1.
Order of the Companions of Honour
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The Order of the Companions of Honour is an order of the Commonwealth realms. Founded on the date as the Order of the British Empire. The order consists of the Sovereign plus no more than 65 members, additionally, foreigners from outside the realms may be added as honorary members. Membership confers no title or precedence, but those inducted into the order are entitled to use the post-nominal letters CH. Appointments can be made on the advice of Commonwealth realm prime ministers, for Canadians, the advice to the Sovereign can come from a variety of officials. The quota numbers were altered in 1970 to 47 for the United Kingdom,7 for Australia,2 for New Zealand, the quota was adjusted again in 1975 by adding 2 places to the New Zealand quota and reducing the 9 for the other countries to 7. While able to nominate candidates to the Order, New Zealand, as of 2016 those countries have nominated only politicians who have served as Prime Minister or Deputy Prime Minister. Men wear the badge on a ribbon and women on a bow at the left shoulder. Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II List of Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour List of honorary British Knights List of people who have declined a British honour
2.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
3.
PLOS
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PLOS is a nonprofit open access scientific publishing project aimed at creating a library of open access journals and other scientific literature under an open content license. It launched its first journal, PLOS Biology, in October 2003 and publishes seven journals, the organization is based in San Francisco, California, and has a European editorial office in Cambridge, England. The publications are primarily funded by payments from the authors, Brown, a biochemist at Stanford University, and Michael Eisen, a computational biologist at the University of California, Berkeley, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Although tens of thousands signed the petition, most did not act upon its terms, one, PLOS Clinical Trials, has since been merged into PLOS ONE. Following the merger, the company started the PLOS Hub for Clinical Trials to collect journal articles published in any PLOS journal, the PLOS journals are what it describes as open access content, all content is published under the Creative Commons attribution license. In 2012 the organization using the stylization PLoS to identify itself. In 2016, PLOS confirmed that their Chief Executive Officer, Elizabeth Marincola would be leaving for personal and professional reasons at the end of that year, to fund the journals, PLOS charges a publication fee to be paid by the author or the authors employer or funder. The Global Participation Initiative was instituted in 2012, by authors in group one countries are not charged a fee. PLOS was launched with grants totaling US$13 million from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, PLOS confirmed in July 2011 that it no longer relies on subsidies from foundations and is covering its operational costs itself. Since then PLOS balance sheet has improved from $20,511,000 net assets in 2012-2013 to $36,591,000 in 2014-2015, PLOS has its main headquarters in Suite 100 in the Koshland East Building in Levis Plaza in San Francisco. The company was located at 185 Berry Street. In June 2010, PLOS announced that it was moving to a new location in order to accommodate its rapid growth, the move to the Koshland East Building went into effect on 21 June 2010
4.
Fulmer
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Fulmer is a village and civil parish in South Buckinghamshire district in Buckinghamshire, England. The village has along most of its northern border a narrow green buffer from Gerrards Cross and is heavily wooded, the village toponym is derived from the Old English for lake frequented by birds. It was recorded in manorial rolls in 1198 as Fugelmere, in the late 17th century the owners of the manor of Fulmer were forced to sell their house to their servants because they had squandered their money and could not afford to pay them. The manor then passed into the hands of the Duke of Portland, richard is buried in St James churchyard, Fulmer, with his wife Hannah. Many films have shot in Fulmer, including Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines. In July 2011 Fulmer Village was awarded first prize in the Gurney Cup for Buckinghamshires best kept village and it was also awarded the Sword of Swords for achieving the highest score of all villages that entered no matter of size or population. Some locals have commented that the recent renovation of the villages K6 telephone kiosk by two local residents played a part in the scoring due to the full marks awarded for this category. Fulmer Parish Council maintains a website with historical and current information regarding the village. A local village team has existed since 1886 but the current club was founded in 1895. Local resident and noted cricketer, Denis Compton, opened the new clubhouse in 1988, media related to Fulmer at Wikimedia Commons
5.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
6.
English people
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The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD, England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become England along with the later Danes, Normans, in the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England was succeeded by the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become closely aligned with British customs. The English people are the source of the English language, the Westminster system and these and other English cultural characteristics have spread worldwide, in part as a result of the former British Empire. The concept of an English nation is far older than that of the British nation, many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities. Use of the word English to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as English and it is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. Following complaints about this, the 2011 census was changed to allow respondents to record their English, Welsh, Scottish, another complication in defining the English is a common tendency for the words English and British to be used interchangeably, especially overseas. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say English, I mean British. He notes that this slip is made only by the English themselves and by foreigners. Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of Englands dominant position with the UK and it tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles. In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago and it meant indiscriminately England and Wales, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so, bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as Prime Minister of England Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of England except for a geographic area brings protests and this version of history is now regarded by many historians as incorrect, on the basis of more recent genetic and archaeological research. The 2016 study authored by Stephan Schiffels et al, the remaining portion of English DNA is primarily French, introduced in a migration after the end of the Ice Age
7.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
8.
Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood
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Merchant Taylors School is a British independent private day school for boys, originally located in the City of London. Since 1933 it has located on 285 acres of grounds at Sandy Lodge in the Three Rivers district of Hertfordshire. Today the school caters for 872 students between the ages of 3 and 18, the school is now an all-through school from age 3 to 18 after merger with Northwood Prep School, Northwood in September 2015. The school was founded in 1551 by Thomas White of the Merchant Taylors Company and it was originally located in a manor house called the Manor of the Rose, in the parish of St. Lawrence Pountney in the City of London, where it remained until 1875. Merchant Taylors was not the first school to be founded by members of the Merchant Taylors Company, Sir John Percival established a grammar school at Macclesfield in 1502, while in 1508 his widow founded one at St. Marys Wike in Cornwall. Also in 1508, Sir Steven Jenyns founded Wolverhampton Grammar School, many of the earlier Tudor schools were attached to monasteries and were dissolved after 1535 by Henry VIII and his son Edward VI. They re-emerged after 1550, some of them bearing Edwards name as founder, MTS missed these turbulent times as it was founded a few years later, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The first Head Master, Richard Mulcaster, took up his post in 1561 and his educational philosophy is embodied in two books, The Positions and The Elementarie, the latter an instalment of a larger work and one of the first dictionaries in English. One of his first pupils was Edmund Spenser and his goal was that English as a language might claim its place side by side with Latin, I love Rome, but London better, I favour Italy, but England more, I honour Latin, but worship English. Mulcasters views were ahead of his time, he advocated the importance to children of relaxation and games, and he wished that schools were planted in the suburbs of towns near to the fields. He was also tooth and nail for womankind in matters of education and he believed that education should fit women for their appropriate station. The successive outbreaks of plague in 1592,1603,1626,1630,1637 and 1666, had an effect on the School. The School was obliged to break up during these periods, losing pupils, in 1626 the headmaster Nicholas Gray complained of the loss of pupils and was given £20 to keep the school going, in 1630 he was given £40. Many parents kept their sons away from school, and boarders were summoned home, the School was closed for at least a year in 1636 and 1637, with no new boys admitted until the contagion abated. The outbreak of 1666 was curtailed by the Great Fire of London and it was rebuilt by 1675, after classes had met in temporary quarters for years. In 1606 Robert Dow, a member of the Company, instigated the process of probation or inspection, Dow was concerned that the school was not meeting the challenge of being one of the great schools of the time and needed regular inspection to maintain and raise its standards. The Court appointed a committee to investigate and concluded, The probation was imposed without consultation with the schoolmasters, during the probation, the headmaster was required to open his copy of Cicero at random and read out a passage to the sixth form. The boys had to copy the passage from dictation and then translate it, first into English, then into Greek, after this, they had to write a passage of Latin and some verses on some topic chosen for the day
9.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
10.
