under virtually any sea conditions and the tugs usually have poor sea-keeping designs for navigation without their barges attached. Vessels in this category are considered to be ships rather than tugboats. These vessels must show navigation lights compliant with those required of ships rather than required of tugboats. Articulated tug and barge units also utilize mechanical means to connect to their barges, the tug slips into a notch in the stern and is attached by a hinged connection. ATBs generally utilize Intercon and Bludworth connecting systems, aTBs are generally staffed as a large tugboat, with between seven and nine crew members. The typical American ATB operating on the east coast customarily displays navigational lights of a towing vessel pushing ahead, compared to seagoing tugboats, harbour tugboats are generally smaller and their width-to-length ratio is often higher, due to the need for a lower draught. In smaller harbours these are also termed lunch bucket boats, because they are only manned when needed and only at a minimum. The number of tugboats in a harbour varies with the harbour infrastructure, things to take into consideration includes ships with/without bow thrusters and forces like wind, current and waves and types of ship. River tugs are also referred to as towboats or pushboats and their hull designs would make open ocean operation dangerous. River tugs usually do not have any significant hawser or winch and their hulls feature a flat front or bow to line up with the rectangular stern of the barge, often with large pushing knees. Tugboat engines typically produce 500 to 2,500 kW, for safety, tugboats engines often feature two of each critical part for redundancy. A tugboats power is stated by its engines horsepower and its overall bollard pull. The largest commercial harbour tugboats in the 2000s-2010s, used for towing container ships or similar, had around 60-65 tons of bollard pull, Tugboats are highly maneuverable, and various propulsion systems have been developed to increase maneuverability and increase safety
32.
Gallon
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The gallon is a unit of measurement for liquid capacity in both the US customary units and the British imperial systems of measurement. Three significantly different sizes are in current use, the imperial gallon defined as 4, while there is no official symbol for the gallon, gal is in common use. The gallon currently has one definition in the system. Historically, there were many definitions and redefinitions, there were more than a few systems of liquid measurements in the pre-1884 United Kingdom. The imperial fluid ounce is defined as 1⁄160 of a gallon, there are four quarts in a gallon. The US gallon is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, which is exactly 3.785411784 liters, a US liquid gallon of water weighs about 8.34 pounds or 3.78 kilograms at 62 °F, making it about 16. 6% lighter than the imperial gallon. There are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart and 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint, which makes the US fluid ounce equal to 1⁄128 of a US gallon. For example, the volume of products and alcoholic beverages are both referenced to 60 °F in government regulations. This dry measure is one-eighth of a US Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches, the US dry gallon is not used in commerce, and is not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry quart to the peck. The Imperial gallon is used in life in the United Kingdom. Gallons used in fuel economy expression in Canada are Imperial gallons, the gallon was removed from the list of legally defined primary units of measure catalogued in the EU directive 80/181/EEC, for trading and official purposes, with effect from 31 December 1994. Under the directive the gallon could still be used – but only as a supplementary or secondary unit, Ireland also passed legislation in response to the EU directive with the effective date being 31 December 1993. Though the gallon has ceased to be the legally defined primary unit, it can still be used in both the UK and Ireland as a supplementary unit. The Imperial gallon continues to be used as a unit of measure in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Is. Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Myanmar, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent & the Grenadines. Other than the United States, the US gallon is used in Liberia, Belize, Colombia, The Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Peru. The United Arab Emirates started selling gasoline by the litre in 2010, along with Guyana, the two former had used the Imperial gallon, and the latter the US gallon until they switched. Antigua and Barbuda plan to switch over to using litres by 2015
33.
Sandstone
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Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
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Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
35.
