1.
Oak Park, Illinois
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Oak Park is a village adjacent to the West Side of the city of Chicago in Cook County, Illinois, United States. Pace buses serve the Village for travel within its borders and connecting to neighboring suburbs, as of the 2010 United States Census the Village had a total population of 51,878. Oak Park was settled beginning in the 1830s, with rapid growth later in the 19th century and it incorporated in 1902, breaking off from Cicero. Development was spurred by railroads and street cars connecting the village to jobs in Chicago, famed architect Frank Lloyd Wright and his wife settled here in 1889. Population peaked at 66,015 in 1940, smaller families led to falling population in the same number of homes and apartments. In the 1960s, Oak Park faced the challenge of racial integration, devising many strategies to integrate rather than re-segregate the village, Oak Park includes three historic districts for the historic homes, Ridgeland, Frank Lloyd Wright and Seward Gunderson, reflecting the focus on historic preservation. In 1835, Joseph Kettlestrings, an immigrant from England, purchased 172 acres of land just west of Chicago for a farm and their home. Once their children were born, they moved to Chicago for the schools in 1843, more farmers and settlers had entered the area. Their land was called by several names locally, including Oak Ridge, by 1850, the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad was constructed as far as Elgin, Illinois, and passed through the settlement area. In the 1850s the land on which Oak Park sits was part of the new Chicago suburb, the town of Cicero. The population of the area boomed during the 1870s, with Chicago residents resettling in Cicero following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and the expansion of railroads and street cars to the area. In 1872, when Oak Park received its own depot on the Chicago and Northwestern Railway. As Chicago grew from a center to a national metropolis Oak Park expanded – from 500 residents in 1872 to 1,812 in 1890, to 9,353 in 1900, to 20,911 in 1910. Oak Park thus emerged as a leading Chicago suburb, one of the first streetcar lines was the Chicago, Harlem, & Batavia “dummy” line, which ran approximately along the present-day route of the Eisenhower Expressway. The “dummy” trains used a steam locomotive with a false cladding designed to conceal most of the moving parts. This line first began operation in 1881, but did not provide direct service to downtown Chicago until June 1888. A more extensive network throughout Oak Park was opened in 1890. In the future village of Oak Park, this system ran east-west on Madison Street and Lake Street, streetcar service was discontinued in 1947, to be replaced by buses
2.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
3.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, also known as U of I, University of Illinois, UIUC, or simply Illinois, is a public research-intensive university in the U. S. state of Illinois. Founded in 1867 as a land-grant institution in the cities of Champaign and Urbana, it is the flagship campus of the University of Illinois system. In fiscal year 2015, total research expedentures at Illinois totaled $640 million, the campus library system possesses the second-largest university library in the United States after Harvard University. The university also hosts the National Center for Supercomputing Applications and is home to the fastest supercomputer on a university campus, the university comprises 17 colleges that offer more than 150 programs of study. Additionally, the university operates an extension that offers programs to more than 1.5 million registrants per year around the state of Illinois. The university holds 647 buildings on 4,552 acres and its operating budget in 2016 was over $2 billion. Even though Illinois is a university, only about 12% of the budget comes from the state. Between several cities, Urbana was selected in 1867 as the site for the new school, the University opened for classes on March 2,1868, and had two faculty members and 77 students. Gregory is largely credited with establishing the University as it is today, Gregorys grave is on the Urbana campus, between Altgeld Hall and the Henry Administration Building. His headstone reads, If you seek his monument, look about you, the Library, which opened with the school in 1868, started with 1,039 volumes. Subsequently, President Edmund J. James, in a speech to the Board of Trustees in 1912 and it is now one of the worlds largest public academic collections. In 1870, the Mumford House was constructed as a farmhouse for the schools experimental farm. The Mumford House remains the oldest structure on campus, the original University Hall was the fourth building built, it stood where the Illini Union stands today. During the Presidency of Edmund J. James, James is credited for building the foundation of the large Chinese international student population on campus, on June 11,1929, the Alma Mater statue was unveiled. The Alma Mater was established by donations by the Alumni Fund, the University replaced the original university hall with Gregory Hall and the Illini Union. After World War II, the university experienced rapid growth, the enrollment doubled and the academic standing improved. This period was marked by large growth in the Graduate College and increased federal support of scientific. During the 1950s and ’60s the university experienced the turmoil common on many American campuses, among these were the water fights of the fifties and sixties
4.
National Medal of Science
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The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
5.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
6.
University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
7.
University of California, Santa Barbara
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The University of California, Santa Barbara is a public research university and one of the 10 campuses of the University of California system. The main campus is located on a 1, 022-acre site near Goleta, California, tracing its roots back to 1891 as an independent teachers college, UCSB joined the University of California system in 1944 and is the third-oldest general-education campus in the system. UCSB is one of Americas Public Ivy universities, which recognizes top public universities in the United States. The university is a doctoral university and is organized into five colleges. UCSB was ranked 37th among National Universities, 8th among U. S. public universities, the university was also ranked 48th worldwide for 2016-17 by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 42nd worldwide by the Academic Ranking of World Universities in 2016. UC Santa Barbara is a high activity research university with twelve national research centers. UCSB was the No.3 host on the ARPAnet and was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1995, the UC Santa Barbara Gauchos compete in the Big West Conference of the NCAA Division I. The Gauchos have won NCAA national championships in soccer and mens water polo. UCSB traces its origins back to the Anna Blake School which was founded in 1891 and offered training in home economics and industrial arts. The Anna Blake School was taken over by the state in 1909 and became the Santa Barbara State Normal School, the State College system sued to stop the takeover, but the Governor did not support the suit. A state initiative was passed, however, in 1946 to stop subsequent conversions of State Colleges to University of California campuses, from 1944 to 1958 the school was known as Santa Barbara College of the University of California, before taking on its current name. When the vacated Marine Corps training station in Goleta was purchased for the growing college. Originally, the Regents envisioned a small, several thousand-student liberal arts college, chronologically, UCSB is the third general-education campus of the University of California, after Berkeley and UCLA. The original campus the Regents acquired in Santa Barbara was located on only 100 acres of largely unusable land on a seaside mesa, all of this change was done in accordance with the California Master Plan for Higher Education. In 1959, UCSB professor Douwe Stuurman hosted the English writer Aldous Huxley as the universitys first visiting professor, Huxley delivered a lectures series called The Human Situation. In the late 1960s and early 1970s UCSB became nationally known as a hotbed of anti-Vietnam War activity, a bombing at the schools faculty club in 1969 killed the caretaker, Dover Sharp. UCSBs anti-Vietnam activity impelled then Governor Ronald Reagan to impose a curfew, weapon-carrying guardsmen were a common sight on campus and in Isla Vista during this time. On May 23,2014, a killing spree occurred in Isla Vista, California, all six people killed during the rampage were students at UCSB
8.
