1.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
2.
Mezzotint
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Mezzotint is a printmaking process of the intaglio family, technically a drypoint method. It was the first tonal method to be used, enabling half-tones to be produced without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching, cross-hatching or stipple. Mezzotint achieves tonality by roughening the plate with thousands of little dots made by a tool with small teeth. In printing, the pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean. A high level of quality and richness in the print can be achieved, the mezzotint printmaking method was invented by the German amateur artist Ludwig von Siegen. His earliest mezzotint print dates to 1642 and is a portrait of Countess Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg and this was made by working from light to dark. The rocker seems to have been invented by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a cavalry commander in the English Civil War, who was the next to use the process. Sir Peter Lely saw the potential for using it to publicise his portraits, the process was especially widely used in England from the mid-eighteenth century, to reproduce portraits and other paintings. Since the mid-nineteenth century it has relatively little used. Robert Kipniss and Peter Ilsted are two notable 20th-century exponents of the technique, M. C, British mezzotint collecting was a great craze from about 1760 to the Great Crash of 1929, also spreading to America. The favourite period to collect was roughly from 1750 to 1820, leading collectors included William Eaton, 2nd Baron Cheylesmore and the Irishman John Chaloner Smith. This became the most common method, the whole surface of a metal, usually copper, plate is roughened evenly, manually with a rocker, or mechanically. If the plate were printed at this point it would show as solid black, a burnisher has a smooth, round end, which flattens the minutely protruding points comprising the roughened surface of the metal printing plate. Areas smoothed completely flat will not hold ink at all, such areas will print white, by varying the degree of smoothing, mid-tones between black and white can be created, hence the name mezzo-tinto which is Italian for half-tone or half-painted. This is called working from dark to light, or the subtractive method, alternatively, it is possible to create the image directly by only roughening a blank plate selectively, where the darker parts of the image are to be. This is called working from light to dark, or the additive method, the first mezzotints by Ludwig von Siegen were made in this way. Especially in this method, the mezzotint can be combined with other techniques, such as engraving, on areas of the plate not roughened. The plate is put through a printing press next to a sheet of paper
3.
Engraving
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Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it. Wood engraving is a form of printing and is not covered in this article. Engraving was an important method of producing images on paper in artistic printmaking, in mapmaking. Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or line engraving, hand engraving is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also engraved, using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate. Each graver is different and has its own use, engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes, dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system, there are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are used for inscriptions on rings, lockets. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types, the burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for work on letters, as well as wriggle cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts, round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts, as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines, V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points, other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for stone setting techniques
4.
Line engraving
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Line engraving is a term for engraved images printed on paper to be used as prints or illustrations. The term is now less used and when is, it is mainly in connection with 18th or 19th century commercial illustrations for magazines and books. Copperplate engraving is somewhat outdated term for engravings. Engraving for the purpose of printmaking creates plates for intaglio printing, intaglio engravings are made by carving into a plate of a hard substance such as copper, zinc, steel, or plastic. Afterward ink is rubbed into the areas and away from the flat surface. Moistened paper is placed over the plate and both are run through the rollers of an intaglio press, the pressure exerted by the press on the paper pushes it into the engraved lines and prints the image made by those lines. In an intaglio print, the lines print black. Wood engraving is a printing technique, with the images made by carving into fine-grained hardwood blocks. In a relief print, the lines show white. The art of engraving has been practiced from the earliest ages, jewelry and many types of fine metal works frequently are engraved as well as furniture. Engraving often is used as an embellishment of knives, swords, guns, the important discovery which made line engraving one of the multiplying arts was the accidental discovery of how to print an incised line. This method was known for time before its real utility was realized. The resulting design, called a niello, was higher in contrast and thus. As this enamel was difficult to remove, goldsmiths developed alternate means of viewing their work still in progress. They would take a sulfur cast of the work on a matrix of fine clay and it was discovered later that a proof could be taken on damped paper by filling the engraved lines with ink and wiping it off the surface of the plate. Pressure was then applied to push the paper into the hollowed lines and this was the beginning of plate printing. This convenient way of proofing a niello saved the effort of producing a cast, although goldsmiths continued to engrave nielli to ornament plates and furniture, it was not until the late 15th century that the new method of printing was implemented. In early Italian and German prints, the line is used with such perfect simplicity of purpose that the methods of the artists are as obvious as if we saw them actually at work
5.
