1.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
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Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
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Flag
England
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Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
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Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
2.
Paris, France
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris, France
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In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris, France
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Clockwise from top: Pyramid of the
Louvre,
Arc de Triomphe,
Palace of Versailles, skyline of Paris on the
River Seine with the
Pont des Arts bridge, and the
Eiffel Tower - clickable image
Paris, France
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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris, France
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The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
3.
Royal Academy
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The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through an act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. Supporters wanted to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation, fashionable taste in 18th-century Britain was based on continental and traditional art forms, providing contemporary British artists little opportunity to sell their works. From 1746 the Foundling Hospital, through the efforts of William Hogarth, the success of this venture led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Both these groups were primarily exhibiting societies, their success was marred by internal factions among the artists. The combined vision of education and exhibition to establish a school of art set the Royal Academy apart from the other exhibiting societies. It provided the foundation upon which the Royal Academy came to dominate the art scene of the 18th and 19th centuries, supplanting the earlier art societies. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect, used his connections with George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy, the painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president. Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788, the instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list later by the King and are known as nominated members, among the founder members were two women, a father and daughter, and two sets of brothers. The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery. These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions, in 1868,100 years after the Academys foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains. Burlington House is owned by the British Government, and used rent-free by the Royal Academy, the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. In 1870 the Academy expanded its programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters. The range and frequency of these exhibitions have grown enormously since that time. Britains first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, led by Reynolds, the first president, a program included lectures by Dr. William Hunter, John Flaxman, James Barry, Sir John Soane, and J. M. W. Turner
Royal Academy
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Royal Academy of Arts
Royal Academy
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Satiric drawing of Sir William Chambers, one of the founders, trying to slay the 8-headed hydra of the Incorporated Society of Artists
Royal Academy
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Study for
Henry Singleton 's painting The Royal Academicians assembled in their council chamber to adjudge the Medals to the successful students in Painting, Sculpture, Architecture and Drawing, which hangs in the Royal Academy. Ca. 1793.
Royal Academy
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An early
RA Summer Exhibition at the Academy's original home in
Somerset House
4.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
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Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
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The name London may derive from the
River Thames
5.
Artist
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An artist is a person engaged in one or more of any of a broad spectrum of activities related to creating art, practicing the arts or demonstrating an art. The common usage in everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians. Artiste is a variant used in English only in this context, use of the term to describe writers, for example, is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism. Wiktionary defines the noun artist as follows, A person who creates art, a person who makes and creates art as an occupation. A person who is skilled at some activity, a person whose trade or profession requires a knowledge of design, drawing, painting, etc. The adjectival Latin form of the word, technicus, became the source of the English words technique, technology, in ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour. The word art derives from the Latin ars, which, although literally defined, means skill method or technique, and conveys a connotation of beauty. During the Middle Ages the word artist already existed in countries such as Italy. An artist was able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined. In this period some artisanal products were more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures. With the Academies in Europe the gap between fine and applied arts was definitely set, Artist is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art. An artist also may be defined unofficially as a person who expresses him- or herself through a medium, the word is also used in a qualitative sense of, a person creative in, innovative in, or adept at, an artistic practice. Art historians and critics define artists as those who produce art within a recognized or recognizable discipline, contrasting terms for highly skilled workers in media in the applied arts or decorative arts include artisan, craftsman, and specialized terms such as potter, goldsmith or glassblower. The term may also be used loosely or metaphorically to denote highly skilled people in any activities, as well— law, medicine, mechanics, or mathematics. Often, discussions on the focus on the differences among artist and technician, entertainer and artisan, fine art and applied art, or what constitutes art. The French word artiste has been imported into the English language where it means a performer, use of the word artiste can also be a pejorative term. The English word artiste has thus a range of meaning than the word artiste in French
Artist
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German artist known for his works of poetry, drama, prose, philosophy, visual arts, and science.
6.