University of Florida
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The University of Florida is an American public land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research university on a 2, 000-acre campus in Gainesville, Florida. It is a member of the State University System of Florida and traces its origins to 1853. The University is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, for 2017, U. S. News & World Report ranked Florida as the fourteenth best public university in the United States. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and it is the third largest Florida university by student population, and is the eighth largest single-campus university in the United States with 49,913 students enrolled for the fall 2012 semester. The University of Florida is home to sixteen colleges and more than 150 research centers. The University of Florida traces its origins to 1853, when the East Florida Seminary, on January 6,1853, Governor Thomas Brown signed a bill that provided public support for higher education in Florida. Gilbert Kingsbury was the first person to take advantage of the legislation, and established the East Florida Seminary, the East Florida Seminary was Floridas first state-supported institution of higher learning. James Henry Roper, an educator from North Carolina and a senator from Alachua County, had opened a school in Gainesville. In 1866, Roper offered his land and school to the State of Florida in exchange for the relocation of the East Florida Seminary to Gainesville, the second major precursor to the University of Florida was the Florida Agricultural College, established at Lake City by Jordan Probst in 1884. Florida Agricultural College became the states first land-grant college under the Morrill Act, in 1905, the Florida Legislature passed the Buckman Act, which consolidated the states publicly supported higher education institutions. The member of the legislature who wrote the act, Henry Holland Buckman, later became the namesake of Buckman Hall, the Buckman Act organized the State University System of Florida and created the Florida Board of Control to govern the system. The City of Gainesville, led by its Mayor William Reuben Thomas, on July 6,1905, the Board of Control selected Gainesville for the new university campus. Andrew Sledd, president of the pre-existing University of Florida at Lake City, was selected to be the first president of the new University of the State of Florida, architect William A. Edwards designed the first official campus buildings in the Collegiate Gothic style. Classes began on the new Gainesville campus on September 26,1906, in 1909, the schools name was simplified from the University of the State of Florida to the University of Florida. The alligator was incidentally chosen as the mascot in 1911, after a local vendor ordered. Murphree is the only University of Florida president honored with a statue on the campus, before this, only the summer semester was coeducational, to accommodate women teachers who wanted to further their education during the summer break. Lassie Goodbread-Black from Lake City became the first woman to enroll at the University of Florida, john J. Tigert became the third university president in 1928. By the end of the 1946–47 school year,954 men were enrolled at the Tallahassee Branch, the following semester, the Florida Legislature returned the Florida State College for Women to coeducational status and renamed it Florida State University
9.
Florida State University
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Florida State University is an American public space-grant and sea-grant research university. Its primary campus is located on a 1,391. 54-acre campus in Tallahassee, Florida and it is a senior member of the State University System of Florida. Founded in 1851, it is located on the oldest continuous site of higher education in the state of Florida, the university is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The university comprises 16 separate colleges and more than 110 centers, facilities, labs and institutes that offer more than 360 programs of study, the university has an annual budget of over $1.7 billion and an annual economic impact of over $10 billion. Florida State is home to Floridas only National Laboratory – the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory and is the birthplace of the commercially viable anti-cancer drug Taxol. Florida State University also operates The John & Mable Ringling Museum of Art, the university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Florida State University leads Florida in four of eight areas of external funding for the STEM disciplines, FSU officially launched the Raise the Torch, The Campaign for Florida State on October 17,2014. The campaign has a goal of more than $1 billion which will improve academics, research. As of September 30,2016, Florida State Universitys Raise the Torch campaign has raised $938,972,249, for 2017, U. S. News & World Report ranked Florida State as the 38th best public university in the United States. FSUs intercollegiate sports teams, commonly known by their Florida State Seminoles nickname, compete in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I, in their 113-year history, Florida States varsity sports teams have won 20 national athletic championships and Seminole athletes have won 78 individual NCAA national championships. In 1819 the Florida Territory was ceded to the United States by Spain as an element of the Adams–Onís Treaty, the Territory was conventionally split by the Appalachicola or later the Suwannee rivers into East and West areas. Florida State University is traceable to a set by the 1823 U. S. Congress to create a system of higher education. The 1838 Florida Constitution codified the system by providing for land allocated for the schools. In 1845 Florida became the 27th State of the United States, in 1851 the Florida Legislature voted to establish two seminaries of higher education on opposite sides of the Suwannee River. Francis W. Eppes and other city leaders established an academy called the Florida Institute in Tallahassee as a legislative inducement to locate the West Florida Seminary in Tallahassee. The East Florida Seminary opened in Ocala in 1853, closed in 1861, the East Florida Seminary is the institution to which the modern University of Florida traces its foundation. Two years later the institution absorbed the Tallahassee Female Academy founded in 1843 as the Misses Bates School, the West Florida Seminary stood near the front of the Westcott Building on the existing FSU campus, making this site the oldest continually used location of higher learning in Florida. In 1860–61 the legislature started formal training at the school with a law amending the original 1851 statute
10.
University of Birmingham
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The University of Birmingham is a public research university located in Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom. It is a member of both the Russell Group of British research universities and the international network of research universities, Universitas 21. The university was ranked 15th in the UK and 82nd in the world in the QS World University Rankings for 2016-17, in 2013, Birmingham was named University of the Year 2014 in the Times Higher Education awards. The 2016 Global Employability University Ranking places Birmingham at 90th world-wide, Birmingham is also ranked 9th in the UK for Graduate Prospects in The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2017. The student population includes 21,495 undergraduate and 12,335 postgraduate students, the annual income of the institution for 2015–16 was £625.6 million of which £135.5 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £562.1 million. Academics and alumni of the university include former British Prime Ministers Neville Chamberlain, and Stanley Baldwin and these classes were the first ever held outside London or south of the Scottish border in the winter of 1767–68. The first clinical teaching was undertaken by medical and surgical apprentices at the General Hospital, the medical school which grew out of the Birmingham Workhouse Infirmary was founded in 1828 but Cox began teaching in December 1825. Queen Victoria granted her patronage to the Clinical Hospital in Birmingham and it was the first provincial teaching hospital in England. In 1843, the college became known as Queens College. The college was founded in 1875 and it was this institution that would eventually form the nucleus of the University of Birmingham. In 1882, the Departments of Chemistry, Botany and Physiology were transferred to Mason Science College, soon followed by the Departments of Physics and Comparative Anatomy. The transfer of the Medical School to Mason Science College gave considerable impetus to the importance of that college. As the result of the Mason University College Act 1897 it became incorporated as Mason University College on 1 January 1898 and it was largely due to Chamberlains enthusiasm that the university was granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria on 24 March 1900. The Calthorpe family offered twenty-five acres of land on the Bournbrook side of their estate in July, the Court of Governors received the Birmingham University Act 1900, which put the royal charter into effect on 31 May. Birmingham was therefore arguably the first so-called red brick university, although several other universities claim this title, the transfer of Mason University College to the new University of Birmingham, with Chamberlain as its first chancellor and Sir Oliver Lodge as the first principal, was complete. All that remained of Josiah Masons legacy was his Mermaid in the chief of the university shield and of his college. It became the first civic and campus university in England, consequently, the faculty, the first of its kind in Britain, was founded by Sir William Ashley in 1901, who from 1902 until 1923 served as first Professor of Commerce and Dean of the Faculty. From 1905 to 1908, Edward Elgar held the position of Peyton Professor of Music at the university and he was succeeded by his friend Granville Bantock
11.
John Bardeen
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Bardeens developments in superconductivity, which won him his second Nobel, are used in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy or its medical sub-tool magnetic resonance imaging. In 1990, John Bardeen appeared on LIFE Magazines list of 100 Most Influential Americans of the Century, John Bardeen was born in Madison, Wisconsin on May 23,1908. He was the son of Charles Russell Bardeen, the first dean of the University of Wisconsin Medical School, Bardeen attended the University High School at Madison for several years, but graduated from Madison Central High School in 1923. He graduated from school at age fifteen, even though he could have graduated several years earlier. His graduation was postponed due to taking courses at another high school. He entered the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1923, while in college he joined the Zeta Psi fraternity. He raised the membership fees partly by playing billiards. He was initiated as a member of Tau Beta Pi engineering honor society and he chose engineering because he didnt want to be an academic like his father and also because it is mathematical. He also felt that engineering had good job prospects, Bardeen received his Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1928 from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He graduated in 1928 despite taking a year off during his degree to work in Chicago and he received his Master of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1929 from Wisconsin. Bardeen stayed on for time at Wisconsin furthering his studies, but he eventually went to work for Gulf Research Laboratories. From 1930 to 1933, Bardeen worked there on the development of methods for the interpretation of magnetic, after the work failed to keep his interest, he applied and was accepted to the graduate program in mathematics at Princeton University. Bardeen studied both mathematics and physics as a student, ending up writing his thesis on a problem in solid-state physics. Before completing his thesis, he was offered a position as Junior Fellow of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University in 1935 and he received his Ph. D. in mathematical physics from Princeton in 1936. In October 1945, John Bardeen began work at Bell Labs, Bardeen was a member of a Solid State Physics Group, led by William Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan. Other personnel working in the group were Walter Brattain, physicist Gerald Pearson, chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and he moved his family to Summit, New Jersey. The assignment of the group was to seek an alternative to fragile glass vacuum tube amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockleys ideas about using an electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity
12.