Bridge scour
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Bridge scour is the removal of sediment such as sand and rocks from around bridge abutments or piers. Scour, caused by moving water, can scoop out scour holes. In the United States, bridge scour is one of the three causes of bridge failure. It has been estimated that 60% of all bridge failures result from scour and it is the most common cause of highway bridge failure in the United States, where 46 of 86 major bridge failures resulted from scour near piers from 1961 to 1976. Water normally flows faster around piers and abutments making them susceptible to local scour, at bridge openings, contraction scour can occur when water accelerates as it flows through an opening that is narrower than the channel upstream from the bridge. Degradation scour occurs both upstream and downstream from a bridge over large areas, over long periods of time, this can result in lowering of the stream bed. Stream channel instability resulting in erosion and changing angles-of-attack can contribute to bridge scour. Debris can also have a impact on bridge scour in several ways. A build-up of material can reduce the size of the waterway under a bridge causing contraction scour in the channel, a build-up of debris on the abutment can increase the obstruction area and increase local scour. Debris can deflect the flow, changing the angle of attack. Debris might also shift the entire channel around the bridge causing increased water flow, the most frequently encountered bridge scour problems usually involve loose alluvial material that can be easily eroded. However, one should not assume that total scour in cohesive or cemented soils will not be as large as in non-cohesive soils, many of the equations for scour were derived from laboratory studies, for which the range of applicability is difficult to ascertain. Most studies focussed on piers and pile formations, though most bridge scour problems are related to the complex configuration of the bridge abutment. Some studies were verified using limited field data, though this is difficult to accurately scale for physical modelling purposes. During field measurements of post scour, a hole that had developed on the rising stage of a flood, or at the peak. For this reason, the depth of scour cannot be simply modelled after the event. Scour can also cause problems with the analysis of a bridge. Scour may considerably deepen the channel through a bridge and effectively reduce or even eliminate the backwater and this reduction in backwater should not be relied on, however, because of the unpredictable nature of the processes involved
36.
Panic of 1857
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The Panic of 1857 was a financial panic in the United States caused by the declining international economy and over-expansion of the domestic economy. Because of the interconnectedness of the economy by the 1850s. In Britain, the Palmerston government circumvented the requirements of the Peel Banking Act of 1844, surfacing news of this circumvention set off the Panic in Britain. Beginning in September 1857, the downturn did not last long, however. The sinking of the SS Central America contributed to the panic of 1857, American banks did not recover until after the civil war. By the mid 1850s, the amount of gold mined began to decline, eastern banks became cautious with their loans to the west and some even refused to accept western bank-issued paper currencies. The Supreme Court ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford was handed down in March 1857. After Scott sued for his freedom, Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen because he was an African American and therefore did not have the right to sue in court. The ruling also made the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, and it was clear that the decision would have a significant impact on the development of western territories. Soon after the ruling, the struggle between free soil and slavery in the territories began. The western territories were now opened to the possibility that slavery might expand into them, Kansas land warrants and western railroad securities prices declined slightly just after the Dred Scott decision in early March. This fluctuation in railroad securities proved that political news about future territories called the tune in the land, before 1857, the railroad industry was booming due to large migrations of people to the west, especially in Kansas. With the large influx of people, the became a profitable industry. Many of these never made it past the stage of a paper railroad. Prices of railroad stocks as a whole began to experience a stock bubble, in the meantime, the aforementioned Dred Scott decision lent uncertainty to railroads in general. In July 1857, railroad stocks saw their peak values, on August 11,1857, N. H. Wolfe and Company, the oldest flour and grain company in New York City, failed. The failure shook investor confidence and began a slow selloff in the market continued into late August. On the morning of August 24,1857, the president of Ohio Life Insurance, Ohio Life was an Ohio-based bank with a second main office in New York City
37.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
39.
Pontoon bridge
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A pontoon bridge, also known as a floating bridge, uses floats or shallow-draft boats to support a continuous deck for pedestrian and vehicle travel. The buoyancy of the limits the maximum load they can carry. Most pontoon bridges are temporary, used in wartime and civil emergencies, permanent floating bridges are useful for sheltered water-crossings where it is not considered economically feasible to suspend a bridge from anchored piers. Such bridges can require a section that is elevated, or can be raised or removed, a pontoon bridge is a collection of specialized, shallow draft boats or floats, connected together to cross a river or canal, with a track or deck attached on top. The water buoyancy supports the boats, limiting the load to the total. The supporting boats or floats can be open or closed, temporary or permanent in installation, the decking may be temporary or permanent, and constructed out of wood, modular metal, or asphalt or concrete over a metal frame. The spelling ponton in English dates from at least 1870, the use continued in references found in U. S. patents during the 1890s. It continued to be spelled in that fashion through World War II, U. S. combat engineers commonly pronounced the word ponton rather than pontoon and U. S. military manuals spelled it using a single o. The original word was derived from Old French ponton, from Latin ponto, when designing a pontoon bridge, the civil engineer must take into consideration the Archimedes principle looking at the maximum amount of load that it is intended to support. Each pontoon can support an equal to the mass of the water that it displaces. If the maximum load of a section is exceeded, one or more pontoons become submerged. The roadway across the pontoons must also be able to support the load, survey to determine the best location. The connection to shore often causes problems, requiring the design of approaches that are not too steep, keep the bank from crumbling, Floating bridges were typically constructed using wood. Such a wooden floating bridge could be built in a series of sections, Pontoons were formed using boats, several barrels lashed together, rafts of timbers, or some combination of these. Each bridge section consisted of one or more pontoons, which were maneuvered into position and then anchored, using underwater and these pontoons were then linked together using wooden stringers called balks. The balks were then covered by a series of cross planks called chesses to form a surface. Some bridges have been designed and survived much longer, in Hobart a long pontoon bridge built in 1943 was only replaced after 21 years. The fourth Galata Bridge that spans the Golden Horn in Istanbul, Turkey was built in 1912, precautions are needed to protect a pontoon bridge from becoming damaged
40.