Captain Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
Captain Cook
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James Cook, portrait by
Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775,
National Maritime Museum,
Greenwich
Captain Cook
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Portrait of Mrs. Elizabeth Cook by William Henderson, dated 1830.
Captain Cook
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James Cook's 1775 chart of
Newfoundland
Captain Cook
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Endeavour replica in
Cooktown, Queensland harbour — anchored where the original Endeavour was beached for seven weeks in 1770.
7.
Australasia
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Australasia, a region of Oceania, comprises Australia, New Zealand, the island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Charles de Brosses coined the term in Histoire des navigations aux terres australes and he derived it from the Latin for south of Asia and differentiated the area from Polynesia and the southeast Pacific. The bulk of Australasia sits on the Indo-Australian Plate, together with India, physiographically, Australasia includes New Zealand, Australia, and Melanesia, New Guinea and neighbouring islands north and east of Australia in the Pacific Ocean. The designation is applied to all the lands and islands of the Pacific Ocean lying between the equator and latitude 47° south. Most of Australasia lies on the portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west. Sometimes the term encompasses the island of New Guinea. Many organisations whose names include the prefix Australasian Society of, limit their scope of operation to just Australia and New Zealand. In the past, Australasia has been used as a name for combined Australia/New Zealand sporting teams, examples include tennis between 1905 and 1915, when New Zealand and Australia combined to compete in the Davis Cup international tournament, and at the Olympic Games of 1908 and 1912. From an ecological perspective the Australasia ecozone forms a region with a common geologic and evolutionary history. In this context, Australasia is limited to Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, New Caledonia, the Wallace Line marks the biological divide from the Indomalaya ecozone of tropical Asia – Borneo and Bali lie on the western, Asian side. These three land masses have been separated from other continents, and from one another, for millions of years, all of Australasia shares the Antarctic flora, although the northern, tropical islands also share many plants with Southeast Asia. Mainland Australia, New Guinea and Tasmania are separated from one another by shallow continental shelves and they share a similar fauna which includes marsupial and monotreme mammals and ratite birds. Eucalypts are the predominant trees in much of Australia and New Guinea, New Zealand has no extant native land mammals aside from bats, but also had ratite birds, including the kiwi and the extinct moa. Media related to Australasia at Wikimedia Commons
Australasia
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Wallace Line separates Australasian and
Southeast Asian fauna.
Australasia
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Australasia
Australasia
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Aoraki / Mount Cook in the
Southern Alps of
New Zealand
8.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
Hawaii
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Hawaii from space, January 26, 2014
Hawaii
–
Flag
Hawaii
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Nā Pali coast, Kaua ʻ i
Hawaii
–
The main islands and undersea terrain of Hawaii
9.
Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
Alaska
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Denali is the highest peak in North America.
Alaska
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Flag
Alaska
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Grizzly bear fishing for
salmon at
Brooks Falls, part of
Katmai National Park and Preserve.
Alaska
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Augustine Volcano erupting on January 12, 2006
10.