Leon Cooper
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Leon N Cooper is an American physicist and Nobel Prize laureate, who with John Bardeen and John Robert Schrieffer, developed the BCS theory of superconductivity. He is also the namesake of the Cooper pair and co-developer of the BCM theory of synaptic plasticity. Cooper graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1947 and received a B. A. in 1951, M. A. in 1953, and Ph. D. in 1954 from Columbia University. He spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study and taught at the University of Illinois and he is the Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Professor of Science at Brown, and Director of the Institute for Brain and he has carried out research at various institutions including the Institute for Advanced Study, the European Organization for Nuclear Research in Geneva, Switzerland. The character Sheldon Cooper, featured in the CBS comedy The Big Bang Theory, is named in part after Leon Cooper, Cooper, L. N. & J. Rainwater. Theory of Multiple Coulomb Scattering from Extended Nuclei, Nevis Cyclotron Laboratories at Columbia University, Office of Naval Research, Cooper, L. N. Lee, H. J. Schwartz, B. B. & W. Silvert. Theory of the Knight Shift and Flux Quantization in Superconductors, Brown University, Cooper, L. N. & Feldman, D. BCS,50 years, World Scientific Publishing Co
13.
Superconductivity
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It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8,1911, in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics. The electrical resistance of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered, in ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature, an electric current flowing through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have a temperature above 90 K. Such a high temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor. There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified, by theory of operation, It is conventional if it can be explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives, or unconventional, otherwise. By material, Superconductor material classes include chemical elements, alloys, ceramics, on the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. For instance, all superconductors have exactly zero resistivity to low applied currents when there is no magnetic field present or if the field does not exceed a critical value. The resistance of the sample is given by Ohms law as R = V / I, if the voltage is zero, this means that the resistance is zero. Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a current lifetime of at least 100,000 years, theoretical estimates for the lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature. In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of electrons moving across an ionic lattice. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated and this is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and Joule heating. The situation is different in a superconductor, in a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons
14.
Manhasset, New York
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Manhasset is a hamlet and census-designated place in Nassau County, New York, on the North Shore of Long Island. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 8,080, as with other unincorporated communities in New York, its local affairs are administered by the town in which it is located, the Town of North Hempstead, New York. Manhasset is a Native American term that translates to the island neighborhood, in 2005, a Wall Street Journal article ranked Manhasset as the best town for raising a family in the New York metropolitan area. The Manhasset area, settled by 1680, grew quickly after it began being served by the Long Island Rail Road in 1898, the LIRR provides access to New York City via the Manhasset and Plandome stations with an approximately 40 minute commute to Penn Station. Express trains, which run during rush hour, make the trip in less than 30 minutes, the hamlet of Manhasset is located 19.5 miles away from midtown Manhattan. The Matinecock had a village on Manhasset Bay and these Native Americans called the area Sint Sink, meaning place of small stones. They made wampum from oyster shells, in 1623, the area was claimed by the Dutch West India Company and they began forcing English settlers to leave in 1640. A1643 land purchase made it possible for English settlers to return to Cow Neck, Manhasset Bay was previously known as Schouts Bay, Martin Garretsons Bay, and later Cow Bay or Cow Harbor. Cow Neck was so called because it offered good grazing land, by 1659, there were over 300 cows and 5 mi fence separating Cow Neck from the areas south of it. The settlers came to an agreement that each of them could have one cow on the neck for each section of fence the individual had constructed, the area was more formally divided among the settlers when the fence was removed in 1677. Manhasset took on the name Little Cow Neck, Port Washington was known as Upper Cow Neck, during the American Revolution, Little Cow Neck suffered at the hands of the British. Many structures and properties, such as the 1719 Quaker Meeting House were burned, seized or damaged, the Town of North Hempstead separated from the Town of Hempstead in 1784 because the South, inhabited mainly by Church of England people, was loyal to the king. The Northern communities and villages, dominated by Yankee Congregationalists supported independence, in 1801 it cost 2 cents to travel between Roslyn and Spinney Hill on North Hempstead Turnpike, the newly opened toll road. The Manhasset name was adopted in 1840 and comes from the native word Manhansett, dairy farming was still a major endeavor but the oyster industry was also on the rise. In 1898, the Long Island Railroad arrived, bringing with it wealthy New Yorkers looking for homes with easy transportation to more urban areas of New York City. Manhasset Valley and the area called Spinney Hill attracted a number of skilled workers, the North Hempstead Town Hall opened in Manhasset on Plandome Road in 1907. Town councilmen had previously been meeting in Roslyn taverns after North Hempstead split away from Hempstead in 1775 and it is still standing and is currently used as a community center. The centrally located and antiquated Plandome Road School was demolished in the 1970s and it was surprisingly well built and, even though the building sustained serious fire damage after it closed, it took significant time and effort in order to be demolished
15.
Eustis, Florida
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Eustis is a city in Lake County, Florida, United States. The population was 15,106 at the 2000 census, the Census Bureau estimated the population in 2008 to be 19,129. It is part of the Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford Metropolitan Statistical Area, Eustis High School is the towns local public high school. The City of Eustis holds a festival every year which begins on the last Friday of February and this festival, referred to simply as GeorgeFest, is recognized today as the second longest ongoing annual event held in honor of George Washington, first President of the United States. Eustis is located at 28°51′04″N 81°40′55″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 9.6 square miles, of which 8.4 square miles is land and 1.3 square miles is water. The city limits are defined by Eudora, Abrams, and CR44 on the east, CR44 to the north, US Hwy 441 to the south and Lake Eustis and Florida Hospital Waterman to the west. As of the census of 2000, there were 15,106 people,6,371 households, the population density was 1,808.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 7,322 housing units at a density of 876.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 76. 90% White,18. 98% African American,0. 34% Native American,0. 63% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander,1. 89% from other races, and 1. 17% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 37% of the population,31. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the family size was 2.86. In the city, the population was out with 22. 6% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,23. 3% from 25 to 44,21. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 84.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.7 males, the median income for a household in the city was $32,032, and the median income for a family was $39,519. Males had an income of $30,807 versus $22,072 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,706, about 11. 0% of families and 15. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25. 2% of those under age 18 and 9. 6% of those age 65 or over. Eustis also serves as the center for small communities of Rural East Lake County including Cassia. These communities are not reflected in the Census Bureaus City Statistics, when the rural statistics are compiled into the city stats, the total population of Eustis topped 50,000 in 2000
16.
National Science Foundation
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The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health, with an annual budget of about US$7.0 billion, the NSF funds approximately 24% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the current NSF director, confirmed in March 2014, is astronomer France A. Córdova, former president of Purdue University. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, the NSF also makes some contracts. Some proposals are solicited, and some are not, the NSF funds both kinds, the NSF does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being the NASA and the National Institutes of Health. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year and those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a merit review process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers, all proposal evaluations are confidential, the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. However, both already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act. The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for research centers, instruments. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the community as a whole. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering, Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. K-12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs, the NSFs workforce numbers about 1,700, nearly all working at its Arlington headquarters. In June 2013 it was announced that the NSF would relocate its headquarters to Alexandria, Virginia in 2017. S, examples include initiatives in, Nanotechnology The science of learning Digital libraries The ecology of infectious diseases The NSF was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is To promote the progress of science, to advance the health, prosperity, and welfare. Some historians of science have argued that the result was a compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government. The NSF was certainly not the government agency for the funding of basic science. By 1950, support for areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health
17.