John Varley (painter)
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John Varley was an English watercolour painter and astrologer, and a close friend of William Blake. They collaborated in 1819–1820 on the book Visionary Heads, written by Varley and he was the elder brother of Cornelius Varley. John Varley was born at the Old Blue Post Tavern, Hackney and his father, Richard Varley, born at Epworth in Lincolnshire, had settled in London after the death of his first wife in Yorkshire. It was Barrow who took Varley on a tour to Peterborough from which he emerged as a professional painter. In 1798 he exhibited a highly regarded sketch of Peterborough Cathedral at the Royal Academy, as one of the founders of the OWS Varley exhibited largely there, over 700 drawings. He also became a successful drawing master with pupils including Copley Fielding, David Cox, John Linnell. Despite his success he was constantly in financial difficulties, since he was both a businessman and by temperament something of a Micawber. Varley was particularly skilled at the laying of flat washes of watercolour which suited the placid, Varley published A Treatise on the Principles of Landscape Drawing, 1816–21 and A Practical Treatise on the Art of Drawing in Perspective. He also wrote a text entitled A Treatise on Zodiacal Physiognomy in 1828. He is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, J Varleys List of Colours, published by John Varley, London 1818, 1pp. A Treatise on the Principles of Landscape Drawing, a Practical Tratise on the Art of Drawing in Perspective, adapted for the study of those who draw from nature, by which the usual errors can be avoided. 6 Plates,25 cm, plates engraved by J. Linnell, List of British artists This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Varley, John. John Varley of the Old Society, the Dictionary of British Watercolour Artists, up to 1920. John Varley - contains a bibliography, including manuscript sources. Neglected Master - principally concerned with Joseph Charles Barrow, a Confusion of Prophets, Victorian and Edwardian Prophecy. “John Varley, David Cox, Peter de Wint, and their Followers. ”Varleys Work as an Astrologer Art works by John Varley, Tate Gallery, London 8 Painting by or after John Varley at the Art UK site
6.
Henry James Richter
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Henry James Richter, artist and philosopher, was born in Middlesex, possibly at 40 Great Newport Street, Soho, on 8 March 1772 and baptised at St Annes Church, Soho, on 5 April at that same year. Henry James was the son of John Augustus Richter and Mary Haig. John was originally from Dresden, Germany and was an artist, engraver, John Augustus Richter was a partner with Domenico Bartoli another scagliolist in London beginning in 1767 and continuing through the 1777 or 1778. Bartoli emigrated from the city of Livorn, Italy and, after working for almost 10 years with Richter. He was later arrested for treason and incarcerated briefly in the Tower of London. In 1794, the Richter brothers compiled and printed John Miltons book of poems called Paradise Lost which included 13 illustrations done by Henry James, the book was dedicated and presented to His Royal Highness George, Prince of Wales while John was on trial for treason. Another brother, Thomas Richter, was a director of the Phoenix Life Insurance Company and he had a sister, Elizabeth Richter, who married Rev. James Stuart Freeman around July 1808. Richter was educated at Dr Barrows school, Soho and St Martins Library School, in about 1787, he began instruction under the artist Thomas Stothard, with whom he remained a close friend. He also began an association with William Blake, in 1788 he produced his first illustrations, and first exhibited paintings, showing two landscapes at the Royal Academy, where he exhibited for many years. He became a student of the Royal Academy Schools in 1790, bernardin de Saint-Pierres Paul and Virginia. In 1809 Richter began to exhibit at the Associated Artists in Water Colours, Bond Street, becoming a member in 1810, Richter was a pioneer in painting from nature, in both practice and theory. A second version, attempting to improve on its truth to nature, was exhibited four years later and his more general ideas, including his approach to color and use of models of his compositions in clay or wax, influenced other painters, notably the miniature painter James Holmes. Daylight combined his interests with his study of metaphysical philosophy. Richter also wrote the article Metaphysics in the Encyclopaedia Londonensis and a paper, in 1821 Richter was again elected to the Society of Painters in Water Colours, though his membership and the frequency of his exhibits varied through the decade. But from 1829 until his death he was both a member and a frequent exhibitor, the subjects of his most ambitious paintings of this later phase were taken from Shakespeare. He was also known for drawings and engravings of characters of Sir Walter Scott and he reportedly produced between as many as 150 works in the form of drawings, engravings and paintings. Some examples of his work are in the British Museum and in private collections, the painting, The Love Letter was shows two characters taken from Sir Walter Scotts The Antiquary and was painted between 1816–1833. A poem of the name was authored by Letitia Elizabeth Landon who was noted for creating literary pieces based on drawings and paintings
7.