Bern
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The city of Bern or Berne is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their Bundesstadt, or federal city. With a population of 141,762, Bern is the fourth-most populous city in Switzerland, the Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000, Bern is also the capital of the canton of Bern, the second-most populous of Switzerlands cantons. The official language in Bern is German, but the language is an Alemannic Swiss German dialect. In 1983, the old town in the centre of Bern became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bern is ranked among the top ten cities for the best quality of life. The etymology of the name Bern is uncertain and it has long been considered likely that the city was named after the Italian city of Verona, which at the time was known as Bern in Middle High German. As a result of the find of the Bern zinc tablet in the 1980s, it is now common to assume that the city was named after a pre-existing toponym of Celtic origin. The bear was the animal of the seal and coat of arms of Bern from at least the 1220s. The earliest reference to the keeping of bears in the Bärengraben dates to the 1440s. No archaeological evidence that indicates a settlement on the site of city centre prior to the 12th century has been found so far. In antiquity, a Celtic oppidum stood on the Engehalbinsel north of Bern, fortified since the second century BC, during the Roman era, a Gallo-Roman vicus was on the same site. The Bern zinc tablet has the name Brenodor, in the Early Middle Ages, a settlement in Bümpliz, now a city district of Bern, was some 4 km from the medieval city. The medieval city is a foundation of the Zähringer ruling family, according to 14th-century historiography, Bern was founded in 1191 by Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen. In 1218, after Berthold died without an heir, Bern was made an imperial city by the Goldene Handfeste of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In 1353, Bern joined the Swiss Confederacy, becoming one of the eight cantons of the period of 1353 to 1481. The city grew out towards the west of the boundaries of the peninsula formed by the river Aare, the Zytglogge tower marked the western boundary of the city from 1191 until 1256, when the Käfigturm took over this role until 1345. It was, in turn, succeeded by the Christoffelturm until 1622, during the time of the Thirty Years War, two new fortifications – the so-called big and small Schanze – were built to protect the whole area of the peninsula
Bern
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The construction of the Untertor-bridge in Bern, Tschachtlanchronik, late 15th century
Bern
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Aerial view of the
Old City
Bern
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Bern in 1638
Bern
–
View of Bern from the
ISS. The Old City is in the lower, right hand side.
11.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
12.
Third voyage of James Cook
–
HMS Resolution, to be commanded by Cook, and HMS Discovery, commanded by Charles Clerke, were prepared for the voyage which started from Plymouth in 1776. The ships travelled to Cape Town by way of Tenerife then on to New Zealand, Omai was returned to his homeland and the ships sailed onwards, discovering the Hawaiian Archipelago, before reaching the Pacific coast of North America. The two charted the west coast of the continent and passed through the Bering Strait when they were stopped by ice from sailing either east or west, the vessels returned to the Pacific and called briefly at the Aleutians before retiring towards Hawaii for the winter. After a time during which Cook, and his crew were feted and he soon suffered damage to his ship and had to turn back. On his return, conflict arose which resulted in Cooks death, Cooks remains were taken away by the Hawaiians but some were returned to be buried at sea by his crew. The command of the expedition was assumed by Charles Clerke who tried in vain to find the passage before his own death, under the command of John Gore the crews returned to a subdued London in October 1780. Principally, the purpose of the voyage was an attempt to discover the famed Northwest Passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific around the top of North America. Cooks orders from the Admiralty were driven by a 1745 Act which, initially the Admiralty had wanted Charles Clerke to lead the expedition, with Cook, who was in retirement following his exploits in the Pacific, acting as a consultant. However, Cook had researched Berings expeditions, and the Admiralty ultimately placed their faith in the veteran explorer to lead with Clerke accompanying him. The arrangement was to make a two pronged attack, Cook moving from the Bering Strait in the north Pacific with Richard Pickersgill in the frigate Lyon taking the Atlantic approach and they planned to rendezvous in the summer of 1778. He arrived in London in October 1774 and was introduced into society by the naturalist Sir Joseph Banks, ostensibly, the third voyage was planned to return Omai to Tahiti, this is what the general public believed. On his last voyage, Cook once again commanded HMS Resolution. Resolution began her career as the 462 ton North Sea collier Marquis of Granby, launched at Whitby in 1770 and she was 111 feet long and 35 feet abeam. She was originally registered as HMS Drake, after she returned to Britain in 1775 she had been paid off but was then recommissioned in February 1776 for Cooks third voyage. The vessel had on board a quantity of livestock sent by George III as gifts for the South Sea Islanders and these included sheep, cattle, goats and pigs as well as the more usual poultry. She was 27 feet abeam with a depth of 11 feet. Originally a brig, Cook had her changed to a full rigged ship, as his first lieutenant, Cook had John Gore, who had been round the world with him in the Endeavour and with Samuel Wallis in HMS Dolphin. James King was his officer and John Williamson third
Third voyage of James Cook
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Resolution and Discovery
Third voyage of James Cook
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Map of the
Hawaiian Islands made by one of Cook's officers.