Niels Bohr Institute
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The Niels Bohr Institute is a research institute of the University of Copenhagen. The research of the institute spans astronomy, geophysics, nanotechnology, particle physics, on the 80th anniversary of Niels Bohrs birth - October 7,1965 - the Institute officially became The Niels Bohr Institute. Much of its funding came from the charitable foundation of the Carlsberg brewery. During the 1920s, and 1930s, the Institute was the center of the disciplines of atomic physics. Physicists from across Europe often visited the Institute to confer with Bohr on new theories and discoveries, the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is named after work done at the Institute during this time. On January 1,1993 the institute was merged with the Astronomic Observatory, the Ørsted Laboratory, the new resulting institute retained the name Niels Bohr Institute. In 2010, the year of the 125th anniversary of the birth of Niels Bohr and it is an annual award for a particularly outstanding researcher who is working in the spirit of Niels Bohr, International cooperation and the exchange of knowledge. The medal is made by Danish sculptor Rikke Raben for the Niels Bohr Institute, on the front is a portrait of Niels Bohr, the atom sign and stars. The illustration on the back is inspired by a quote from Bohr and our task is to communicate experience and ideas to others. On the back of the medal, Unity of Knowledge - the title of a given by Bohr at Columbia University in 1954. Nosce te ipsum is latin and means know thyself and this quote originates from the Oracle of Delphi, in the Temple of Apollo in Greece
18.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
19.
Technical University of Munich
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The Technical University of Munich is a research university with campuses in Munich, Garching and Freising-Weihenstephan. It is a member of TU9, a society of the largest and most notable German institutes of technology. TUMs alumni include 13 Nobel laureates,18 Leibniz Prizewinners and 10 IEEE Fellow Members, timeline 1868 University founded by King Ludwig II. 1877 Awarded the designation Königlich Bayerische Technische Hochschule München,1901 Granted the right to award doctorates. 1902 Approval of the election of the Principal by the teaching staff,1930 Integration of the College of Agriculture and Brewing in Weihenstephan. 1949–1954, Reconstruction of the building of the Technische Universität by Robert Vorhoelzer after WWII. Construction of a new building and library. 1957 Given the status of a ‘public legal body’,1958 Research Reactor Munich, Garching officially assigned to the TH München. 1967 Establishment of a faculty of medicine 1970 Renamed to ‘Technische Universität München’,2004 Official opening of Forschungsreaktor München II, a leading neutron source, on March 2. Even to the present day, it is still the state university dedicated to technology. Numerous excellent TUM professors have secured their place in the history of technology, many important scientists, architects, the prerequisites for an academic training in engineering were created at the start of the 19th century when the advancement of technology on the basis of exact sciences commenced. There were also calls for a university for all studies in Bavaria. The polytechnic schools set up in Augsburg, Munich and Nuremberg, instead, an advanced engineering course was established at the Polytechnic School Munich in 1840, which was the forerunner of what was later to become the Technische Hochschule München. In 1868, King Ludwig II founded the newly structured Polytechnische Schule München and it was allowed to call itself Königlich Bayerische Technische Hochschule München as from the academic year 1877–78. The first Principal was the former Head of the Engineering Course, in the year of its foundation, the college took up residence in the new building in Arcisstrasse, which was designed by Gottfried v. Neureuther. In those days, more than 350 students were taught by 24 professors and 21 lecturers, the college was divided into five sections, I. Department VI. was added in 1872, with an average of about 2,600 to 2,800 students, the TH München ranked ahead of the TH Berlin as the largest German technical college for a while. The first female undergraduate matriculated in architecture in 1905, after the Bavarian government officially allowed women to study at a college in the German Reich
20.
University of Geneva
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The University of Geneva is a public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by John Calvin as a theological seminary and it remained focused on theology until the 17th century, when it became a center for Enlightenment scholarship. In 1873, it dropped its religious affiliations and became officially secular, today, the university is the second-largest university in Switzerland by number of students. In 2009, the University of Geneva celebrated the 450th anniversary of its founding, at least 40% of the students come from foreign countries. In 2015, it was ranked 58th worldwide by the Shanghai ranking, in 2011, it was ranked 73rd worldwide by the Academic Ranking of World Universities, and 69th in the QS World University Rankings. UNIGE is a member of the League of European Research Universities the Coimbra Group, the University of Geneva is located in several districts in the eastern part of the city and in the nearby city of Carouge, and the different buildings are sometimes very distant from each other. The oldest building is the Collège Calvin, and is not anymore a university building, built between 1868 and 1871, Uni Bastions is the symbol of Genevas academic life. It is located in the middle of a park and is host to the faculty of Protestant Theology and its architecture was inspired by Le Corbusier. It hosts the Rectorat and the administration of the University and it is Switzerlands biggest building dedicated to social sciences. It currently hosts the Faculty of Law, of Economics and Social Sciences, of Psychology and Education, the University of Geneva is structured in various faculties which are representing teaching, research and service to society in the various disciplines. Founded in 1876, ranked one of the top 100 medical schools in the world and it is one of the larger faculties of the University of Geneva in terms of budget and number of employees. Notable research areas include neuroscience, genetics, and transplantation and it is closely associated with Switzerlands largest hospital complex, the University Hospitals of Geneva. Since 1981, the Faculty of Medicine is located in the buildings of CMU in Champel, the faculty of Humanities and Arts has various departments and research centers. GSEM is a new faculty and exists since January 2014, the creation of the GSEM faculty is a result of a merger between two former departments, Economics and HEC. Students of the GSEM Faculty benefit from a degree in English. This new curriculum is in place since fall 2015, the GSEM counts more than 1.700 students and 200 lecturers. The Executive Education counts more than 1.500 participants and over 45 programs (including an Executive MBA, a number of research institutes provide avenues for graduate studies at Master’s and Doctoral levels. The Faculty Geneva School of Social Sciences, was founded on 1 January 2014, the faculty was created in 1890
21.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
22.
Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics
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The Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics is a research institute of the University of California, Santa Barbara. The National Science Foundation has been the principal supporter of the Institute since it was founded as the Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1979. In a 2007 article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the Directors of the KITP since its beginning have been, Walter Kohn, 1979–1984 Robert Schrieffer, 1984–1989 James S. Former permanent members include Physics Nobel Laureate Frank Wilczek.5 million to the Institute, Kohn Hall, which houses KITP, is located just beyond the Henley Gate at the East Entrance of the UCSB campus. The building was designed by the architect Michael Graves, and a new wing designed by Graves was added in 2003-2004
23.
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
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It is the only such facility in the United States, and is among nine worldwide. The lab is supported by the National Science Foundation and the state of Florida, currently the lab holds a world record of possessing worlds strongest magnet for nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy experiments. The plan proposed a federal-state partnership serving magnet-related research, science and technology education, the goal was to maintain the competitive position of the United States in magnet-related research and development. Following a peer-review competition, the NSF approved the FSU-led consortiums proposal, on September 5,1990, MIT researchers asked the 21 members of the National Science Board to review and reconsider its decision. With $60 million at stake in the NSF grant, MIT stated it would phase out the Francis Bitter Lab if it lost its appeal, the request was turned down September 18,1990. The laboratorys early years were spent establishing infrastructure, building the facility, the Tallahassee complex was dedicated on October 1,1994, to a large crowd, with keynote speaker Vice President Al Gore. Programs include mentorships in a learning environment. Through the Magnet Academy, the website provides educational content on electricity. The National MagLab also conducts monthly tours open to the public, special tour and outreach opportunities are also available to all local schools. In an interview on Skepticality, Dr and we get together and we have about 5,000 people show up to come and tour a physics lab which is a pretty amazing group of people. The Tallahassee laboratory at Florida State University is a 34,374 square meter complex and has approximately 300 faculty, staff, graduate and its director is physicist Gregory Scott Boebinger. Its chief scientist is Laura Greene, the facility contains 14 resistive magnet cells connected to a 48 megawatt DC power supply and 15,000 square feet of cooling equipment to remove the heat generated by the magnets. The facility houses several magnets, including a 45 tesla hybrid magnet, the labs 35 tesla resistive magnet is the strongest resistive magnet in the world, and the 25 tesla Keck magnet has the highest homogeneity of any resistive magnet. This program serves a broad base in solution and solid state NMR spectroscopy and MRI. The lab develops technology, methodology, and applications at high magnetic fields through both in-house and external user activities. An in-house made 900 MHz NMR magnet has an ultra-wide bore measuring 105 mm in diameter, the Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance) mass spectrometry program is involved in instrument and technique development and applications of FT-ICR mass spectrometry. Under the leadership of director Alan G. Marshall, the program continuously develops techniques and instruments, the program has several instruments, including a 14.5 tesla,104 mm bore system. The most common form of EMR is electron paramagnetic/spin resonance and this technique has applications in chemistry, biochemistry, biology, physics and materials research
24.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
25.