Whole genome sequencing
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Whole genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organisms genome at a single time. This entails sequencing all of an organisms chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mitochondria and, for plants, whole genome sequencing has largely been used as a research tool, but is currently being introduced to clinics. In the future of personalized medicine, whole genome sequence data will be an important tool to guide therapeutic intervention, in addition, whole genome sequencing should not be confused with methods that sequence specific subsets of the genome - such methods include whole exome sequencing or SNP genotyping. Almost all truly complete genomes are of microbes, the full genome is thus sometimes used loosely to mean greater than 95%. The remainder of this focuses on nearly complete human genomes. The DNA sequencing methods used in the 1970s and 1980s were manual, for example Maxam-Gilbert sequencing, the shift to more rapid, automated sequencing methods in the 1990s finally allowed the sequence of whole genomes. The first organism to have its genome sequenced was Haemophilus influenzae in 1995. After it, the genomes of bacteria and some archaea were first sequenced. H. influenzae has a genome of 1,830,140 base pairs of DNA, in contrast, eukaryotes, both unicellular and multicellular such as Amoeba dubia and humans respectively, have much larger genomes. Amoeba dubia has a genome of 700 billion nucleotide pairs spread across thousands of chromosomes, humans contain fewer nucleotide pairs than A. dubia however their genome size far outweighs the genome size of individual bacteria. The first bacterial and archaeal genomes, including that of H. influenzae, were sequenced by Shotgun sequencing, in 1996 the first eukaryotic genome was sequenced. S. cerevisiae, an organism in biology has a genome of only around 12 million nucleotide pairs. The first multicellular eukaryote, and animal, to have its genome sequenced was the nematode worm. In 1999, the entire DNA sequence of human chromosome 22, by the year 2000, the second animal and second invertebrate genome was sequenced - that of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster - a popular choice of model organism in experimental research. The first plant genome - that of the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana - was also fully sequenced by 2000, by 2001, a draft of the entire human genome sequence was published. The genome of the laboratory mouse Mus musculus was completed in 2002, in 2004, the Human Genome Project published the human genome. Currently, thousands of genomes have been sequenced, almost any biological sample containing a full copy of the DNA—even a very small amount of DNA or ancient DNA—can provide the genetic material necessary for full genome sequencing. Such samples may include saliva, epithelial cells, bone marrow, hair, seeds, plant leaves, the genome sequence of a single cell selected from a mixed population of cells can be determined using techniques of single cell genome sequencing
11.
Caenorhabditis elegans
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Caenorhabditis elegans is a free-living, transparent nematode, about 1 mm in length, that lives in temperate soil environments. The name is a blend of the Greek caeno-, rhabditis, in 1900, Maupas initially named it Rhabditides elegans, Osche placed it in the subgenus Caenorhabditis in 1952, and in 1955, Dougherty raised it to the status of genus. C. elegans is an unsegmented pseudocoelomate, and lacks a respiratory and it possesses gut granules which emit a brilliant blue fluorescence, a wave of which is seen at death in a death fluorescence. The majority of these nematodes are hermaphrodites, males have specialised tails for mating that include spicules. In 1963, Sydney Brenner proposed research into C. elegans primarily in the area of neuronal development, in 1974, he began research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans, which has since been extensively used as a model organism. C. elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its genome sequenced, and as of 2012. It is the species of its genus. C. elegans is unsegmented, vermiform, and bilaterally symmetrical and it has a cuticle, four main epidermal cords, and a fluid-filled pseudocoelom. It also has some of the organ systems as larger animals. About one in an individuals is male and the rest are hermaphrodites. The basic anatomy of C. elegans includes a mouth, pharynx, intestine, gonad, like all nematodes, they have neither a circulatory nor a respiratory system. When a wave of dorsal/ventral muscle contractions proceeds from the back to the front of the animal, when wave of contractions is initiated at the front and proceeds posteriorly along the body, the animal is propelled forwards. Because of this bias in body bends, any normal living, moving individual tends to lie on either its left side or its right side when observed crossing a horizontal surface. A set of ridges on the sides of the body cuticle. The pharynx is a muscular food pump in the head of C. elegans and this grinds food and transports it directly to the intestine. A set of valve cells connects the pharynx to the intestine, after digestion, the contents of the intestine are released via the rectum, as is the case with all other nematodes. No direct connection exists between the pharynx and the canal, which functions in the release of liquid urine. Males have a single-lobed gonad, a vas deferens, and a tail specialized for mating, hermaphrodites have two ovaries, oviducts, spermatheca, and a single uterus
12.
Human Genome Project
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It remains the worlds largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside of government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, Canada, and China. The Human Genome Project originally aimed to map the nucleotides contained in a human haploid reference genome, the finished human genome is thus a mosaic, not representing any one individual. The Human Genome Project was a 13-year-long, publicly funded project initiated in 1990 with the objective of determining the DNA sequence of the euchromatic human genome within 15 years. In May 1985, Robert Sinsheimer organized a workshop to discuss sequencing the human genome, the following March, the Santa Fe Workshop was organized by Charles DeLisi and David Smith of the Department of Energys Office of Health and Environmental Research. At the same time Renato Dulbecco proposed whole genome sequencing in an essay in Science, James Watson followed two months later with a workshop held at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. The fact that the Santa Fe workshop was motivated and supported by a Federal Agency opened a path, albeit a difficult and tortuous one, for converting the idea into public policy. In a memo to the Assistant Secretary for Energy Research, Charles DeLisi, of particular importance in Congressional approval was the advocacy of Senator Peter Domenici, whom DeLisi had befriended. Domenici chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, as well as the Budget Committee, Congress added a comparable amount to the NIH budget, thereby beginning official funding by both agencies. Alvin Trivelpiece sought and obtained the approval of DeLisis proposal by Deputy Secretary William Flynn Martin and this reprogramming was followed by a line item budget of $16 million in the Reagan Administration’s 1987 budget submission to Congress. The Project was planned for 15 years, candidate technologies were already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985. In 1990, the two major funding agencies, DOE and NIH, developed a memorandum of understanding in order to coordinate plans, a working draft of the genome was announced in 2000 and the papers describing it were published in February 2001. A more complete draft was published in 2003, and genome finishing work continued for more than a decade, the $3-billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the US Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the consortium comprised geneticists in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China. Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics, as well as advances in computing technology. This first available rough draft assembly of the genome was completed by the Genome Bioinformatics Group at the University of California, Santa Cruz, ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome on April 14,2003, two years earlier than planned. In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project, the project was not able to sequence all the DNA found in human cells
13.