Joshua Shaw
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Joshua Shaw was an English American artist and inventor. Joshua Shaw was born in Billinngborough, Lincolnshire, England in 1776 and was orphaned at the age of 7, to survive he worked for a local farmer as a bird scarer. During the three years he spent doing work he discovered his artistic talent and began drawing the animals he encountered. After his mother remarried Shaw worked for his stepfathers plumbing and glazing business, at the age of 16 Shaw painted his first work,10 commandments in St Michaels Church. His master, jealous of Shaws skills, sent him to Manchester to work as a foreman, Shaw was able to find purchasers for his work and emerged from obscurity, traveling to London where his paintings attracted many wealthy clients. Shaw emigrated to the United States in 1817 and by 1819 settled in Philadelphia, in 1820 he collaborated with John Hill, an aquatint engraver, on a collection of large folio prints titled “Picturesque Views of American Scenery. ”Shaw provided the paintings, which Hill reproduced as prints. Shaw’s landscape paintings were picturesque in style, a result of his English training. His landscapes typically included “a dark foreground, generalized trees or hills framing the composition in the foreground and middleground, a stream or lake, all of these elements are a direct influence of Claude Lorraine’s 17th-century idealized landscapes of the Roman countryside. Claude Lorraine, in turn, was an influence on 18th, although fellow artist William Dunlap called Shaw “an ignorant, conceited English blockhead, ” he participated actively in the cultural life of his adopted city. He helped promote the Artists’ Fund Society of Philadelphia, established in 1834 and he also exhibited actively at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. By 1843 Shaw retired to Bordentown, New Jersey, northeast of Philadelphia, in his retirement he sold few paintings and died in poverty in 1860. Joshua Shaw claimed to have invented the copper percussion cap in 1814 and he was an early developer of percussion primers and a gun dated to be no earlier than 1817, was made by William Smith of Lisle Street in London to test his prototype steel cap. In 1816 Forsyth filed for an injunction against Joseph Mantons patent for the lock or scent-bottle lock. He also successfully filed suits against Joseph Vicars, William Beckwith, and Jackson Mortimer in 1811, Isaac Riviere in 1819, forsyths patent expired on 11 April 1821. However, there was no evidence these lawsuits influenced Shaw, Shaw went to Philadelphia in 1817 and filed for a patent on 19 June 1822 and surrendered it the Patent Office in 1829 to obtain a revised patent reissued on 7 May 1829. His patent was overturned by Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York in October 1829, at some point prior to 1823 the U. S. In 1846 the U. S. Congress authorized a payment to Shaw in the amount of $25,000 and he received $18,000 on 4 May 1847 and the remainder by 1858. During the Regency era the percussion cap, along with Forsyth and Mantons inventions, by 1827 copper percussion caps were manufactured by the millions in both England and France and imported to the U. S
8.
Banknote
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A banknote is a type of negotiable instrument known as a promissory note, made by a bank, payable to the bearer on demand. Banknotes were originally issued by banks, who were legally required to redeem the notes for legal tender when presented to the chief cashier of the originating bank. These commercial banknotes only traded at face value in the served by the issuing bank. Commercial banknotes have primarily been replaced by national banknotes issued by central banks, national banknotes are generally legal tender, meaning that medium of payment is allowed by law or recognized by a legal system to be valid for meeting a financial obligation. Historically, banks sought to ensure that they could always pay customers in coins when they presented banknotes for payment and this practice of backing notes with something of substance is the basis for the history of central banks backing their currencies in gold or silver. Today, most national currencies have no backing in precious metals or commodities and have value only by fiat, with the exception of non-circulating high-value or precious metal issues, coins are used for lower valued monetary units, while banknotes are used for higher values. The idea of using a durable light-weight substance as evidence of a promise to pay a bearer on demand originated in China during the Han Dynasty in 118 BC, the first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, during the Yuan Dynasty, banknotes were adopted by the Mongol Empire. In Europe, the concept of banknotes was first introduced during the 13th century by such as Marco Polo. Counterfeiting, the forgery of banknotes, is an inherent challenge in issuing currency and it is countered by anticounterfeiting measures in the printing of banknotes. Fighting the counterfeiting of banknotes and cheques has been a driver of security printing methods development in recent centuries. Paper currency first developed in the Tang Dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, the usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century, napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Paper money originated in two forms, drafts, which are receipts for value held on account, and bills, the perception of banknotes as money has evolved over time. Originally, money was based on precious metals, Banknotes were seen as essentially an I. O. U. or promissory note, a promise to pay someone in precious metal on presentation. With the gradual removal of precious metals from the system, banknotes evolved to represent credit money. Notes or bills were referred to in 18th century novels and were often a key part of the plot such as a note drawn by Lord X for £100 which becomes due in 3 months time. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, before the use of paper, the Chinese used coins that were circular, with a rectangular hole in the middle
9.