Driver's license
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The laws relating to the licensing of drivers vary between jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, a license is issued after the recipient has passed a driving test, while in others, different categories of license often exist for different types of motor vehicles, particularly large trucks and passenger vehicles. The difficulty of the driving test varies considerably between jurisdictions, as do such as age and the required level of practice. Up until the start of the 20th century, European authorities issued licenses to drive motor vehicles similarly ad hoc, the first mandatory license requirement for driving was introduced in the Motor Car Act 1903 in the United Kingdom. Every car owner had to register his automobile with his local government authority, the minimum qualifying age was set at 17. The license gave its holder freedom of the road with a maximum 20 mph speed limit, compulsory testing was introduced in 1934, with the passing of the Road Traffic Act. Prussia, then a state within the German Empire, introduced compulsory licensing on September 29,1903, a test on mechanical aptitude had to be passed and the Dampfkesselüberwachungsverein was charged with conducting these tests. In 1910, the German imperial government mandated the licensing of drivers on a scale, establishing a system of tests. As automobile-related fatalities soared in North America, public outcry provoked legislators to begin studying the French, on August 1,1910, North Americas first licensing law for motor vehicles went into effect in the US state of New York, though it initially applied only to professional chauffeurs. In July 1913, the state of New Jersey became the first to all drivers to pass a mandatory examination before receiving a license. Many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, as many people have drivers licenses, they are often accepted as de facto proof of identity. Most identity cards and drivers licenses are credit card size—the ID-1 size, many European countries require drivers to produce their license on demand when driving. Some European countries require adults to carry proof of identity at all times, in the United Kingdom drivers are not required to carry their licence. A driver may be required by a constable or vehicle examiner to produce their licence, but may provide it in a police station within seven days. In Spain, Sweden and Finland, the license number is the same as the citizens ID number. In Bulgaria, Italy, Poland, Romania and Spain, a vehicle registration card. In Hong Kong a driving license carries the number as the holders ID card. Upon inspection both must be presented, plans to make the newly phased in Smart ID contain driving license information have been shelved
26.
Orcutt, California
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Orcutt is an unincorporated town located in the Santa Maria Valley of California, and a census-designated place, it is in Santa Barbara County, California, United States. Orcutt is named for William Warren Orcutt, the manager of the Geological, Land, known as the “Dean of Petroleum Geologists Orcutt is credited with discovering fossilized prehistoric animal bones preserved in pools of asphalt on the Hancock Ranch. These would be the first of many fossils excavated from the La Brea Tar Pits, in commemoration of Orcutt’s initial discovery, paleontologists named the La Brea Coyote in W. W. Orcutt is home to miles of hiking trails in the Orcutt Hills, the trail entrances begin at Orcutt Community Park. Rita Hills and Santa Ynez Valley, there are currently five wine tasting rooms in Old Orcutt, Nagy Wines, Core Wine, Lucias Wine Co, Grevino Wine, and William James Cellars. Orcutt is a drive up highway 135 from little LA Los Alamos. There are several restaurants and shops in Old Orcutt, http, //www. oldtownorcutt. org/ Old Orcutt is home to the Orcutt Chalk Festival sponsored by the Orcutt Childrens Art Foundation. This annual festival is always the last Saturday of September and features professional street painting artists working side by side with children artists creating art on the street. Http, //www. orcuttarts. com/chalk-festival. html Every December, the parade is over 53 years old. The population of Orcutt was 35,262 at the 2010 census, Orcutt is located at 34°52′28″N 120°25′41″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 11.1 square miles,99. 95% of it land and 0. 05% of it water. Located between California State Route 135 on the east and south, the Cabrillo Highway on the west, in 2005 it was one of the fastest-growing places in Santa Barbara County. This region experiences warm and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Orcutt has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csb on climate maps. The 2010 United States Census reported that Orcutt had a population of 35,262, the population density was 2,597.2 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Orcutt was 28,677 White,394 African American,347 Native American,1,129 Asian,59 Pacific Islander,2,006 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 6,530 persons. The Census reported that 28,792 people lived in households,86 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, there were 417 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 57 same-sex married couples or partnerships. 2,279 households were made up of individuals and 1,300 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.71. There were 7,883 families, the family size was 3.14
27.
San Diego
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San Diego is a major city in California, United States. It is in San Diego County, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, approximately 120 miles south of Los Angeles and immediately adjacent to the border with Mexico. With an estimated population of 1,394,928 as of July 1,2015, San Diego is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest in California. It is part of the San Diego–Tijuana conurbation, the second-largest transborder agglomeration between the US and a country after Detroit–Windsor, with a population of 4,922,723 people. San Diego has been called the birthplace of California, historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States. Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the area for Spain, the Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá, founded in 1769, formed the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of the newly independent Mexico, in 1850, California became part of the United States following the Mexican–American War and the admission of California to the union. The city is the seat of San Diego County and is the center of the region as well as the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. San Diegos main economic engines are military and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, the presence of the University of California, San Diego, with the affiliated UCSD Medical Center, has helped make the area a center of research in biotechnology. The original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San Dieguito, the area of San Diego has been inhabited by the Kumeyaay people. The first European to visit the region was Portuguese-born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailing under the flag of Castile, sailing his flagship San Salvador from Navidad, New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542, and named the site San Miguel. In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast, in May 1769, Gaspar de Portolà established the Fort Presidio of San Diego on a hill near the San Diego River. It was the first settlement by Europeans in what is now the state of California, in July of the same year, Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra. By 1797, the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California, with over 1,400 neophytes living in, Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in California of the historic mission trail El Camino Real. Both the Presidio and the Mission are National Historic Landmarks, in 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. In 1822, Mexico began attempting to extend its authority over the territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1833, the 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde, defeating Pío Pico in the vote
28.
Office of Scientific and Technical Information
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The Office of Scientific and Technical Information is a component of the Office of Science within the U. S. Department of Energy. DOE Data Explorer searches collections of DOE scientific research data, such as simulations, figures and plots, interactive maps, multimedia, numeric files. DOepatents provides a database of patent information resulting from DOE-sponsored research. Energy Science and Technology Software Center provides a database of DOEs centralized software management facility. Science Conference Proceedings provides single-query searching of conference papers and proceedings on multiple websites and databases, eDUconnections, highlights university research departments and libraries across the nation to increase awareness of DOEs valuable scientific and technical information. Science. gov OSTI hosts this USA. gov science portal in collaboration with 17 organizations within 13 Federal science agencies and these agencies are also members of CENDI, a cooperative group of scientific and technical information managers from the 13 federal agencies and programs. Science. gov provides a gateway to over 2,100 websites and offers deep web searching of more than 50 databases containing science information, worldWideScience. org provides a global science gateway through a multilateral partnership to enable federated searching of national and international scientific databases and portals
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United States Department of Energy
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The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. It also directs research in genomics, the Human Genome Project originated in a DOE initiative, DOE sponsors more research in the physical sciences than any other U. S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories. Former Governor of Texas Rick Perry is the current Secretary of Energy and he was confirmed by a 62 to 37 vote in the United States Senate on March 2,2017. In 1942, during World War II, the United States started the Manhattan Project, after the war in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was created to control the future of the project. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy, on August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department of Energy. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon, a DOE spokesperson denied that phrases had been banned. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Peoples Republic of China, Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U. S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energys mishandling of his case, republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, not the Department of Energy. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved that the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $1.6 million settlement against the federal government, the department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy, a political appointee of the President of the United States. The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, also appointed by the president, the department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the departments work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major elements of the Department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. S.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year 2010, including $2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The budget aims to expand the use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also makes significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids, in smart grid technologies, most of the stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, in loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. The DOE budget includes $280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, yet another hub will develop smart materials that will allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions
30.