Apoptosis
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Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death and these changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, chromosomal DNA fragmentation, and global mRNA decay. Between 50 and 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the human adult. For an average child between the ages of 8 and 14, approximately 20 billion to 30 billion cells die a day, for example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo occurs because cells between the digits undergo apoptosis. Because apoptosis cannot stop once it has begun, it is a regulated process. Apoptosis can be initiated through one of two pathways, in the intrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because it senses cell stress, while in the extrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because of signals from other cells. Both pathways induce cell death by activating caspases, which are proteases, the two pathways both activate initiator caspases, which then activate executioner caspases, which then kill the cell by degrading proteins indiscriminately. Research on apoptosis has increased substantially since the early 1990s, in addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes atrophy, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, some factors like Fas receptors and caspases promote apoptosis, while some members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins inhibit apoptosis. German scientist Karl Vogt was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842, in 1885, anatomist Walther Flemming delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected, while studying tissues using electron microscopy, John Foxton Ross Kerr at University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death. Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join Alastair R Currie, as well as Andrew Wyllie, in 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the British Journal of Cancer. Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize on March 14,2000 and he shared the prize with Boston biologist H. Robert Horvitz. For many years, the apoptosis and programmed cell death were not highly cited. The 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, Horvitz, the genes were identified by studies in the nematode C. elegans and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate apoptosis. In Greek, apoptosis translates to the falling off of leaves from a tree, Cormack, professor of Greek language, reintroduced the term for medical use as it had a medical meaning for the Greeks over two thousand years before. Hippocrates used the term to mean the falling off of the bones, galen extended its meaning to the dropping of the scabs
14.
Darwin Medal
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First awarded in 1890, it was created in memory of Charles Darwin and is presented with a £2000 prize. The medal was first awarded to Alfred Russel Wallace, a noted biologist and naturalist who had developed the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
15.
George W. Beadle Award
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The George W. Beadle Award is a prestigious scientific prize given by the Genetics Society of America to individuals who have made “outstanding contributions” to Genetics. The Award was established in 1999 and named in honor of George Wells Beadle, laureates of the Medal have included the following distinguished scientists, Hugo J. Bellen R. Scott Hawley Therese Markow Joseph R. Ecker William M. Gelbart Jay C. Dunlap Mark Johnston Robert K. Herman Fred Sherman Thomas C, kaufmann Norbert Perrimon Gerald M. Rubin and Allan C. Spradling André Goffeau and Robert K. Mortimer Gerald Fink John Sulston and Robert Waterston Michael Ashburner
16.
Knight Bachelor
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The appointment of Knight Bachelor is a part of the British honours system. It is the most basic and lowest rank of a man who has been knighted by the monarch, Knights Bachelor are the most ancient sort of British knight, but Knights Bachelor rank below knights of the various orders. There is no counterpart to Knight Bachelor. The lowest knightly honour that can be conferred upon a woman is Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire – which, also, foreigners are not created Knights Bachelor, instead they are generally made honorary KBEs. It is generally awarded for service, amongst its recipients are all male judges of Her Majestys High Court of Justice in England. Sir Patrick Stewart, and Sir Tom Jones are Officers of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, like other knights, Knights Bachelor are styled Sir. Since they are not knights of any order of chivalry, there is no post-nominal associated with the award. This style is adopted by Knights Bachelor who are also peers, baronets or knights of the various statutory orders, such as Sir William Boulton, Bt, Kt, or The Lord Olivier. Until 1926 Knights Bachelor had no insignia which they could wear, the Knights Bachelor badge may be worn on all such occasions upon the left side of the coat or outer garment of those upon whom the degree of Knight Bachelor has been conferred. In 1974, Queen Elizabeth II issued a warrant authorising the wearing on appropriate occasions of a neck badge, slightly smaller in size. In 1988 a new certificate of authentication, a knights only personal documentation, was designed by the College of Arms. The Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor was founded for the maintenance and consolidation of the Dignity of Knights Bachelor in 1908, the Society keeps records of all Knights Bachelor, in their interest
17.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
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Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
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Molecular biology
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Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however and it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function. Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology but increasingly combine these techniques and ideas from genetics. There is not a line between these disciplines. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules, the study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of differences on organisms. This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component, the study of mutants – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called wild type or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions can often confound simple interpretations of such knockout studies, molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cell function. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA, much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at its interface with computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. In the early 2000s, the study of structure and function. There is also a tradition of studying biomolecules from the ground up in biophysics. One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is molecular cloning, in this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned using PCR and/or restriction enzymes into a plasmid. A vector has 3 distinctive features, an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, the origin of replication will have promoter regions upstream from the replication/transcription start site. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells, introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked DNA, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector. Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection, the plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, a variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell, polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA
20.
Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute
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The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, previously known as The Sanger Centre, is a non-profit British genomics and genetics research institute, primarily funded by the Wellcome Trust. It is located on the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus by the village of Hinxton and it shares this location with the European Bioinformatics Institute. It was established in 1992 as The Sanger Centre, named after double Nobel Laureate, from its inception the Institute established and has maintained a policy of data sharing, and does much of its research in collaboration. Since 2000, the Institute expanded its mission to understand the role of genetics in health, the Institute now employs around 900 people and engages in four main areas of research, Human genetics, pathogen genetics, mouse and zebrafish genetics and bioinformatics. In 1993 the then 17 Sanger Institute staff moved into laboratory space at Hinxton Hall in Cambridgeshire. This 55-acre site was to become the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, the Genome Campus also includes the Wellcome Trust Conference Centre and the European Bioinformatics Institute. A major extension of the campus was opened in 2005, the buildings accommodate new laboratories. In discussing the name of the centre, Sanger told John Sulston, the founding director, Sulston commented, I rather wished I hadn’t asked. The Sanger Institutes sequencing staff handle millions of DNA samples each week, the Institute capitalises on leading-edge technologies to answer questions unanswerable only a few years ago. The advances in technology allow the Sanger Institute to carry out sequencing of the genomes of humans, vertebrate species and pathogens, at an ever increasing pace. The Institute has more than 100 ongoing pathogen sequencing projects, the output of the Sanger Institute is around 10 billion bases of raw sequence data per day. Bioinformatic databases resources are one of the outcomes of research programmes that the Sanger Institute is involved in, the Institute engages in several areas of research, The hall Institutes research in human genetics focuses on the characterisation of human genetic variation in health and disease. The data from the projects was made freely available in public databases in June 2010. The Sanger Institute is also part of the International Cancer Genome Consortium and it is also part of the GENCODE and ENCODE research programmes to create an encyclopaedia of DNA elements. Projects include the study of development, cancer, hearing and behaviour, the Institute carries out research in pathogen genetics to bolster understanding of the effects of genome variation on the biology of host-pathogen interactions. Research is underway at the Sanger Institute into the genomes of pathogens including many bacteria, the Pathogen Sequencing Advisory Group considers proposals or suggestions for sequencing of any genome of particular importance. All the genomes after sequencing are made available at the web-based onsite-maintained database, the Sanger Institutes bioinformatics teams have developed IT systems for sequencing and postgenomic research. The Institute houses genome resources, RNA, protein and other family resources, researchers worldwide are able to use these resources to make inferences of genomic knowledge through computational analysis and integration of data
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Salk Institute for Biological Studies
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The Salk Institute for Biological Studies is an independent, non-profit, scientific research institute located in La Jolla, San Diego, California, United States. It was founded in 1960 by Jonas Salk, the developer of the vaccine, among the founding consultants were Jacob Bronowski. Building did not start until spring of 1962, the institute consistently ranks among the top institutions in the US in terms of research output and quality in the life sciences. The institute employs 850 researchers in 60 research groups and focuses its research in three areas, molecular biology and genetics, neurosciences, and plant biology. Research topics include cancer, diabetes, birth defects, Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease, AIDS, the March of Dimes provided the initial funding and continues to support the institute. Current research is funded by a variety of organizations, such as the NIH, the HHMI and private organizations such as Paris-based Ipsen, in addition, the internally administered Innovation Grants Program encourages cutting-edge high-risk research. In 2016 Ted Waitt, founder of computer manufacturer Gateway, Inc. became chair of the board of directors, replacing Qualcomm co-founder Irwin M. Jacobs, the institute appointed genome biologist Eric Lander and stem cell biologist Irving Weissman as non-resident fellows in November 2009. The campus was designed by Louis Kahn, Salk had sought to make a beautiful campus in order to draw the best researchers in the world. Salk and Kahn – having both descended from Russian Jewish parents that had immigrated to the United States – had a deeper connection than just mere partners on an architectural project, the results of their connection is seen in the design that resulted from their collaboration. The original buildings of the Salk Institute were designated as a landmark in 1991. The entire 27-acre site was deemed eligible by the California Historical Resources Commission in 2006 for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, the institute has three Nobel laureates on its faculty, Elizabeth Blackburn, Sydney Brenner, and Roger Guillemin. Three of Salks 11 Nobel laureates are now deceased, Francis Crick, Robert W. Holley, another five scientists trained at Salk have gone on to win Nobel prizes. The institute is organized into several units, each of which is further composed of several scientific groups. Irwin M. Jacobs is Chairman of the Board of Trustees, edward Callaway is the chair of the academic council. Six of these are members of the HHMI while more than a quarter are members of the NAS, in December 2009, the Time magazine ranked Joseph R. Eckers mapping of the human epigenome as the #2 biggest scientific achievement of 2009. In May 2008, California announced that it would provide 270 million US dollars for funding CIRM, the Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, a joint effort between Salk Institute, UCSD, Burnham Institute and TSRI, received $43 million from this funding. Salk and Kahn approached the city of San Diego in March 1960 about a gift of land on the Torrey Pines Mesa and were granted their request after a referendum in June 1960. The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, known today as the March of Dimes, construction began in 1962 and a handful of researchers moved into the first laboratory in 1963
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Laboratory of Molecular Biology
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A new £212m replacement building constructed close by to the original site on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus was opened in May 2013. The road outside the new building is named Francis Crick Avenue after the 1962 joint Nobel Prize winner, the LMB has a deliberately simple administrative environment. Their recommendations were simply advisory, leaving the division leaders a free hand as to how to run their affairs, within the LMB, Perutz’s criterion of how to arrange things was that the act of doing science should be facilitated at all levels. The LMB had a budget, there were no personal budgets or equipment — everything was communal. It had state of the art equipment and was financed by the MRC. Chemical reagents, glassware and other expendables could be withdrawn from a store with only a signature required. Key to the functioning of the lab was Michael Fuller. There was no hierarchy, everyone was on first-name terms. Most members of the lab met freely in the canteen, which was said to assist inter-divisional communication and collaboration, today the LMB has around 400 scientists, of whom 130 are postdoctoral researchers and 90 students. As of 2015 there are around fifty group leaders Groups are part of one of the four divisions of the LMB, Cell Biology, Neurobiology, Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry, here, in the Cavendish laboratory, he started his lifelong work on hemoglobin. The death of Lord Rutherford led to his successor, Lawrence Bragg, Bragg became a major supporter of Perutz and his group in those early days. After World War II, many scientists from the side of science turned to biology, bringing with them a new way of thinking. John Kendrew joined Perutz’s group to study a protein related to hemoglobin — myoglobin — in 1946. In 1947, the Medical Research Council, under the guidance of its Secretary Harold Himsworth, decided to form, the group, which by 1948 also included Hugh Huxley working on muscle, was joined in 1949 by Francis Crick, who worked initially on protein crystallography. In 1951 they were joined by James Watson, Hugh Huxley discovered that muscle contraction works by a sliding filament mechanism. In 1957 the group’s name was changed to the “MRC Unit for Molecular Biology”, also that year, Vernon Ingram discovered that the disease sickle cell anaemia is caused by a single amino acid change in the hemoglobin molecule and Sydney Brenner joined the Unit. In 1958, Crick’s review “On Protein Synthesis” appeared, this out, for the first time, the central dogma of molecular biology, the sequence hypothesis. In 1961 Brenner helped discover messenger RNA and, in the year, he