Trenton, New Jersey
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Trenton is the capital city of the U. S. state of New Jersey and the county seat of Mercer County. It was briefly the capital of the United States, as of the 2010 United States Census, Trenton had a population of 84,913, making it the states 10th-largest municipality. The Census Bureau estimated that the population was 84,034 in 2014. Trenton dates back at least to June 3,1719, when mention was made of a constable being appointed for Trenton, while the area was still part of Hunterdon County. Boundaries were recorded for Trenton Township as of March 2,1720, a courthouse and jail were constructed in Trenton around 1720, Trenton became New Jerseys capital as of November 25,1790, and the City of Trenton was formed within Trenton Township on November 13,1792. Trenton Township was incorporated as one of New Jerseys initial group of 104 townships by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21,1798, on February 22,1834, portions of Trenton Township were taken to form Ewing Township. The remaining portion of Trenton Township was absorbed by the City of Trenton on April 10,1837, portions of Ewing Township and Hamilton Township were annexed to Trenton on March 23,1900. The first settlement which would become Trenton was established by Quakers in 1679, in the then called the Falls of the Delaware, led by Mahlon Stacy from Handsworth, Sheffield. Quakers were being persecuted in England at this time and North America provided an opportunity to exercise their religious freedom, by 1719, the town adopted the name Trent-towne, after William Trent, one of its leading landholders who purchased much of the surrounding land from Stacys family. This name later was shortened to Trenton, during the American Revolutionary War, the city was the site of the Battle of Trenton, George Washingtons first military victory. On December 26,1776, Washington and his army, after crossing the icy Delaware River to Trenton, after the war, the Confederation Congress briefly met in Trenton in November and December 1784. Trenton became the capital in 1790, but prior to that year the New Jersey Legislature often met here. The city was incorporated in 1792, during the War of 1812, the United States Armys primary hospital was at a site on Broad Street. Throughout the 19th century, Trenton grew steadily, as European immigrants came to work in its pottery, in 1837, with the population now too large for government by council, a new mayoral government was adopted, with by-laws that remain in operation to this day. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 8.155 square miles. Trenton is located near the geographic center of the state. However, Mercer County constitutes its own metropolitan area, formally known as the Trenton-Ewing MSA. Locals consider Trenton to be a part of an area called Central Jersey
41.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
42.
Ultimate tensile strength
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In other words, tensile strength resists tension, whereas compressive strength resists compression. Ultimate tensile strength is measured by the stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation, the UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering stress versus strain. The highest point of the curve is the UTS. It is a property, therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, Tensile strength can be defined for liquids as well as solids under certain conditions. Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area, for some non-homogeneous materials it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the International System of Units, the unit is the pascal, or, equivalently to pascals, Many materials can display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear stress–strain relationship, as shown in the left figure up to point 3. Beyond this elastic region, for materials, such as steel. A plastically deformed specimen does not completely return to its original size, for many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation. The reversal point is the stress on the engineering stress–strain curve. The UTS is not used in the design of static members because design practices dictate the use of the yield stress. It is, however, used for quality control, because of the ease of testing and it is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples. The UTS is a common engineering parameter to design members made of material because such materials have no yield point. Typically, the testing involves taking a sample with a fixed cross-sectional area. When testing some metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength and this important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers
43.