Graham's Magazine
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Grahams Magazine was a nineteenth-century periodical based in Philadelphia established by George Rex Graham and published from 1841 to 1858. The journal was founded after the merger of Burtons Gentlemans Magazine, publishing short stories, critical reviews, and music as well as information on fashion, Graham intended the journal to reach all audiences including both men and women. He offered the payment of $5 per page, successfully attracting some of the best-known writers of the day. It also became known for its engravings and artwork, Grahams may have been the first magazine in the United States to copyright each issue. Edgar Allan Poe became the editor of Grahams in February 1841 and it was also where he first published The Murders in the Rue Morgue, now recognized as the first detective story. After Poe left the journal, his successor was Rufus Wilmot Griswold, Grahams began rejecting Poes submissions and passed up the chance to publish The Raven. Graham left his magazine for a time in 1848 and it ceased in 1858. The Casket, subtitled Flowers of Literature, Wit, and Sentiment had been in existence since 1826 and, Graham intended his new magazine to be popular amongst both men and women, containing fashion, photographs, music, short stories and critical reviews. He also hoped to reach out to mainstream audiences and those with more refined tastes. Graham was not a writer himself, other than a section at the back of each issue called Grahams Small Talk, to that end, Graham made sure it was popular amongst writers as a well-paying journal, the $5 standard become known as a Graham page. Other journals at the time were paying the standard rate of $1 per page, prentice, Alice, Horace Binney Wallace, and Phoebe Cary. Not all writers, however, were paid, a notice in the May 1841 issue read, Writers who send articles to this Magazine for publication, must state distinctly at the time of sending them, whether they expect pay. We cannot allow compensation unless by special contract before publication and this rule will hereafter be rigidly enforced. James Fenimore Cooper was reportedly the highest-paid contributor to Grahams, receiving $1,600 for the serial The Islets of the Gulf, or Rose-Budd, later published as Jack Tier and he received another $1,000 for a series of biographies on distinguished naval commanders. Grahams at one point was advertised as having the most distinctive list of contributors ever achieved by any American magazine, Grahams boasted that many issues of his magazine cost $1,500 for authorship alone. Grahams may have been the first magazine in America to copyright each issue, by March 1842, Grahams Magazine was issuing 40,000 copies. This boom was reflective of a market in American readership. John Sartain believed its success was due to the appeal of the engravings he provided for each issue, the Saturday Evening Post reported that the August 1841 issue of Grahams cost $1,300 for these embellishments
10.
George Rex Graham
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George Rex Graham was a journalist, editor, and publishing entrepreneur from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He founded the journal Grahams Magazine at the age of 27 after buying Burtons Gentlemans Magazine and his journal became very popular and it was known for its generous payment to contributors. Graham worked with notable figures like Edgar Allan Poe and Rufus Wilmot Griswold. After Poes death, Graham defended him from Griswolds accusations and character assassination, Graham was born on January 18,1813, his father was a shipping merchant who had lost much of his money in early in the 19th century. Graham was raised by his namesake and maternal uncle, George Rex, at age 19, Graham became an apprentice for a cabinet-maker before deciding to study law. Graham first began his work with an editorial position with the Saturday Evening Post. Its owner Samuel C. Atkinson announced on November 9,1839 and he then became the proprietor of Atkinsons Casket. At the age of 27, Graham combined the fledgling publication with Burtons Gentlemans Magazine in December 1840, the acquired publication had 3,500 subscribers, bringing his total list to 5,000. In its first year, that number jumped to 25,000, success was partially owed by Grahams willingness to include brand new engravings and illustrations at a time when most monthly publications were re-using old plates from other magazines. He also paid his freelance writers very well, in fact, in later years, a Graham page was the new standard of payment for magazine work. Edgar Allan Poe was hired as an editor and writer in February 1841, Graham agreed to help Poe with his planned journal The Penn if Poe worked for him for six months. By all accounts, Poe and Graham got along well and had a good working relationship. Poe was paid $800 per year while Graham boasted $25,000 in profits, Poe originally called this salary liberal but later referred to it as nambypamby when compared to Grahams profits. Grahams Magazine was the first to many of Poes works, including The Murders in the Rue Morgue and The Colloquy of Monos. Poe left the magazine in April 1842, Graham would hire Rufus Wilmot Griswold, Poes rival, as his next editor. Griswold was paid a salary of $1000 per year, more than he had paid Poe, to his credit, Griswold was able to contract with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow to write for Grahams exclusively for a time. Allegedly, Poe had offered first publication of The Raven to Graham and he may have given $15 to Poe as a friendly charity, but did not like the poem. Graham made it up to Poe a short while later by publishing the essay The Philosophy of Composition in which Poe tells of his inspiration for his famous poem, after Poes death, Graham defended him against critics like Griswold
11.