Third voyage of James Cook
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A hand-coloured lithograph depicting a village visited by Captain James Cook near Waimea, Kauai, on his third voyage. Based on a 1778 etching by John Webber which was published by William Hodges, it is one of the few views of Hawaii made during Cook's third voyage (1776–1779).
Third voyage of James Cook
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Kealakekua Bay
heiau illustration by William Ellis.
13.
HMS Resolution (Cook)
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She impressed him enough that he called her the ship of my choice, and the fittest for service of any I have seen. Resolution began her career as the North Sea collier Marquis of Granby, launched at Whitby in 1770 and she was originally registered as HMS Drake, but fearing this would upset the Spanish, she was soon renamed Resolution, on 25 December 1771. Her armament consisted of 12 6-pounder guns and 12 swivel guns, at his own expense Cook had brass door-hinges installed in the great cabin. However, in sea trials the ship was found to be top-heavy, banks subsequently refused to travel under the resulting adverse conditions and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son, George, replaced him. Resolution departed Sheerness on 21 June 1772, carrying 118 people, including 20 volunteers who had sailed on Cooks first voyage in HMS Endeavour in 1768–1771 and she joined HMS Adventure at Plymouth and the two ships departed English waters on 13 July 1772. Resolutions first port of call was at Funchal in the Madeira Islands, which she reached on 1 August. The ship was reprovisioned with fresh water, beef, fruit and onions, several of the crew had brought monkeys aboard as pets, but Cook had them thrown overboard to prevent their droppings from fouling the ship. Kendalls K1 was remarkably accurate and was to prove to be most efficient in determining longitude on board Resolution, on 17 January 1773, Resolution was the first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle and crossed twice more on the voyage. The third crossing, on 3 February 1774, was the most southerly penetration, Resolution thus proved Alexander Dalrymples Terra Australis Incognita to be a myth. She returned to Britain in 1775 and was paid off. She arrived back in Britain on 4 October 1780, in 1780, Resolution was converted into an armed transport and sailed for the East Indies in March 1781. Sphinx and Annibal of Suffrens squadron captured Resolution on 9 June 1782, after the action at Negapatam on 6 July 1782, Resolution sailed to Manila for wood, biscuit and rigging, and to press any seaman she found there. She then sailed on 22 July 1782 and was never seen again, on 5 June 1783 de Suffren wrote that Resolution had last been seen in the Sunda Strait, and that he suspected she had either foundered or fallen into the hands of the English. An item from the Melbourne Argus,25 February 1879, said that she ended her days as a Portuguese coal-hulk at Rio de Janeiro, alternatively, in 1789 she may have been renamed Général Conway, in November 1790 Amis Réunis, and in 1792 Liberté. She settled to the bottom just a mile from Endeavour, european and American voyages of scientific exploration Beaglehole, J. C. ed. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery II, I, The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772–1775. Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy, dugard, Martin Farther Than Any Man The Rise and Fall of Captain James Cook, Washington Square Press. Paine, Lincoln P Ships of the World, an Historical Encyclopedia, Houghton Mifflin
HMS Resolution (Cook)
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Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in
Matavai Bay by
William Hodges, painted 1776, shows the two ships at anchor in
Tahiti in August 1773.
14.