Damping ratio
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In engineering, the damping ratio is a dimensionless measure describing how oscillations in a system decay after a disturbance. Many systems exhibit oscillatory behavior when they are disturbed from their position of static equilibrium, a mass suspended from a spring, for example, might, if pulled and released, bounce up and down. On each bounce, the system is trying to return to its equilibrium position, sometimes losses damp the system and can cause the oscillations to gradually decay in amplitude towards zero or attenuate. The damping ratio is a measure of describing how rapidly the oscillations decay from one bounce to the next, where the spring–mass system is completely lossless, the mass would oscillate indefinitely, with each bounce of equal height to the last. This hypothetical case is called undamped, If the system contained high losses, for example if the spring–mass experiment were conducted in a viscous fluid, the mass could slowly return to its rest position without ever overshooting. Commonly, the mass tends to overshoot its starting position, and then return, with each overshoot, some energy in the system is dissipated, and the oscillations die towards zero. Between the overdamped and underdamped cases, there exists a level of damping at which the system will just fail to overshoot. This case is called critical damping, the key difference between critical damping and overdamping is that, in critical damping, the system returns to equilibrium in the minimum amount of time. The damping ratio is a parameter, usually denoted by ζ and it is particularly important in the study of control theory. It is also important in the harmonic oscillator, the damping ratio provides a mathematical means of expressing the level of damping in a system relative to critical damping. This equation can be solved with the approach, X = C e s t, where C and s are both complex constants. That approach assumes a solution that is oscillatory and/or decaying exponentially, using it in the ODE gives a condition on the frequency of the damped oscillations, s = − ω n. Undamped, Is the case where ζ →0 corresponds to the simple harmonic oscillator. Underdamped, If s is a number, then the solution is a decaying exponential combined with an oscillatory portion that looks like exp . This case occurs for ζ <1, and is referred to as underdamped, overdamped, If s is a real number, then the solution is simply a decaying exponential with no oscillation. This case occurs for ζ >1, and is referred to as overdamped, critically damped, The case where ζ =1 is the border between the overdamped and underdamped cases, and is referred to as critically damped. This turns out to be an outcome in many cases where engineering design of a damped oscillator is required. The factors Q, damping ratio ζ, and exponential decay rate α are related such that ζ =12 Q = α ω0, a lower damping ratio implies a lower decay rate, and so very underdamped systems oscillate for long times
44.
Toll bridge
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A toll bridge is a bridge over which traffic may pass upon payment of a toll, or fee. The practice of collecting tolls on bridges harks back to the days of ferry crossings where people paid a fee to be ferried across stretches of water, as boats became impractical to carry large loads, ferry operators looked for new sources of revenue. Having built a bridge, they hoped to recoup their investment by charging tolls for people, animals, vehicles, and goods to cross it. The original London Bridge across the river Thames opened as a toll bridge, using interest on its capital assets, the trust now owns and runs all seven central London bridges at no cost to taxpayers or users. In the United States, private ownership of toll bridges peaked in the mid-19th century, in some instances, a quasi-governmental authority was formed, and toll revenue bonds were issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility. Peters and Kramer observed that. little research has been done to quantify the impact of collection on society as a whole. And therefore they published an analysis of the Total Societal Cost associated with toll collection as a means of taxation. TSC is the sum of administrative, compliance, fuel and pollution costs, in 2000 they estimated it to be $56,914,732, or 37. 3% of revenue collected. Nakamura and Kockelman show that tolls are by nature regressive, shifting the burden of taxation disproportionately to the poor and middle classes. Electronic toll collection, branded under names such as EZ-Pass, SunPass, IPass, FasTrak, Treo, GoodToGo, electronic tolling proposals that represented the shadow price of electronic toll collection may have misled decision makers. Consumers have additionally endured an increased administrative burden associated with paying toll bills, additionally, visitors to a region may incur e-toll tag fees imposed by their rental car company. The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980 identified and attempted to address a problem associated with the government collection of information. Approvals were to be secured by government agencies before promulgating a paper form, website, however, the act did not anticipate and thus address the consumer burden associated with funding infrastructure via electronic toll collection instead of through more traditional forms of taxation. In some instances, tolls have been removed after retirement of the toll revenue bonds issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility, sometimes citizens revolt against toll plazas, as was the case in Jacksonville, Florida. Tolls were in place on four bridges crossing the St. Johns River and these tolls paid for the respective bridges as well as many other highway projects. As Jacksonville continued to grow, the tolls created bottlenecks on the roadway, in 1988, Jacksonville voters chose to eliminate all the toll booths and replace the revenue with a ½ cent sales tax increase. In 1989, the booths were removed,36 years after the first toll booth went up. In Scotland, the Scottish Parliament purchased the Skye Bridge from its owners in late 2004, in 2004, the German government cancelled a contract with the Toll Collect syndicate after much negative publicity
45.