Mary, Queen of Scots
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Mary, Queen of Scots, also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland, reigned over Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567. Mary, the surviving legitimate child of James V of Scotland, was six days old when her father died. She spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents and he ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559, and Mary briefly became queen consort of France, until his death in December 1560. Widowed, Mary returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561, four years later, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, but their union was unhappy. In February 1567, his residence was destroyed by an explosion, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnleys death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567, and the following month he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle, on 24 July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of James VI, her one-year-old son by Darnley. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in custody, Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth in 1586 and was beheaded the following year. Mary was born on 7 or 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow Palace, Scotland, to King James V and his French second wife and she was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him. She was the great-niece of King Henry VIII of England, as her paternal grandmother, Margaret Tudor, was Henry VIIIs sister. A popular legend, first recorded by John Knox, states that James, hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter, ruefully exclaimed, It cam wi a lass and it will gang wi a lass. His House of Stewart had gained the throne of Scotland by the marriage of Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce, to Walter Stewart, the crown had come to his family through a woman, and would be lost from his family through a woman. This legendary statement came true much later—not through Mary, but through her descendant Queen Anne, Mary was baptised at the nearby Church of St Michael shortly after she was born. As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne, Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult. From the outset, there were two claims to the Regency, one from Catholic Cardinal Beaton, and the other from the Protestant Earl of Arran, Beatons claim was based on a version of the late kings will that his opponents dismissed as a forgery. Arran, with the support of his friends and relations, became the regent until 1554 when Marys mother managed to remove and succeed him. King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son, Prince Edward, hoping for a union of Scotland and England. The treaty provided that the two countries would remain separate and that if the couple should fail to have children the temporary union would dissolve
12.
Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
13.
Edgar Allan Poe
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Edgar Allan Poe was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and he is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and American literature as a whole, and he was one of the countrys earliest practitioners of the short story. Poe is generally considered the inventor of the fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a difficult life. Poe was born in Boston, the child of two actors. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year, thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. They never formally adopted him, but Poe was with them well into young adulthood, tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of secondary education for the young man. Poe attended the University of Virginia for one semester but left due to lack of money, Poe quarreled with Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. It was at time that his publishing career began, albeit humbly, with the anonymous collection of poems Tamerlane and Other Poems. With the death of Frances Allan in 1829, Poe and Allan reached a temporary rapprochement, however, Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declaring a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and he ultimately parted ways with John Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the several years working for literary journals and periodicals. His work forced him to move among several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, in Richmond in 1836, he married Virginia Clemm, his 13-year-old cousin. In January 1845, Poe published his poem The Raven to instant success and his wife died of tuberculosis two years after its publication. For years, he had been planning to produce his own journal The Penn, Poe and his works influenced literature in the United States and around the world, as well as in specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography. Poe and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, a number of his homes are dedicated museums today. The Mystery Writers of America present an award known as the Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre. He was born Edgar Poe in Boston on January 19,1809 and he had an elder brother William Henry Leonard Poe, and a younger sister Rosalie Poe. Their grandfather David Poe Sr. had emigrated from Cavan, Ireland to America around the year 1750, Edgar may have been named after a character in William Shakespeares King Lear, a play that the couple were performing in 1809
14.
The Bells (poem)
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The Bells is a heavily onomatopoeic poem by Edgar Allan Poe which was not published until after his death in 1849. It is perhaps best known for the use of the word bells. This poem can be interpreted in different ways, the most basic of which is simply a reflection of the sounds that bells can make. For example, From the bells bells bells bells bells. Brings to mind the clamoring of myriad church bells, several deeper interpretations exist as well. One is that the poem is a representation of life from the nimbleness of youth to the pain of age, growing despair is emphasized alongside the growing frenzy in the tone of the poem. Another is the passing of the seasons, from spring to winter, the passing of the seasons is often used as a metaphor for life itself. The poem also suggests a Poe theme of mourning over a lost wife, courted in sledge, married, the tolling of the iron bells reflects the final madness of the grief-stricken husband. The sounds of the verses, specifically the repetitive bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, Poe uses the word tintinnabulation, apparently a coinage of his own, based on the Latin word for bell, tintinnabulum. The series are four, followed by three, always beginning and ending on a stressed syllable. The meter changes to iambic in the lines with repeated bells, most of the poem is a more hurried trochaic tetrameter. The bells of which he writes are thought to be those he heard from Fordham Universitys bell tower and he also frequently strolled about Fordhams campus conversing with both the students and the Jesuits. According to Poe biographer Jeffrey Meyers, The Bells is often criticized for being mechanical, Poe is believed to have written The Bells in May 1848 and submitted it three times to Sartains Union Magazine, a magazine run by John Sartain, until it was finally accepted. He was paid fifteen dollars for his work, though it was not published until after his death in the November 1849 issue and it was also published in the New York Tribune on the front page of its October 20,1849 issue as Poes Last Poem. Inspiration for the poem is often granted to Marie Louise Shew, one day, as Shew was visiting Poe at his cottage in Fordham, New York, Poe needed to write a poem but had no inspiration. Shew allegedly heard ringing bells from afar and playfully suggested to start there, sergei Rachmaninoff composed a choral symphony The Bells, Op.35, based on a Russian adaptation of the poem by Konstantin Balmont. The symphony follows classical sonata form, first movement, slow movement, scherzo, the Scottish composer Hugh S. Roberton published Hear the Tolling of the Bells, The Sledge Bells, and Hear the Sledges with the Bells based on Poes poem. Josef Holbrooke composed his The Bells, Prelude, Op.50 on Poes poem, eric Woolfson, musical partner to Alan Parsons in the Alan Parsons Project, has written two albums based on the writings of Poe
15.