Adventure Bay, Tasmania
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Adventure Bay is the name of both a township and a geographical feature on the eastern side of Bruny Island, Tasmania. At the 2006 census, Adventure Bay and the area had a population of 152. The first European to sight the bay was explorer Abel Tasman, instead, Heemskerck was driven back offshore by a storm, in token of which Tasman named the place Storm Bay. There are a great many gum trees and of a vast thickness and height, one of which measured in circumference 26 feet, others among Furneauxs crew spotted evidence of what they believed were small deer but were more likely kangaroos. Furneaux also noted signs of an Aboriginal settlement in the form of several huts or wigwams on shore, - but the branches of which the huts were made were split and torn and there was not the least appearance of any people. Reliably mapped and offering an abundance of water, fresh water and game, cooks Resolution watered there in 1777, followed by William Bligh aboard HMS Bounty in 1788 and HMS Providence in 1792. Others who resupplied their vessels in the bay in this period included Bruni dEntrecasteaux aboard Recherché in 1792 and 1793, matthew Flinders also tried to enter the bay with Norfolk in 1798. In the later nineteenth century Adventure Bay became the site of a whaling station, dangerously exposed to north-easterly gales, several ships were driven ashore and wrecked there, the largest being the 241-ton barque Natal Queen in 1909. Adventure Bay Post Office opened on 1 December 1890 and closed in 1974, Adventure Bay is now largely a tourist destination. Scott, Ernest, Australian Discovery, I By Sea, London, J. M. Dent and Sons, OCLC583472222
Adventure Bay, Tasmania
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Adventure Bay
15.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
New Zealand
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The Waitangi sheet from the
Treaty of Waitangi
New Zealand
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Flag
New Zealand
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Painting of
Mount Earnslaw by John Turnbull Thomson, oil on canvas, 1888
New Zealand
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John Key,
Prime Minister of New Zealand since 2008
16.
Kauai
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For the Childish Gambino EP see STN MTN / Kauai Kauaʻi or Kauai is geologically the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of 562.3 square miles, it is the fourth largest of these islands, known also as the Jurassic Isle, Kauaʻi lies 105 miles across the Kauaʻi Channel, northwest of Oʻahu. This island is the site of Waimea Canyon State Park, the United States Census Bureau defines Kauaʻi as census tracts 401 through 409 of Kauaʻi County, Hawaiʻi, which comprises all of the county except for the islands of Kaʻula, Lehua and Niʻihau. The 2010 United States Census population of the island was 67,091, the most populous town was Kapaʻa. Hawaiian narrative locates the origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa. The story relates how he named the island of Kauaʻi after a favorite son, another possible translation is food season. Kauaʻi was known for its dialect of the Hawaiian language. While the standard language today adopts the dialect of Hawaiʻi island, which has the sound, in effect, Kauaʻi dialect retained the old pan-Polynesian /t/, while standard Hawaiʻi dialect has changed it to the. Therefore, the name for Kauaʻi was said as Tauaʻi. Kauaʻis origins are volcanic, the island having been formed by the passage of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot, at approximately six million years old, it is the oldest of the main islands. The highest peak on this island is Kawaikini at 5,243 feet. The second highest peak is Mount Waiʻaleʻale near the center of the island,5,148 feet above sea level, one of the wettest spots on earth, with an annual average rainfall of 1,170 centimetres, is located on the east side of Mount Waiʻaleʻale. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountains, at 3,000 feet deep, Waimea Canyon is often referred to as The Grand Canyon of the Pacific. Kokeo Point lies on the side of the island. The Na Pali Coast is a center for recreation in a setting, including kayaking past the beaches. The headland, Kuahonu Point, is on the south-east of the island, Kauaʻi’s climate is tropical, with generally humid and stable conditions year round, although weather phenomena and infrequent storms have caused instances of extreme weather. At the lower elevations the annual precipitation varies from an average of about 50 inches on the windward shore, average temperature in Lihue, the county seat, ranges from 78 °F in February to 85 °F in August and September. Kauaʻi’s mountainous regions offer cooler temperatures and provide a pleasant contrast to the coastal areas
Kauai
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August 1995 satellite photo.
Kauai
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Kalalau Beach
Kauai
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The commercial area in Port Allen
Kauai
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Some of Kauaʻi's feral chickens at Lydgate Beach Park
17.