Hendrik Lorentz
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Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the equations which formed the basis of the special relativity theory of Albert Einstein. For this he received honours and distinctions during his life. Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz, a well-off nurseryman, in 1862, after his mothers death, his father married Luberta Hupkes. Despite being raised as a Protestant, he was a freethinker in religious matters, from 1866 to 1869 he attended the Hogere Burger School in Arnhem, a new type of public high school recently established by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke. His results in school were exemplary, not only did he excel in the sciences and mathematics, but also in English, French. In 1870 he passed the exams in languages which were then required for admission to University. After earning a degree, he returned to Arnhem in 1871 to teach night school classes in mathematics. On 17 November 1877, only 24 years of age, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was appointed to the established chair in theoretical physics at the University of Leiden. The position had initially offered to Johan van der Waals. On 25 January 1878 Lorentz delivered his lecture on De moleculaire theoriën in de natuurkunde. In 1881 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, during the first twenty years in Leiden, Lorentz was primarily interested in the theory of electromagnetism to explain the relationship of electricity, magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to a wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics. Lorentz made significant contributions to fields ranging from hydrodynamics to general relativity and his most important contributions were in the area of electromagnetism, the electron theory, and relativity. Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of charged particles were the source of light. When a colleague and former student of Lorentzs, Pieter Zeeman, discovered the Zeeman effect in 1896, the experimental and theoretical work was honored with the Nobel prize in physics in 1902. Lorentz name is now associated with the Lorentz-Lorenz formula, the Lorentz force, the Lorentzian distribution, in 1892 and 1895 Lorentz worked on describing electromagnetic phenomena in reference frames that move relative to the luminiferous aether. He discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using a new variable which he called local time
31.
Pieter Zeeman
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Pieter Zeeman was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hendrik Lorentz for his discovery of the Zeeman effect. Pieter Zeeman was born in Zonnemaire, a town on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, Netherlands, to Catharinus Forandinus Zeeman, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. He became interested in physics at an early age, in 1883 the Aurora borealis happened to be visible in the Netherlands. Zeeman, then a student at the school in Zierikzee, made a drawing and description of the phenomenon and submitted it to Nature. The editor praised the careful observations of Professor Zeeman from his observatory in Zonnemaire, after finishing high school in 1883 he went to Delft for supplementary education in classical languages, then a requirement for admission to University. He stayed at the home of Dr J. W. Lely, co-principal of the gymnasium and brother of Cornelis Lely, while in Delft, he first met Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was to become his thesis adviser. After Zeeman passed the exams in 1885, he studied physics at the University of Leiden under Kamerlingh Onnes. In 1890, even finishing his thesis, he became Lorentzs assistant. This allowed him to participate in a programme on the Kerr effect. In 1893 he submitted his thesis on the Kerr effect. After obtaining his doctorate he went for half a year to Friedrich Kohlrauschs institute in Strasbourg, in 1895, after returning from Strasbourg, Zeeman became Privatdozent in mathematics and physics in Leiden. The same year he married Johanna Elisabeth Lebret, they had three daughters and one son and he was fired for his efforts, but he was later vindicated, he won the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of what has now become known as the Zeeman effect. As an extension of his thesis research, he began investigating the effect of magnetic fields on a light source and he discovered that a spectral line is split into several components in the presence of a magnetic field. The next Monday, Lorentz called Zeeman into his office and presented him with an explanation of his observations, the importance of Zeemans discovery soon became apparent. It confirmed Lorentzs prediction about the polarization of light emitted in the presence of a magnetic field and this conclusion was reached well before Thomsons discovery of the electron. The Zeeman effect thus became an important tool for elucidating the structure of the atom, because of his discovery, Zeeman was offered a position as lecturer in Amsterdam in 1897. In 1900 this was followed by his promotion to professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam, in 1902, together with his former mentor Lorentz, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the Zeeman effect. Five years later, in 1908, he succeeded Van der Waals as full professor and Director of the Physics Institute in Amsterdam, a new laboratory built in Amsterdam in 1923 was renamed the Zeeman Laboratory in 1940
32.
Henri Becquerel
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Antoine Henri Becquerel was a French physicist, Nobel laureate, and the first person to discover evidence of radioactivity. For work in this field he, along with Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie, the SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel, is named after him. Roentgen discovered X-rays on November 8,1895, the press reported this on January 5,1896, shortly before Becquerel did his famous experiment. Thus radioactivity was discovered the year but within a year of the discovery of X-rays. Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which produced four generations of scientists, Becquerels grandfather, father. He studied engineering at the École Polytechnique and the École des Ponts et Chaussées, in 1890 he married Louise Désirée Lorieux. In 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the chair at the Muséum National dHistoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges, Becquerels earliest works centered on the subject of his doctoral thesis, the plane polarization of light, with the phenomenon of phosphorescence and absorption of light by crystals. Becquerels discovery of radioactivity is a famous example of serendipity. Becquerel had long interested in phosphorescence, the emission of light of one color following a bodys exposure to light of another color. His first experiments appeared to show this, one places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the opaque paper and reduce silver salts. But further experiments led him to doubt and then abandon this hypothesis, since the sun did not come out in the following days, I developed the photographic plates on the 1st of March, expecting to find the images very weak. Instead the silhouettes appeared with great intensity, however, the present experiments, without being contrary to this hypothesis, do not warrant this conclusion. I hope that the experiments which I am pursuing at the moment will be able to bring some clarification to this new class of phenomena. In 1903, Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre, by 1861, Niepce de Saint-Victor realized that uranium salts produce a radiation that is invisible to our eyes. Niepce de Saint-Victor knew Edmond Becquerel, Henri Becquerels father, in 1868, Edmond Becquerel published a book, La lumière, ses causes et ses effets
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Pierre Curie
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Pierre Curie was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. Born in Paris on 15 May 1859, Pierre was the son of Eugène Curie and he was educated by his father, a doctor, and in his early teens showed a strong aptitude for mathematics and geometry. When he was 16, he earned his math degree, by the age of 18 he had completed the equivalent of a higher degree, but did not proceed immediately to a doctorate due to lack of money. Instead he worked as a laboratory instructor, in 1880, Pierre and his older brother Jacques demonstrated that an electric potential was generated when crystals were compressed, i. e. piezoelectricity. To provide accurate measurements needed for their work, Pierre created a highly sensitive instrument called the Curie Scale and he used weights, microscopic meter readers, and pneumatic dampeners to create the scale. Also, to aid their work, they invented the Piezoelectric Quartz Electrometer, shortly afterwards, in 1881, they demonstrated the reverse effect, that crystals could be made to deform when subject to an electric field. Almost all digital electronic circuits now rely on this in the form of crystal oscillators, Pierre Curie was introduced to Maria Skłodowska by their friend, physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski. Pierre took Maria into his laboratory as his student and his admiration for her grew when he realized that she would not inhibit his research. He began to regard her as his muse and she refused his initial proposal, but finally agreed to marry him on 26 July 1895. It would be a thing, a thing I dare not hope, if we could spend our life near each other hypnotized by our dreams, your patriotic dream, our humanitarian dream. Pierre Curie to Marie Skłodowska Prior to his famous studies on magnetism. Variations on this equipment were used by future workers in that area. Pierre Curie studied ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism for his doctoral thesis, the material constant in Curies law is known as the Curie constant. He also discovered that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition and this is now known as the Curie temperature. The Curie temperature is used to plate tectonics, treat hypothermia, measure caffeine. Pierre formulated what is now known as the Curie Dissymmetry Principle, for example, a random mixture of sand in zero gravity has no dissymmetry. Introduce a gravitational field, and there is a dissymmetry because of the direction of the field, then the sand grains can self-sort with the density increasing with depth. But this new arrangement, with the arrangement of sand grains
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Marie Curie
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Marie Skłodowska Curie, born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris and she was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaws clandestine Floating University and began her scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity, techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the worlds first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms and she founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals, while a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland and she named the first chemical element that she discovered—polonium, which she isolated in 1898—after her native country. Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in the Russian partition of Poland, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, the elder siblings of Maria were Zofia, Józef, Bronisława and Helena. On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Polands independence. This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria, her sisters and her brother. Marias paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been a teacher in Lublin, where he taught the young Bolesław Prus. Her father, Władysław Skłodowski, taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, after Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use. Marias mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls and she died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Marias oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder, Marias father was an atheist, her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Marias mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic. When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the school of J. Sikorska, next she attended a gymnasium for girls. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw
35.