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center
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The National Underground Railroad Freedom Center is a museum in downtown Cincinnati, Ohio based on the history of the Underground Railroad. Opened in 2004, the Center also pays tribute to all efforts to abolish human enslavement and secure freedom for all people. It is one of a new group of museums of conscience in the United States, along with the Museum of Tolerance, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and the National Civil Rights Museum. The Center offers insight into the struggle for freedom in the past, in the present, many found refuge in the city, some staying there temporarily before heading north to gain freedom in Canada. After ten years of planning, fundraising, and construction, the $110 million Freedom Center opened to the public on August 3,2004, the 158,000 square foot structure was designed by Boora Architects of Portland, Oregon with Blackburn Architects of Indianapolis. Three pavilions celebrate courage, cooperation and perseverance, the exterior features rough travertine stone from Tivoli, Italy on the east and west faces of the building, and copper panels on the north and south. According to Walter Blackburn, one of its primary architects before his death, the buildings undulating quality expresses the fields, first Lady Laura Bush, Oprah Winfrey, and Muhammad Ali attended the groundbreaking ceremony on June 17,2002. The centers principal artifact is a 21 by 30 foot, two-story log slave pen built in 1830, by 2003, it was the only known surviving rural slave jail, previously used to house slaves prior to their being shipped to auction. The structure was moved from a farm in Mason County, Kentucky and it was reconstructed in the second-floor atrium of the museum, where visitors encounter it again and again while exploring other exhibits. Passersby on the street outside can see it through the Centers large windows. The pen was originally owned by Captain John Anderson, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, the pen has eight small windows, the original stone floor and fireplace. On the second floor are a row of iron rings through which a central chain ran. Male slaves were held on the floor, while women were kept on the first floor. The pen is powerful, says Carl B, westmoreland, curator and senior adviser to the museum. It has the feeling of hallowed ground, when people stand inside, they speak in whispers. I believe it is here to tell a story - the story of the slave trade to future generations. Visitors to the museum can walk through the pen and touch its walls. The first names of some of the believed to have been held in the pen are listed on a wooden slab in the pens interior
46.
Brent Spence Bridge
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The Brent Spence Bridge is a double decker, cantilevered truss bridge that carries Interstates 71 and 75 across the Ohio River between Covington, Kentucky and Cincinnati, Ohio. The top deck carries Kentucky-bound traffic while the bottom deck carries Ohio-bound traffic, the bridge was named for Kentuckys longest serving congressman at the time, Brent Spence, who served in the U. S. Congress for over thirty years before retiring in 1962. The bridge, which opened a year after his retirement, was named in his honor by then Kentucky governor Bert T. Combs, Spence did not feel that he deserved the honor, and lobbied for the Bridge to be named for President Kennedy. When the bridge opened in November 1963, it carried three lanes of traffic each way across the Ohio River. The bridge was designed to carry 85,000 vehicles per day, recent reports show that contrary to previous traffic expectations, traffic on the Brent Spence Bridge has actually decreased by 9 percent between 2009 and 2015. On September 15,2011, chunks of concrete from the Ohio side ramp connected to the fell on to a vehicle. As of 2008, the Cincinnati City Council supported alternative #4, which building a new bridge to carry I-75 at the current location. Alternative #4 would build a bridge just west of the Brent Spence Bridge. It would again be a two deck bridge, except the top deck would carry all I-75 traffic and the deck would carry south I-71. The I-75 deck would be a total of 6 lanes, with 3 lanes each for north and south traffic, the I-71 deck would be a total of 5 lanes, divided into 3 lanes for south local traffic, and 2 lanes of south 71 traffic
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Interstate 75
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Interstate 75 is a major Interstate Highway in the Great Lakes and Southeastern regions of the United States. As with most Interstates that end in a five, it is a major cross-country, north–south route and it travels from State Road 826 and SR924 on the Hialeah–Miami Lakes border to Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, at the Canadian border, I-75 is the seventh longest Interstate Highway, the second longest north-south after I-95, and passes through six different states, Florida, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Michigan. Due to high levels on the Interstate, much of the route is six lanes even in rural areas. I-75 starts at an interchange with SR924 and SR826 on the Hialeah–Miami Lakes border in suburban Miami, the freeway enters the Tampa Bay metropolitan area before the interchange with I-275 northbound, which handles St. Petersburg-bound traffic. The freeway proceeds