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University of Manchester
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The University of Manchester is a red brick university, a product of the civic university movement of the late-19th century. The main campus is south of Manchester city centre on Oxford Road, in 2015/16, the university had 39,700 students and 10,400 staff, making it the second largest university in the UK, and the largest single-site university. The university had an income of £987.2 million in 2015–16 and it has the third largest endowment of any university in England, after the universities of Cambridge and Oxford. It is a member of the worldwide Universities Research Association, the Russell Group of British research universities, the University of Manchester is ranked 29th in the world by QS World University Rankings 2016. In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities, Manchester was ranked 35th in the world, the Global Employability University Ranking conducted by THE places Manchester at 27th worldwide and 10th in Europe, ahead of academic powerhouses such as Cornell, UPenn and LSE. It is ranked joint 55th in the world and 8th in the UK in the 2016 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, Manchester came fifth in terms of research power and seventeenth for grade point average quality when including specialist institutions. More students try to gain entry than to any university in the country. According to the 2015 High Fliers Report, Manchester is the most targeted university by the largest number of leading graduate employers in the UK. The university owns and operates major cultural assets such as the Manchester Museum, Whitworth Art Gallery, John Rylands Library and Jodrell Bank Observatory and its Grade I listed Lovell Telescope. The University of Manchester has 25 Nobel laureates among its past and present students and staff, four Nobel laureates are currently among its staff – more than any other British university. The University of Manchester traces its roots to the formation of the Mechanics Institute in 1824, the English chemist John Dalton, together with Manchester businessmen and industrialists, established the Mechanics Institute to ensure that workers could learn the basic principles of science. John Owens, a merchant, left a bequest of £96,942 in 1846 to found a college to educate men on non-sectarian lines. He also campaigned and helped fund the chair, the first applied science department in the north of England. He left the college the equivalent of £10 million in his will in 1876, Beyer funded the total cost of construction of the Beyer building to house the biology and geology departments. His will also funded Engineering chairs and the Beyer Professor of Applied mathematics, the university has a rich German heritage. The Owens College Extension Movement based their plans after a tour of mainly German universities, Manchester mill owner, Thomas Ashton, chairman of the extension movement had studied at Heidelberg University. Sir Henry Roscoe also studied at Heidelberg under Robert Bunsen and they collaborated for many years on research projects, Roscoe promoted the German style of research led teaching that became the role model for the redbrick universities. Charles Beyer studied at Dresden Academy Polytechnic, there were many Germans on the staff, including Carl Schorlemmer, Britains first chair in organic chemistry, and Arthur Schuster, professor of Physics
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Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
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Genome
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In modern molecular biology and genetics, a genome is the genetic material of an organism. The genome includes both the genes, the noncoding DNA and the material of the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The term genome was created in 1920 by Hans Winkler, professor of botany at the University of Hamburg, the Oxford Dictionary suggests the name is a blend of the words gene and chromosome. However, see omics for a thorough discussion. A few related -ome words already existed—such as biome, rhizome, Some organisms have multiple copies of chromosomes, diploid, triploid, tetraploid and so on. In classical genetics, in a sexually reproducing organism the gamete has half the number of chromosomes of the somatic cell, the halving of the genetic material in gametes is accomplished by the segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. Additionally, the genome can comprise non-chromosomal genetic elements such as viruses, plasmids, even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as a genome sequence may be a composite read from the chromosomes of various individuals. Colloquially, the genetic makeup is sometimes used to signify the genome of a particular individual or organism. Both the number of pairs and the number of genes vary widely from one species to another. The only exception in humans is found in red blood cells which become enucleated during development. In 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent was the first to establish the complete sequence of a viral RNA-genome. The next year Fred Sanger completed the first DNA-genome sequence, Phage Φ-X174, the first genome sequence for an archaeon, Methanococcus jannaschii, was completed in 1996, again by The Institute for Genomic Research. The development of new technologies has made it easier and cheaper to do sequencing. The US National Institutes of Health maintains one of several databases of genomic information. Among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for rice, a mouse, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the fish. In December 2013, scientists first sequenced the genome of a Neanderthal. The genome was extracted from the toe bone of a 130, new sequencing technologies, such as massive parallel sequencing have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool, as pioneered by Manteia Predictive Medicine. A major step toward that goal was the completion in 2007 of the genome of James D. Watson
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Sydney Brenner
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Sydney Brenner CH FRS FMedSci is a South African biologist and a 2002 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate, shared with Bob Horvitz and John Sulston. His parents, Lena and Morris Brenner, were Jewish immigrants and his father, a cobbler, came to South Africa from Lithuania in 1910, and his mother from Riga, Latvia, in 1922. He has one sibling, a sister, Phyllis and he was educated at Germiston High School and the University of the Witwatersrand. He stayed on for two years doing an Honours degree and then an MSc degree, supporting himself by working part-time as a laboratory technician. During this time he was taught by Joel Mandelstam, Raymond Dart and Robert Broom and his master thesis was in the field of cytogenetics. In 1951 he received the MBBCh degree, following his PhD, Brenner did postdoctoral research at the University of California, Berkeley. He spent the next 20 years at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, here, during the 1960s, he contributed to molecular biology, in 1976 he joined the Salk Institute in California. Together with Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, the first was to prove that all overlapping genetic coding sequences were impossible. This insight separated the coding function from structural constraints as proposed in a code by George Gamow. This led Francis Crick to propose the concept of the adaptor or as it is now known transfer RNA, the physical separation between the anticodon and the amino acid on a tRNA is the basis for the unidirectional flow of information in coded biological systems. This is commonly known as the dogma of molecular biology i. e. that information flows from nucleic acid to protein. Following this adaptor insight, Brenner proposed the concept of a messenger RNA, based on interpreting the work of Elliot Ken Volkin. This insight provided early elucidation of the nature of the genetic code, Leslie Barnett helped set up Sydney Brenners laboratory in Singapore, many years later. Brenner, with George Pieczenik, created the first computer analysis of nucleic acids using TRAC. This model requires a partially overlapping code and this is the only published paper in scientific history with three independent Nobel laureates collaborating as authors. Brenner then focused on establishing Caenorhabditis elegans as an organism for the investigation of animal development including neural development. Brenner chose this 1-millimeter-long soil roundworm mainly because it is simple, is easy to grow in bulk populations, for this work, he shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with H. Robert Horvitz and John Sulston. Brenner founded the Molecular Sciences Institute in Berkeley, California in 1996, in August 2005, Brenner was appointed president of the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology
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H. Robert Horvitz
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Horvitz was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Mary R. a school teacher, and Oscar Freedom Horvitz, a GAO accountant. During his senior year, Horvitz took his first courses in biology and was encouraged by his professors to continue to study biology in graduate school and he completed his PhD in 1974. In 1978, Horvitz was offered a faculty position at MIT, where he is currently Professor of Biology and he is also an Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Horvitz serves as the chair of the board of trustees for Society for Science & the Public and is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festivals Advisory Board. At LMB, Horvitz worked with Sulston to track every non-gonadal cell division that occurred during larval development, in 1981, they identified and characterized the gene lin-4, a “heterochronic” mutant that changes the timeline of cell fates. In his early work MIT, Horvitz continued his work on cell lineage and cell fate, using C. elegans to investigate whether there was a genetic program controlling cell death, in 1986, he identified the first death genes, ced-3 and ced-4. He showed that functional ced-3 and ced-4 genes were a prerequisite for cell death to be executed. He went on to show that gene, ced-9, protects against cell death by interacting with ced-4 and ced-3. Horvitz showed that the genome contains a ced-3-like gene. Horvitz’s later research continued to use C and he has also continued work on heterochronic mutants and other aspects of cell lineage, and established lines of research in signal transduction, morphogenesis, and neural development. Horvitz has collaborated with Victor Ambros and David Bartel on a project to characterize the set of the more than 100 microRNAs in the C. elegans genome. Robert Horvitz has over 255 publications, has been cited over 49,000 times and has an h-index of 108, Sulston, J. E. Horvitz, H. R. Post-embryonic cell lineages of the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Ellis, Hillary M. Horvitz, H. Robert, genetic control of programmed cell death in the nematode C. elegans. Ellis, R E, Yuan, J, Horvitz, H R. Mechanisms, Yuan, J, Shaham, S, Ledoux, S, Ellis, HM, Horvitz, HR. The C. elegans cell death gene ced-3 encodes a similar to mammalian interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme. Hengartner, MO, Horvitz, HR. C. elegans cell survival gene ced-9 encodes a homolog of the mammalian proto-oncogene bcl-2
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Institute for Science, Ethics and Innovation
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For the term referring to Japanese immigrants, see Issei. Chaired by the Nobel Laureate, John Sulston and directed by the bioethicist, John Harris, iSEI performs multi-disciplinary research across four broad areas, how Should Science be Used. and the Ethics of Emerging Technologies. Funded by a Wellcome Trust Biomedical Ethics Strategic Award, iSEI has embarked on a 5-year research programme on ‘The Human Body, Its Scope, Limits and Future’, institute for Science, Ethics and Innovation University of Manchester
29.
Watford Grammar School for Boys
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Watford Grammar School for Boys is a partially selective academy for boys in Watford in Hertfordshire, England. The school and its school, Watford Grammar School for Girls, descend from a Free School founded as a charity school for boys. Despite its name, the school accepts boys of all abilities, although approximately a third are selected for academic or musical aptitude and its results are among the highest achieved by non-grammar state schools in England. In 1704, Mrs Elizabeth Fuller of Watford Place built the Watford Free School for forty boys and twenty girls on her next to the churchyard, with rooms for a Master. The school-house was a structure at the south-west corner of St Marys churchyard. In 1708 Mrs Fuller endowed the school with a rent-charge of £52 a year, the boys were taught to read, write and cast accounts, and the girls to read English, to knit and to sew. The £52 a year was augmented with bequests, producing a revenue of £178, with some reluctance, the trustees chose the latter, and the free school closed on 10 August 1882. The 13 boys and 2 girls still at the school were placed in elementary schools. The fees would be £4 to £8, though there would also be a number of scholarships, the trustees of the Free School became governors of the new schools, as did three representatives of the Brewers Company and the vicar of Watford. The schools crest reflects the union of the two foundations, On the left is the coat of arms of John Chilcott, which are inscribed over the door of the Free School. On the right is the coat of arms of Richard Platt, the schools motto dates from the same period, and was taken from Virgils Aeneid IX,158, pugnam sperate parati. Sites were found in Derby Road for two new schools adjoining each other, one for boys and a one for girls. The new boys school was opened by the Earl of Clarendon on 21 April 1884, and they started with 69 boys and 46 girls, rising to 129 boys and 68 girls during the year. In 1903, the names were changed to the Watford Grammar School. By 1904, the schools had outgrown their buildings, with 312 boys and 148 girls, with the help of Hertfordshire County Council, a new girls school was built and opened in Ladys Close in 1907, and the boys spread into the building the girls had vacated. The leaving age was raised to 17, and the number of scholarships increased. The building was insufficient for the boys school, and with assistance from the County Council the school purchased part of Cassiobury Park facing Rickmansworth Road to build a new school. On 23 February 1912, the boys assembled outside the Derby road buildings and walked to the new site, sixth Form courses were introduced during the First World War
30.
Pembroke College, Cambridge
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Pembroke College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. The college is the third-oldest college of the university and has seven hundred students. Physically, it is one of the larger colleges, with buildings from almost every century since its founding. As of 2014 the college has an endowment of £67 million. Pembroke has a level of academic performance among the highest of all the Cambridge colleges, Pembroke is home to the first chapel designed by Sir Christopher Wren and is one of the six Cambridge colleges to have educated a British prime minister, in Pembrokes case William Pitt the Younger. The college library, with a Victorian neo-gothic clock tower, is endowed with a copy of the first encyclopaedia to contain printed diagrams. The colleges current master is Chris Smith, Baron Smith of Finsbury, Marie de St Pol, Countess of Pembroke founded Pembroke College, Cambridge. Christmas Eve 1347, Edward III granted Marie de St Pol, widow of the Earl of Pembroke, the Hall of Valence Mary, as it was originally known, was thus founded to house a body of students and fellows. The college was later renamed Pembroke Hall, and finally became Pembroke College in 1856, Marie was closely involved with College affairs in the thirty years up to her death in 1377. Both the founding of the college and the building of the citys first college Chapel required the grant of a papal bull. The original court was the universitys smallest at only 95 feet by 55 feet, the colleges gatehouse is the oldest in Cambridge. The original Chapel now forms the Old Library and has a striking seventeenth-century plaster ceiling, designed by Henry Doogood, around the Civil War, one of Pembrokes fellows and Chaplain to the future Charles I, Matthew Wren, was imprisoned by Oliver Cromwell. On his release after eighteen years, he fulfilled a promise by hiring his nephew Christopher Wren to build a great Chapel in his former college. The resulting Chapel was consecrated on St Matthews Day,1665, and the end was extended by George Gilbert Scott in 1880. An increase in membership over the last 150 years saw an increase in building activity. The Hall was rebuilt in 1875–6 by Alfred Waterhouse after he had declared the medieval Hall unsafe, Building work continued into the 20th century with W. D. Caröe as architect. He added Pitt Building between Ivy Court and Waterhouses Lodge, and extended New Court with the construction of O staircase on the side of the Lodge. In 1926, as the Fellows had become disenchanted with Waterhouses Hall, Maurice Webb was brought in to remove the open roof, put in a flat ceiling
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Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
32.