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
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John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh OM PC PRS was a physicist who, with William Ramsay, discovered argon, an achievement for which he earned the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904. He also discovered the now called Rayleigh scattering, which can be used to explain why the sky is blue. Rayleighs textbook, The Theory of Sound, is referred to by acoustic engineers today. John William Strutt, of Terling Place Essex, suffered from frailty and he attended Harrow School, before going on to the University of Cambridge in 1861 where he studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1865, and a Master of Arts in 1868 and he was subsequently elected to a Fellowship of Trinity. He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of James Maitland Balfour and he had three sons with her. In 1873, on the death of his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh and he was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge, from 1879 to 1884. He first described dynamic soaring by seabirds in 1883, in the British journal Nature, from 1887 to 1905 he was Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution. Around the year 1900 Lord Rayleigh developed the theory of human sound localisation using two binaural cues, interaural phase difference and interaural level difference. The theory posits that we use two primary cues for sound lateralisation, using the difference in the phases of sinusoidal components of the sound, in 1919, Rayleigh served as President of the Society for Psychical Research. The rayl unit of acoustic impedance is named after him, as an advocate that simplicity and theory be part of the scientific method, Lord Rayleigh argued for the principle of similitude. Lord Rayleigh was elected Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1873, from time to time Lord Rayleigh participated in the House of Lords, however, he spoke up only if politics attempted to become involved in science. He died on 30 June 1919, in Witham, Essex and he was succeeded, as the 4th Lord Rayleigh, by his son Robert John Strutt, another well-known physicist. Lord Rayleigh was buried in the graveyard of All Saints Church in Terling in Essex, though he did not write about the relationship of science and religion, he retained a personal interest in spiritual matters. The Secretary to the Press suggested with many apologies that the reader might suppose that I was the Lord, still, he kept his wish and the quotation was printed in the five-volume collection of scientific papers. What is more, I think that Christ and indeed other spiritually gifted men see further and truer than I do, Lord Rayleigh was the president of the SPR in 1919. He gave an address the year of his death but did not come to any definite conclusions. Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour as well as a type of surface wave known as a Rayleigh wave, the asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named in his honour on 1 June 2007
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Philipp Lenard
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Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard was a German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties. Notably, he had labeled Albert Einsteins contributions to science as constituting Jewish physics, Philipp Lenard was born in Pressburg, on 7 June 1862. The Lenard family had come from Tyrol in the 17th century. His father, Philipp von Lenardis, was a wine-merchant in Pressburg, the young Lenard studied at the Pozsonyi Királyi Katolikus Főgymnasium and as he writes it in his autobiography, this made a big impression on him. In 1880 he studied physics and chemistry in Vienna and in Budapest, in 1882 Lenard left Budapest and returned to Pressburg, but in 1883 moved to Heidelberg after his tender for an assistants position in the University of Budapest was refused. In Heidelberg he studied under the illustrious Robert Bunsen, interrupted by one semester in Berlin with Hermann von Helmholtz, in 1887 he worked again in Budapest under Loránd Eötvös as a demonstrator. After posts at Aachen, Bonn, Breslau, Heidelberg, and Kiel, in 1905 Lenard became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and in 1907 of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. His early work included studies of phosphorescence and luminescence and the conductivity of flames, as a physicist, Lenards major contributions were in the study of cathode rays, which he began in 1888. Prior to his work, cathode rays were produced in primitive, partially evacuated tubes that had metallic electrodes in them. Cathode rays were difficult to study using this arrangement, because they were inside sealed glass tubes, difficult to access, having made a window for the rays, he could pass them out into the laboratory, or, alternatively, into another chamber that was completely evacuated. These windows have come to be known as Lenard windows and he was able to conveniently detect the rays and measure their intensity by means of paper sheets coated with phosphorescent materials. Lenard observed that the absorption of the rays was, to first order and this appeared to contradict the idea that they were some sort of electromagnetic radiation. Thomsons work, which arrived at the understanding that cathode rays were streams of negatively charged energetic particles. He called them quanta of electricity or for short quanta, after Helmholtz, thomson proposed the name corpuscles, but eventually electrons became the everyday term. He proposed that every atom consists of empty space and electrically neutral corpuscules called dynamids, each consisting of an electron and an equal positive charge. As a result of his Crookes tube investigations, he showed that the produced by irradiating metals in a vacuum with ultraviolet light were similar in many respects to cathode rays. His most important observations were that the energy of the rays was independent of the light intensity and these latter observations were explained by Albert Einstein as a quantum effect. This theory predicted that the plot of the cathode ray energy versus the frequency would be a line with a slope equal to Plancks constant
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J. J. Thomson
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He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London and appointed to the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics at the Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in 1884. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of an element in 1913. His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry, Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. Seven of his students, including his son George Paget Thomson and his record is comparable only to that of the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Joseph John Thomson was born 18 December 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire and his mother, Emma Swindells, came from a local textile family. His father, Joseph James Thomson, ran a bookshop founded by a great-grandfather. He had a two years younger than he was, Frederick Vernon Thomson. J. J. Thomson was a devout Anglican and his early education was in small private schools where he demonstrated outstanding talent and interest in science. In 1870 he was admitted to Owens College at the young age of 14. His parents planned to enroll him as an engineer to Sharp-Stewart & Co, a locomotive manufacturer. He moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1876, in 1880 he obtained his BA in mathematics. He applied for and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1881, Thomson received his MA in 1883. Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1884, on 22 December 1884 Thomson was chosen to become Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. The appointment caused considerable surprise, given that such as Richard Glazebrook were older. Thomson was known for his work as a mathematician, where he was recognized as an exceptional talent. In 1890, Thomson married Rose Elisabeth Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB and they had one son, George Paget Thomson, and one daughter, Joan Paget Thomson. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1906, in recognition of the merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases. He was knighted in 1908 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1912, in 1914 he gave the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on The atomic theory
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Albert A. Michelson
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Albert Abraham Michelson was an American physicist known for his work on the measurement of the speed of light and especially for the Michelson–Morley experiment. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics and he became the first American to receive the Nobel Prize in sciences. Michelson was born in Strzelno, Province of Posen in Prussia into a Jewish family and he moved to the US with his parents in 1855, at the age of two. He grew up in the towns of Murphys Camp, California and Virginia City, Nevada. His family was Jewish by birth but non-religious, and Michelson himself was a lifelong agnostic and he spent his high school years in San Francisco in the home of his aunt, Henriette Levy, who was the mother of author Harriet Lane Levy. President Ulysses S. Grant awarded Michelson a special appointment to the U. S. Naval Academy in 1869, during his four years as a midshipman at the Academy, Michelson excelled in optics, heat, climatology and drawing. After graduating in 1873 and two years at sea, he returned to the Naval Academy in 1875 to become an instructor in physics, in 1879, he was posted to the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, to work with Simon Newcomb. In the following year he obtained leave of absence to continue his studies in Europe and he visited the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, and the Collège de France and École Polytechnique in Paris. In 1877, he married Margaret Hemingway, daughter of a wealthy New York stockbroker and lawyer and they had two sons and a daughter. Michelson was fascinated with the sciences, and the problem of measuring the speed of light in particular, while at Annapolis, he conducted his first experiments of the speed of light, as part of a class demonstration in 1877. After two years of studies in Europe, he resigned from the Navy in 1881, in 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio and concentrated on developing an improved interferometer. In 1887 he and Edward Morley carried out the famous Michelson–Morley experiment which failed to detect evidence of the existence of the luminiferous ether and he later moved on to use astronomical interferometers in the measurement of stellar diameters and in measuring the separations of binary stars. In 1899, he married Edna Stanton and they raised one son and three daughters. He also won the Copley Medal in 1907, the Henry Draper Medal in 1916, a crater on the Moon is named after him. Michelson died in Pasadena, California at the age of 78, the University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Michelson and his achievements by dedicating Michelson House in his honor. Case Western Reserve has dedicated a Michelson House to him, clark University named a theatre after him. Michelson Laboratory at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in Ridgecrest, there is a display in the publicly accessible area of the Lab which includes facsimiles of Michelsons Nobel Prize medal, the prize document, and examples of his diffraction gratings. Michelson published his result of 299,910 ±50 km/s in 1879 before joining Newcomb in Washington DC to assist with his measurements there, thus began a long professional collaboration and friendship between the two
39.