Annabel Lee
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Annabel Lee is the last complete poem composed by American author Edgar Allan Poe. Like many of Poes poems, it explores the theme of the death of a beautiful woman, the narrator, who fell in love with Annabel Lee when they were young, has a love for her so strong that even angels are envious. He retains his love for her even after her death, there has been debate over who, if anyone, was the inspiration for Annabel Lee. Though many women have been suggested, Poes wife Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe is one of the more credible candidates, written in 1849, it was not published until shortly after Poes death that same year. The poems narrator describes his love for Annabel Lee, which many years ago in a kingdom by the sea. Though they were young, their love for one another burned with such an intensity that angels became envious and it is for that reason that the narrator believes the seraphim caused her death. Even so, their love is enough that it extends beyond the grave. Every night, he dreams of Annabel Lee and sees the brightness of her eyes in the stars, every night he lies down by her side in her tomb by the sea. Like women in other works by Poe, she is struck with illness. The poem focuses on a love which is unusually strong. In fact, the narrators actions show that he not only loves Annabel Lee, the narrator admits that he and Annabel Lee were children when they fell in love, but his explanation that angels murdered her is in itself childish, suggesting he has not matured much since then. His repetition of this assertion suggests he is trying to rationalize his own feelings of loss. Unlike The Raven, in which the narrator believes he will nevermore be reunited with his love, Annabel Lee consists of six stanzas, three with six lines, one with seven, and two with eight, with the rhyme pattern differing slightly in each one. Though it is not technically a ballad, Poe referred to it as one, like a ballad, the poem uses repetition of words and phrases purposely to create its mournful effect. The name Annabel Lee emphasizes the letter L, a frequent device in Poes female characters such as Eulalie, Lenore, there is debate on the last line of the poem. The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, Maryland has identified 11 versions of Annabel Lee that were published between 1849 and 1850. A strong case can be made for Poes wife Virginia, She was the one he loved as a child, the one who had been his bride. Autobiographical readings of the poem have also used to support the theory that Virginia and Poe never consummated their marriage
16.
Philadelphia School of Design for Women
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Philadelphia School of Design for Women was an art school for women in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Under the directorship of Emily Sartain, it became the largest art school for women in the United States, in 1932, it merged into what is now the Moore College of Art and Design. Sarah Worthington King Peter, wife of the British consul in Philadelphia, the school taught lithography, wood carving, and design, such as for household items like carpets and wallpaper. Peters husband died soon after she established the school and she returned to her Cincinnati, in 1850, Peter wrote to the Franklin Institute about her drawing class of some 20 young women becoming a co-operative, but separate branch of the Institute. The Franklin Institute established and supervised the Philadelphia School of Design for Women from 1850 to 1853, a group of 17 men were designated the incorporators of the school in 1853. Elliott Cresson was among these 17 directors, and was elected president at the first meeting and it was the countrys largest art school for women and its students included Emily Sartain, Jessie Willcox Smith, Alice Barber Stephens, Elizabeth Shippen Green and Alice Neel. Elizabeth Croasdale was the principal before Emily Sartain took the position in 1886. Sartain was the leader until 1920. She implemented life-drawing classes at the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, using draped male and nude women models, Sartain created a professional program that was built upon technical and lengthy training and high standards. The women were taught to create works of art based upon three-dimensional and human forms, based upon her training in Paris and she was responsible for introducing important faculty members such as Robert Henri, Samuel Murray and Daniel Garber. In 1892, Robert Henri began teaching at the school, william Innes Homer said, A born teacher, Henri enjoyed immediate success at the school. Nina de Angeli Walls wrote, As Sartains career illustrates, art schools conferred professional status in a field once dominated by men. Women artists used formal schooling to counter the accusation of amateurism frequently leveled at them, in 1932 it merged into the Moore Institute of Art, Science, and Industry. It is now the Moore College of Art and Design, which both a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree and a Master of Arts in Art Education. The Edwin Forrest House, the home between 1880 and 1959, was designated a National Historic Landmark in recognition of its association with the school. Timeline of womens colleges in the United States
17.