to enter suburban portions of Pasco, Hernando, afterward, the northmost stretch of I-75 in Florida exits the Sunshine State into southern Georgia. After Macon it passes the town of Forsyth. The freeway reaches no major junctions again until in the Atlanta metropolitan area, the first metropolitan freeway met is I-675, then followed by the Atlanta Perimeter bypass, I-285. It crosses inside the Perimeter and heads north several miles towards the Atlanta city center, Interstate 75 then runs concurrently with I-85 due north over the Downtown Connector through the central business district of Atlanta. The areas where I-85 and I-75 run concurrently are some of the most traffic-prone streets in the nation, after the two Interstates split, I-75 makes a beeline northwest, crossing outside the I-285 perimeter and heading towards the major suburban city of Marietta. This section of I-75 just north of I-285 has 15 through lanes, north of Marietta, the final major junction in the Atlanta metropolitan area is the I-575 spur. I-75 then traverses the hilly northwestern Georgia terrain as it travels towards Chattanooga, the freeway enters Tennessee directly in the Chattanooga metropolitan area, where it intersects with I-24. Exiting Chattanooga to the northeast, I-75 passes through a known for dense fog. Twelve people were killed and 42 were injured in a 99-vehicle accident on that stretch of I-75 in heavy fog on December 11,1990, I-75 does not meet any other highways until it overlaps Interstate 40 near Farragut and heads eastbound. Together, they enter the outskirts of Knoxville, where I-75 overlaps itself with a different road, this time I-640, near Walton, I-71 merges with I-75, making for yet another overlapped portion of freeway. I-275, which is the Cincinnati beltway, is intersected by I-71/I-75. After passing through Covington, the crosses the Ohio River via the lower level of the Brent Spence Bridge. I-74 westbound, Ohio State Route 562 eastbound, and SR126 all intersect the freeway as it makes its way northward, in Arlington Heights, a Cincinnati suburb, I-75 sees a carriageway split for a few miles
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University of Kentucky
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The University of Kentucky is a public co-educational university in Lexington, Kentucky. S. The institution comprises 16 colleges, a school,93 undergraduate programs,99 master programs,66 doctoral programs. The University of Kentucky has fifteen libraries on campus, young Library, a federal depository, hosting subjects related to social sciences, humanities, and life sciences collections. In recent years, the university has focused expenditures increasingly on research, the directive mandated that the university become a Top 20 public research institution, in terms of an overall ranking to be determined by the university itself, by the year 2020. Courses were offered at Ashland, The Henry Clay Estate, three years later, James Kennedy Patterson became the first president of the land-grant university and the first degree was awarded. In 1876, the university began to offer degree programs. Two years later, A&M separated from Kentucky University, which is now Transylvania University, for the new school, Lexington donated a 52-acre park and fair ground, which became the core of UKs present campus. A&M was initially a male-only institution, but began to admit women in 1880, in 1892, the official colors of the university, royal blue and white, were adopted. An earlier color set, blue and light yellow, was adopted earlier at a Kentucky-Centre College football game on December 19,1891, the particular hue of blue was determined from a necktie, which was used to demonstrate the color of royal blue. On February 15,1882, Administration Building was the first building of three completed on the present campus, three years later, the college formed the Agricultural Experiment Station, which researches issues relating to agribusiness, food processing, nutrition, water and soil resources and the environment. This was followed up by the creation of the universitys Agricultural Extension Service in 1910, the extension service became a model of the federally mandated programs that were required beginning in 1914. Patterson Hall, the schools first womens dormitory, was constructed in 1904, residents had to cross a swampy depression, where the Student Center now stands, to reach central campus. Four years later, the name was changed to the State University, Lexington, Kentucky upon reaching university status. The university led to the creation of the College of Home Economics in 1916, the College of Commerce was established in 1925, known today as the Gatton College of Business and Economics. In 1929, Memorial Hall was completed, dedicated to the 2,756 Kentuckians who died in World War I and this was followed up by the new King Library, which opened in 1931 and was named for a long-time library director, Margaret I. The universitys graduate and professional programs became racially integrated in 1949 when Lyman T. Johnson, African Americans would not be allowed to attend as undergraduates until 1954, following the US Supreme Courts Brown v. Board of Education decision. In 1939, Governor Happy Chandler appointed the first woman trustee on the University of Kentucky Board of Trustees and she served from 1939 to 1960. In 1962, Blazer Hall was opened as the Georgia M Blazer Hall for Women in tribute to her years of service as a University of Kentucky trustee