Alexander R. Todd
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Todd was born near Glasgow, attended Allan Glens School and graduated from the University of Glasgow with a BSc in 1928. He received a PhD from Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main in 1931 for his thesis on the chemistry of the bile acids. Todd was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, after graduating from the University of Oxford, Todd held posts with the Lister Institute, the University of Edinburgh and the University of London, where he was appointed Reader in Biochemistry. In 1944, he was appointed to the 1702 Chair of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge, in 1949, he synthesised adenosine triphosphate and flavin adenine dinucleotide. He served as chairman of the Government of the United Kingdoms advisory committee on policy from 1952 to 1964. He was elected a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge in 1944 and was Master from 1963 to 1978 and he became Chancellor of the University of Strathclyde in 1975, and a visiting professor at Hatfield Polytechnic. In 1981, Todd became a member of the World Cultural Council. Todd died in 1997 after a heart attack, in 1937 Lord Todd married Alison Sarah, daughter of Nobel Prize winner Sir Henry Dale, who like Todd served as President of the Royal Society. They had a son, Alexander Henry, and two daughters, Helen Jean and Hilary Alison, Alison predeceased Lord Todd in 1987. He was knighted as Sir Alexander Todd in 1954 and was created a Life Peer as Baron Todd of Trumpington in the County of Cambridge on 16 April 1962. He is commemorated by a plaque erected by the Royal Society of Chemistry at the University of Cambridges Department of Chemistry. Video of an interviewed with Lewis Wolpert
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Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
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Nucleotide
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Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers DNA and RNA, both of which are essential biomolecules in all life-forms on Earth. Nucleotides are the blocks of nucleic acids, they are composed of three subunit molecules, a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and at least one phosphate group. They are also known as phosphate nucleotides, a nucleoside is a nitrogenuous base and a 5-carbon sugar. Thus a nucleoside plus a group yields a nucleotide. Nucleotides also play a role in life-form metabolism at the fundamental. In addition, nucleotides participate in signaling, and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions. In experimental biochemistry, nucleotides can be radiolabeled with radionuclides to yield radionucleotides, a nucleotide is composed of three distinctive chemical sub-units, a five-carbon sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base—which two together are called a nucleoside—and one phosphate group. With all three joined, a nucleotide is also termed a nucleoside monophosphate, thus, the terms nucleoside diphosphate or nucleoside triphosphate may also indicate nucleotides. Nucleotides contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base—i. e, the nitrogenous base molecule, also known as a nucleobase—and are termed ribonucleotides if the sugar is ribose, or deoxyribonucleotides if the sugar is deoxyribose. These chain-joins of sugar and phosphate molecules create a backbone strand for a single- or double helix, in any one strand, the chemical orientation of the chain-joins runs from the 5-end to the 3-end —referring to the five carbon sites on sugar molecules in adjacent nucleotides. Unlike in nucleic acid nucleotides, singular cyclic nucleotides are formed when the group is bound twice to the same sugar molecule. These individual nucleotides function in cell metabolism rather than the nucleic acid structures of long-chain molecules, nucleic acids then are polymeric macromolecules assembled from nucleotides, the monomer-units of nucleic acids. The purine bases adenine and guanine and pyrimidine base cytosine occur in both DNA and RNA, while the pyrimidine bases thymine and uracil in just one, adenine forms a base pair with thymine with two hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine with three hydrogen bonds. Nucleotides can be synthesized by a variety of both in vitro and in vivo. In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesized de novo or recycled through salvage pathways, the components used in de novo nucleotide synthesis are derived from biosynthetic precursors of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, and from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liver is the organ of de novo synthesis of all four nucleotides. De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines follows two different pathways, purines, however, are first synthesized from the sugar template onto which the ring synthesis occurs. For reference, the syntheses of the purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are carried out by several enzymes in the cytoplasm of the cell, nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides
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La Jolla
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La Jolla is a hilly seaside community within the city of San Diego, California, United States occupying 7 miles of curving coastline along the Pacific Ocean within the northern city limits. The population reported in the 2010 Census was 46,781, Local Native Americans, the Kumeyaay, called this location mat kulaaxuuy, lit. land of holes. The topographic feature that gave rise to the holes is uncertain, it probably refers to sea-level caves located on the north-facing bluffs. It is suggested that the Kumeyaay name for the area was transcribed by the Spanish settlers as La Jolla, an alternative, pseudo-etymological suggestion for the origin of the name is that it is an alternate spelling of the Spanish word la joya, which means the jewel. Despite being disputed by scholars, this derivation of the name has been cited in popular culture. That supposed origin gave rise to the nickname Jewel City, during the Mexican period of San Diegos history, La Jolla was mapped as pueblo land and contained about 60 lots. When California became a state in 1850, the La Jolla area was incorporated as part of the chartered City of San Diego, in 1870 Charles Dean acquired several of the pueblo lots and subdivided them into an area that became known as La Jolla Park. Dean was unable to develop the land and left San Diego in 1881, a real estate boom in the 1880s led speculators Frank T. Botsford and George W. Heald to further develop the sparsely settled area. In the 1890s the San Diego, Pacific Beach, and La Jolla Railway was built, La Jolla became known as a resort area. To attract visitors to the beach, the railway built facilities such as a bath house, visitors were housed in small cottages and bungalows above La Jolla Cove, as well as a temporary tent city, erected every summer. The La Jolla Park Hotel opened in 1893, the Hotel Cabrillo was built in 1908 by Squire James A. Wilson and was later incorporated into the La Valencia Hotel. By 1900, La Jolla comprised 100 buildings and 350 residents, the first reading room was built in 1898. A volunteer fire brigade was organized in 1907, the city of San Diego established a fire house in 1914. Livery stable owner Nathan Rannells served successively as La Jollas volunteer fire captain, first police officer, the Bishops School opened in 1909. La Jolla High School was established in 1922, the La Jolla Beach and Yacht Club was built in 1927. In 1896 journalist and publisher Ellen Browning Scripps settled in La Jolla and she was wealthy in her own right from her investments and writing, and she inherited a large sum from her brother George H. Scripps in 1900. Unmarried and childless, she devoted herself to philanthropic endeavors, particularly those benefiting her adopted home of La Jolla and she commissioned many of La Jollas most notable buildings, usually designed by Irving Gill or his nephew and partner Louis John Gill. Her donations also launched the Scripps Memorial Hospital in 1924, the Scripps Metabolic Clinic, Ellen Browning Scripps also founded Scripps College, a womens college, in 1926
36.