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
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The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts is a museum and art school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1805 and is the first and oldest art museum, the academys museum is internationally known for its collections of 19th- and 20th-century American paintings, sculptures, and works on paper. Its archives house important materials for the study of American art history, museums, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was founded in 1805 by painter and scientist Charles Willson Peale, sculptor William Rush, and other artists and business leaders. The growth of the Academy of Fine Arts was slow and it opened as a museum in 1807 and held its first exhibition in 1811, where more than 500 paintings and statues were on display. The first school classes held in the building were with the Society of Artists in 1810, in 1876, former Academy student Thomas Eakins returned to teach as a volunteer. Fairman Rogers, chairman of the Committee on Instruction from 1878 to 1883, made him a faculty member in 1878, Eakins revamped the certificate curriculum to what it remains today. From 1811 to 1969, the Academy also organized important annual art exhibitions from which significant acquisitions were made, harrison S. Morris, Managing Director from 1892 to 1905, collected contemporary American art for the institution. Among the many masterpieces acquired during his tenure were works by Cecilia Beaux, William Merritt Chase, Frank Duveneck, Thomas Eakins, Winslow Homer, Childe Hassam, and Edmund Tarbell. Work by The Eight, which included former Academy students Robert Henri and John Sloan, is represented in the collection. From 1890 to 1906, Edward Hornor Coates served as the president of the Academy. In 1915, Coates was awarded the Academys gold medal, rich endowments were made to the schools, a gallery of national portraiture was formed, and some of the best examples of Gilbert Stuarts work acquired. The annual exhibitions attained a brilliancy and éclat hitherto unknown, mr. Coates wisely established the schools upon a conservative basis, building almost unconsciously the dykes high against the oncoming flow of insane novelties in art patterns. In this last struggle against modernism the President was ably supported by Eakins, Anschutz, Grafly, Thouron, Vonnoh and his unfailing courtesy, his disinterested thoughtfulness, his tactfulness, and his modesty endeared him to scholars and masters alike. No sacrifice of time or of means was too great, if he thought he could accomplish the end he always had in view—the honour, during World War I, Academy students were actively involved in war work. About sixty percent of the men enlisted or entered Government service. A war service club was formed by students and a monthly publication, George Harding, a former PAFA student, was commissioned Captain during the war and created official combat sketches for the American Expeditionary Forces. Prior to the founding of the Academy, there were limited opportunities for women to receive training in the United States. Realizing the rise in interest of women, this period between the mid-19th and early 20th century shows a remarkable growth of formally trained women artists
18.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
19.
Centennial Exposition
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Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exhibition and thirty-seven countries participated in it. The Great Central Fair of 1864, one of the fairs held during the Civil War, anticipated the combination of public, private. They also made Philadelphia a vital center in the Union war effort, the idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy and astronomy at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphias mayor that the United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Detractors said the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, the Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park. The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project, congressman William D. Kelley spoke for the city and state and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3,1871, provided that the U. S. government would not be liable for any expenses, the United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3,1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commissions commissioners included one representative from state and territory in the United States. On June 1,1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money, the boards president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for The Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to US$10 million in stock via US$10 shares, the board sold US$1,784,320 worth of shares by February 22,1873. Philadelphia contributed US$1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave US$1 million, on February 11,1876, Congress appropriated US$1.5 million in a loan. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in The Great Sanitary Fair, a Womens Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a descendant of Benjamin Franklin, as president. In its first few months, the group raised US$40,000, when the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, the group raised US$30,000 for a womens exhibition building. In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside 450 acres of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, the Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments, agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition, despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation. To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the Centennials grounds, Philadelphia streetcars increased service and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphias Market Street, New York City, Baltimore and Pittsburgh. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia, a small hospital was built on the Expositions grounds by the Centennials Medical Bureau, but despite a heat wave during the summer, no mass deaths or epidemics occurred
20.
Order of the Crown of Italy
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The Order of the Crown of Italy was founded as a national order in 1868 by King Vittorio Emanuele II, to commemorate the unification of Italy in 1861. It was awarded in five degrees for civilian and military merit, the order has been suppressed by law since the foundation of the Republic in 1946. However, Umberto II did not abdicate his position as fons honorum, following the demise of the last reigning monarch in 1983, the order, founded by the first, is no longer bestowed. It was replaced by the Order of Merit of Savoy instituted by his heir, while the Ordine al merito dSavoia has never been a national order, it is subsidiary to the Civil Order of Savoy which was. The Order of Merit has around 2,000 members and, as with the Order of the Crown of Italy previously, it is entrusted to the Chancellor of the Order of Saints Maurice, the obverse central disc featured the Iron Crown of Lombardy on a blue enamel background. The reverse central disc had an eagle bearing the Savoy cross on a golden background. There was an eagle bearing the Savoy cross above the star. The star of the Grand Officer was an eight-pointed faceted silver star with ball tips at each point, the ribbon of the order was red-white-red. Major General Robert A. McClure, father of U. S, united States Navy sea power advocate. List of Italian orders of knighthood Dynastic Orders of Knighthood Order of the Star of Italy Ordini dinastici della Real Casa di Savoia
21.