Gabriel Lippmann
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Gabriel Lippmann was born in Bonnevoie, Luxembourg, on 16 August 1845. At the time, Bonnevoie was part of the commune of Hollerich which is given as his place of birth. His father, Isaïe, a French Jew born in Ennery near Metz, in 1848, the family moved to Paris where Lippmann was initially tutored by his mother, Miriam Rose, before attending the Lycée Napoléon. He was said to have been a rather inattentive but thoughtful pupil with a special interest in mathematics, Lippmann then returned to Paris in 1875, where he continued to study until 1878, when he became professor of physics at the Sorbonne. Lippmann made several important contributions to various branches of physics over the years, in a paper delivered to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow on 17 January 1883, John G. The lower end is drawn into a point, until the diameter of the capillary is.005 of a millimetre. The tube is filled with mercury, and the point is immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. A platinum wire is put into connection with the mercury in each tube, such an instrument is very sensitive, and Lippmann states that it is possible to determine a difference of potential so small as that of one 10, 080th of a Daniell. It is thus a very delicate means of observing and of measuring minute electromotive forces, Lippmanns PhD thesis, presented to the Sorbonne on 24 July 1875, was on electrocapillarity. In 1881, Lippmann predicted the converse piezoelectric effect, above all, Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colours by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1908. In 1886, Lippmanns interest turned to a method of fixing the colours of the spectrum on a photographic plate. By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing colour images of a glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy. He presented his theory of photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906. The interference phenomenon in optics occurs as a result of the propagation of light. In the case of ordinary incoherent light, the waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface. Lippmann made use of this phenomenon by projecting an image onto a photographic plate capable of recording detail smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. The light passed through the glass sheet into a very thin. After development, the result was a structure of laminae, distinct parallel layers composed of metallic silver grains
40.
Guglielmo Marconi
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He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
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Karl Ferdinand Braun
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Karl Ferdinand Braun was a German inventor, physicist and Nobel laureate in physics. Braun contributed significantly to the development of radio and television technology, Braun was born in Fulda, Germany, and educated at the University of Marburg and received a Ph. D. from the University of Berlin in 1872. In 1874 he discovered that a point-contact semiconductor rectifies alternating current and he became director of the Physical Institute and professor of physics at the University of Strassburg in 1895. In 1897 he built the first cathode-ray tube and cathode ray tube oscilloscope, CRT became the cornerstone in developing fully electronic television. In the early 21-st century the CRT technology started to be replaced by flat screen technologies on television sets, the CRT is still called the Braun tube in German-speaking countries and in Japan. During the development of radio, he worked on wireless telegraphy. In 1897 Braun joined the line of wireless pioneers, Wireless telegraphy claimed Dr. Brauns full attention in 1898, and for many years after that he applied himself almost exclusively to the task of solving its problems. Dr. Braun had written extensively on subjects and was well known through his many contributions to the Electrician. In 1899, he would apply for the patents, Electro telegraphy by means of condensers and induction coils, around 1898, he invented a crystal diode rectifier or cats whisker diode. Pioneers working on wireless devices eventually came to a limit of distance they could cover, connecting the antenna directly to the spark gap produced only a heavily damped pulse train. There were only a few cycles before oscillations ceased, Brauns circuit afforded a much longer sustained oscillation because the energy encountered less losses swinging between coil and Leyden Jars. And by means of inductive antenna coupling the radiator was matched to the generator. The resultant stronger and less bandwidth consuming signals bridged a much longer distance, Braun invented the phased array antenna in 1905. He described in his Nobel Prize lecture how he carefully arranged three antennas to transmit a directional signal and this invention led to the development of radar, smart antennas, and MIMO. Brauns British patent on tuning was used by Marconi in many of his tuning patents, Marconi would later admit to Braun himself that he had borrowed portions of Brauns work. In 1909 Braun shared the Nobel Prize for physics with Marconi for contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy, the prize awarded to Braun in 1909 depicts this design. Braun experimented at first at the University of Strasbourg, not before long he bridged a distance of 42 km to the city of Mutzig. In spring 1899 Braun, accompanied by his colleagues Cantor and Zenneck, on 24 September 1900 radio telegraphy signals were exchanged regularly with the island of Heligoland over a distance of 62 km
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Johannes Diderik van der Waals
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Johannes Diderik van der Waals was a Dutch theoretical physicist and thermodynamicist famous for his work on an equation of state for gases and liquids. His name is associated with the van der Waals equation of state that describes the behavior of gases. His name is associated with van der Waals forces, with van der Waals molecules. As James Clerk Maxwell said about Van der Waals, there can be no doubt that the name of Van der Waals will soon be among the foremost in molecular science. In his 1873 thesis, van der Waals noted the non-ideality of real gases, spearheaded by Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald, a strong philosophical current that denied the existence of molecules arose towards the end of the 19th century. The molecular existence was considered unproven and the molecular hypothesis unnecessary, at the time van der Waals thesis was written, the molecular structure of fluids had not been accepted by most physicists, and liquid and vapor were often considered as chemically distinct. But Van der Waalss work affirmed the reality of molecules and allowed an assessment of their size, by comparing his equation of state with experimental data, Van der Waals was able to obtain estimates for the actual size of molecules and the strength of their mutual attraction. The effect of Van der Waalss work on physics in the 20th century was direct. By introducing parameters characterizing molecular size and attraction in constructing his equation of state, with the help of the van der Waalss equation of state, the critical-point parameters of gases could be accurately predicted from thermodynamic measurements made at much higher temperatures. Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and helium subsequently succumbed to liquefaction, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was significantly influenced by the pioneer work of van der Waals. In 1908, Onnes became the winner of the race to liquid helium and because of this. A largely self-taught man in mathematics and physics, van der Waals originally worked as a school teacher and he became the first physics professor of the University of Amsterdam when in 1877 the old Athenaeum was upgraded to Municipal University. Van der Waals won the 1910 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the equation of state for gases, Johannes Diderik van der Waals was born on 23 November 1837 in Leiden in the Netherlands. He was the eldest of ten born to Jacobus van der Waals. His father was a carpenter in Leiden, as was usual for working-class children in the 19th century, he did not go to the kind of secondary school that would have given him the right to enter university. Instead he went to a school of “advanced primary education”, which he finished at the age of fifteen and he then became a teachers apprentice in an elementary school. Between 1856 and 1861 he followed courses and gained the qualifications to become a primary school teacher. However, the University of Leiden had a provision that enabled students to take up to four courses a year