Francis Crick
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Crick was an important theoretical molecular biologist and played a crucial role in research related to revealing the helical structure of DNA. He is widely known for use of the central dogma to summarize the idea that genetic information flow in cells is essentially one-way. During the remainder of his career, he held the post of J. W. Kieckhefer Distinguished Research Professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla and his later research centered on theoretical neurobiology and attempts to advance the scientific study of human consciousness. He remained in this post until his death, he was editing a manuscript on his death bed, Crick was the first son of Harry Crick and Annie Elizabeth Crick. He was born and raised in Weston Favell, then a village near the English town of Northampton, in which Crick’s father and uncle ran the family’s boot. His grandfather, Walter Drawbridge Crick, an amateur naturalist, wrote a survey of local foraminifera, corresponded with Charles Darwin, at an early age, Francis was attracted to science and what he could learn about it from books. As a child, he was taken to church by his parents, but by about age 12, he said he did not want to go anymore, as he preferred a scientific search for answers over religious belief. When he was eight or nine he transferred to the most junior form of the Northampton Grammar School, on the Billing Road. This was about 1.25 mi from his home so he could there and back, by Park Avenue South and Abington Park Crescent. The teacher – a Miss Holding – was an inspired teacher, the teaching in the higher forms was satisfactory, but not as stimulating. After the age of 14, he was educated at Mill Hill School in London, where he studied mathematics, physics and he shared the Walter Knox Prize for Chemistry on Mill Hill Schools Foundation Day, Friday,7 July 1933. He declared that his success was inspired by the quality of teaching he received whilst a pupil at Mill Hill, at the age of 21, Crick earned a Bachelor of Science degree in physics from University College London. Crick had failed to gain a place at a Cambridge college, Crick began his PhD at UCL but was interrupted by WWII. He was also an Honorary Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge and of University College, during his second year as a PhD student, however, he was awarded the Carey Foster Research Prize, a great honour. He did postdoctoral work at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, in 1947, aged 31, Crick began studying biology and became part of an important migration of physical scientists into biology research. This migration was possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as Sir John Randall. Crick had to adjust from the elegance and deep simplicity of physics to the chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years. He described this transition as, almost as if one had to be born again, Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who tended to concern themselves with the daunting problems of biology and not the past successes of physics
37.
Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)
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The Medical Research Council is a publicly funded government agency responsible for co-ordinating and funding medical research in the United Kingdom. It is one of seven Research Councils in the UK and is answerable to, although politically independent from, Research funded by the MRC has produced 30 Nobel Prize winners to date. This was a consequence of the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis, the mandate was not limited to tuberculosis, however. In 1920, it became the Medical Research Council under Royal Charter, a supplementary Charter was formally approved by the Queen on 17 July 2003. In August 2012, the creation of the MRC-NIHR Phenome Centre, and additional items from the Centres technology partners Bruker and Waters Corporation. Important work carried out under MRC auspices has included, the identification of the cause of rickets by Sir Edward Mellanby. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Professor Maurice Wilkins, in the past, the MRC has been answerable to the Office of Science and Innovation, part of the Department of Trade and Industry. The MRC is governed by a council of 14 members, which every two months. Its Council, which directs and oversees corporate policy and science strategy, ensures that the MRC is effectively managed, Council members are drawn from industry, academia, government and the NHS. Members are appointed by the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation, daily management is in the hands of the Chief Executive. Members of the council also chair specialist boards on specific areas of research, for specific subjects, the council convenes committees. Wood 1924–1929, The Rt Hon. the Earl of Balfour 1929–1934, The Rt Hon. Viscount DAbernon 1934–1936, the Marquess of Linlithgow 1936–1948, Lord Balfour of Burleigh 1948–1951, The Rt Hon. Viscount Addison 1952–1960, The Earl of Limerick 1960–1961, The Rt Hon. The Viscount Amory 1961–1965, The Rt Hon. Lord Shawcross 1965–1969, the Viscount Amory 1969–1978, His Grace the Duke of Northumberland 1978–1982, The Rt Hon. The Lord Shepherd 1982–1990, The Rt Hon and it also has 26 centres offering partnerships with UK universities to develop centres of scientific excellence. Historical perspectives on the role of the MRC, essays in the history of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and its predecessor, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Development of Scientific Medicine in Britain Minerva 16#1, 20–41. Quantifying the economic impact of government and charity funding of research on private research. BMC Medicine 14#1, 1+ Viergever, Roderik F. and Thom CC Hendriks, the 10 largest public and philanthropic funders of health research in the world, what they fund and how they distribute their funds. Health Research Policy and Systems 14#1,1, MRC official website Research Councils UK Human Genetic Unit Annual Reviews Social & Public Health Sciences Unit NIMR official website MRC-NIHR National Phenome Centre website MRC YouTube channel
38.
Washington University in St. Louis
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Washington University in St. Louis is a private research university located in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Founded in 1853, and named after George Washington, the university has students and faculty from all 50 U. S. states, twenty-five Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Washington University, nine having done the major part of their pioneering research at the university. Washington Universitys undergraduate program is ranked 19th by U. S. News & World Report, the university is ranked 23rd in the world in 2016 by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. Washington University is made up of seven graduate and undergraduate schools that encompass a range of academic fields. To prevent confusion over its location, the Board of Trustees added the phrase in St. Louis in 1976, Washington University was conceived by 17 St. Louis business, political, and religious leaders concerned by the lack of institutions of higher learning in the Midwest. Missouri State Senator Wayman Crow and Unitarian minister William Greenleaf Eliot, grandfather of the poet T. S. Eliot, the universitys first chancellor was Joseph Gibson Hoyt. Crow secured the university charter from the Missouri General Assembly in 1853, early on, Eliot solicited support from members of the local business community, including John OFallon, but Eliot failed to secure a permanent endowment. Washington University is unusual among major American universities in not having had a financial endowment. The institution had no backing of an organization, single wealthy patron. During the three following its inception, the university bore three different names. In 1854, the Board of Trustees changed the name to Washington Institute in honor of George Washington, naming the University after the nations first president, only seven years before the American Civil War and during a time of bitter national division, was no coincidence. During this time of conflict, Americans universally admired George Washington as the father of the United States, the Board of Trustees believed that the university should be a force of unity in a strongly divided Missouri. In 1856, the University amended its name to Washington University, although chartered as a university, for many years Washington University functioned primarily as a night school located on 17th Street and Washington Avenue in the heart of downtown St. Louis. Owing to limited resources, Washington University initially used public buildings. Classes began on October 22,1854, at the Benton School building, at first the university paid for the evening classes, but as their popularity grew, their funding was transferred to the St. Louis Public Schools. Eventually the board secured funds for the construction of Academic Hall, later the university divided into three departments, the Manual Training School, Smith Academy, and the Mary Institute. In 1867, the university opened the first private law school west of the Mississippi River. By 1882, Washington University had expanded to numerous departments, which were housed in buildings across St. Louis
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