Eakins Oval
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Eakins Oval is a traffic circle in Philadelphia. It forms the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway just in front of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, with an array of fountains and monuments. This loop of road usually carries a large volume of traffic, as it connects the core of the city with Fairmount Park, Kelly Drive, the oval was part of urban planner Jacques Grébers design for the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, which he proposed in 1917. The oval is named for Thomas Eakins, Philadelphian, world-famous realist painter, the southeastern part of the oval serves as a parking lot, it was originally part of the Parkway until traffic modifications isolated it in the 1960s. Just inside the northwest edge of Eakins Oval, in front of the Philadelphia Museum of Art stairs and it was commissioned and designed by sculptor Rudolf Siemering. The sculpture was dedicated in 1897 at the Green Street entrance to Fairmount Park and it was moved in 1928 to its present location after construction on the parkway was completed. In 1997, work to restore the statue began under the direction of Margo Berg of the Philadelphia Art Commission, over the years, the sculpture had come loose from its base, and the fountain had ceased to function properly. The restoration was completed in June of the year,100 years after it was dedicated. The bronze and granite sculpture features a uniformed George Washington mounted on a horse, Washington and his horse are poised on top of the fountain, facing southeast down the Benjamin Franklin Parkway towards Philadelphia City Hall. The face of the sculpture was made from an impression of the president made while he was still alive. The body was actually of a Prussian General, the lowest level of the monument features Native Americans and animals that are native to the United States. The Washington Monument fountain is flanked by two fountains, honoring Eli Kirk Price II and John Ericsson. Beneath Eakins Oval and the area run two tunnels, originally for rail traffic, and constructed in the 1920s at the same time as the Oval, the Parkway. The lower tunnel, built for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, is owned by successor CSX, the upper tunnel carried streetcars on the Spring Garden Street line of Philadelphia Rapid Transit and successor Philadelphia Transportation Company until 1956. This tunnel crosses above the CSX tunnel in the middle, todays Route 43 buses, operated by SEPTA, circle the Oval and do not use the tunnel. In, Die Kunst für alle, Malerei, Plastik, Graphik, Architektur
22.
Rudolf Siemering
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Rudolph Siemering was a German sculptor known for his works in Germany and the United States. He attended the art academy in Königsberg and then became the pupil of Gustav Bläser in Berlin, for the decoration of Königsberg University, he furnished medallion portraits of its learned men. In 1871 he executed the masterly relief “Uprising of the People at the Summons of their King”, and his next work was the statue of Frederick the Great for Marienburg. In 1882, he completed a monument to Albrecht von Graefe and this was followed by a statue of Martin Luther at Eisleben. For the market place at Leipzig, he made a war monument, “Germany and he was the author of the colossal equestrian statue of Washington whose pedestal is enriched with reliefs and accessory sculptures. This impressive monument was unveiled in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, May 1897, siemerings group, “Saint Gertrude Hospitably receiving a Traveling Scholar, ” was finished and set upon the Bridge of Saint Gertrude at Berlin in 1896. Another notable work is the group of “Frederick William I” in the Sieges-Allée. He was also the author of portrait busts. Bison, Tiergarten, Berlin This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Rines, George Edwin, ed. Siemering. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds
23.
Fairmount Park
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Fairmount Park is the largest municipal park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and the historic name for a group of parks located throughout the city. Fairmount Park consists of two sections named East Park and West Park, divided by the Schuylkill River, with the two sections together totalling 2,052 acres. Fairmount Park, Philadelphias first park, occupies 2,052 acres adjacent to the banks of the Schuylkill River, since 2010, Philadelphia Parks & Recreation divides the original park into East and West Fairmount parks. The South Garden predated the establishment of the Park Commission in 1867, while Lemon Hill, after the Civil War, work progressed on acquiring and laying out West Park. In the 1870s, the Fairmount Park Commission expropriated properties along the Wissahickon Creek to extend Fairmount Park, the Schuylkill River Trail is a modern paved multi-use trail by Kelly Drive in the East Park. The park grew out of the Lemon Hill estate of Henry Pratt, whose land was owned by Robert Morris. Purchased by the city in 1844, the estate was dedicated to the public by city ordinance on September 15,1855. A series of state and local legislative acts over the three years increased the holdings of the city. In 1858, the city held a competition to re-landscape Lemon Hill. As the site of the 1876 Centennial Exposition and the first zoo in the United States, the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park, located to the immediate northwest, was also included in the Fairmount Park NRHP registration document. The Art Association continues to commission and care for a number of sculptures, in coordination with the park. In 2007, the Art Association installed Iroquois by Mark di Suvero near the Philadelphia Museum of Art on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway. Mount Pleasant, built in 1761 in what was then the countryside outside of the city by a privateer, is administered by the Philadelphia Museum of Art in Fairmount Park. The Art Museum also administers Cedar Grove, a house completed in 1750 in the Frankford neighborhood of the city, Sedgeley, a house built in 1799 on Lemon Hill, was abandoned and later demolished after being acquired through eminent domain by the city in 1857. The Sedgeley property also included a cottage constructed of stone which still exists. Philadelphia portal List of parks in Philadelphia Philadelphia Aquarium Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia Sedgley Woods Fletcher Street Urban Riding Club Fazio, Michael W
24.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sartain, John". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