Hawaii (island)
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Hawaiʻi is the largest island located in the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is the largest and the southeastern-most of the Hawaiian Islands, with an area of 4,028 square miles, it is larger than all of the other islands in the archipelago combined and is the largest island in the United States. However, it only has 13% of Hawaiis people, the island of Hawaii is the third largest island in Polynesia, behind the two main islands of New Zealand. The island is referred to as the Island of Hawaiʻi. Administratively, the island is encompassed by Hawaiʻi County. As of the 2010 Census the population was 185,079, the county seat and largest city is Hilo. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaiʻi County, Hawaiʻi is said to have been named after Hawaiʻiloa, the legendary Polynesian navigator who first discovered it. The name is cognate with Savaii, the name of the largest island of Samoa, cook was killed on the Big Island at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779, in a mêlée which followed the theft of a ships boat. Hawaiʻi was the island of Paiʻea Kamehameha, later known as Kamehameha the Great. Kamehameha united most of the Hawaiian islands under his rule in 1795, after years of war, and gave the kingdom. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 5,086 square miles. The countys land area comprises 62.7 percent of the land area. It is the highest percentage by any county in the United States, in greatest dimension, the island is 93 miles across and has a land area of 4,028 square miles comprising 62% of the Hawaiian Islands land area. Measured from its sea floor base to its highest peak, Mauna Kea is the worlds tallest mountain, taller than Mount Everest is, the Island of Hawaiʻi is built from five separate shield volcanoes that erupted somewhat sequentially, one overlapping the other. Geologists now consider these outcrops to be part of the building of Mauna Loa. Another volcano which has disappeared below the surface of the ocean is Māhukona. Because Mauna Loa and Kīlauea are active volcanoes, the island of Hawaii is still growing, between January 1983 and September 2002, lava flows added 543 acres to the island. Lava flowing from Kīlauea has destroyed several towns, including Kapoho in 1960, in 1987 lava filled in Queens Bath, a large, L-shaped, freshwater pool in the Kalapana area
Hawaii (island)
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Landsat mosaic, 1999–2001.
Hawaii (island)
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James Kealoha Beach, "4-Mile Beach," in Hilo
Hawaii (island)
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Aerial view, 3D computer-generated image
Hawaii (island)
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A view of the Kohala Coast and adjacent volcanoes, from left to right, Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai, taken from the slopes of Kohala Mountains about six miles northwest of Kawaihae.
18.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
Sydney
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The
Sydney Opera House and
CBD at dusk from
Jeffrey Street,
Kirribilli in December 2008
Sydney
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A Direct North General View of Sydney Cove, by convict artist
Thomas Watling in 1794
Sydney
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Sydney Cove from
Dawes Point, 1817
19.
Anchorage Museum of History and Art
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The Anchorage Museum is a large art, history, ethnography, ecology and science museum located in a modern building in the heart of Anchorage, Alaska. It is dedicated to studying and exploring the land, peoples, art, the museum displays material from its permanent collection, along with regular visiting exhibitions. The museum opened in 1968 in a 10, 000-square-foot building with an exhibition of 60 borrowed Alaska paintings, a collection of 2500 historic and ethnographic objects, first accredited in 1973, the museum has maintained its accreditation since. In 1992, the became the home for the Alaska office of the Smithsonians NMNH Arctic Studies Center, which supports the museums mission through research, education. The Anchorage Museum is a museum located in the heart of Alaskas largest city. It welcomes over 180,000 annual visitors from Alaska and from around the world, the museum is repeatedly ranked among Alaskas top ten visitor attractions. Each year it presents 16–20 changing exhibitions complemented by education programs, in 2006,20,993 students and 47,836 adults participated in education programs. The museums library/archives are in frequent demand by publishers, scholars, titles held in the Library are accessible to students, scholars and the public via interlibrary loan on the web. The Smithsonian Institutions Arctic Studies Center conducts public programs and collaborative programs to increase understanding of northern peoples, cultures. It develops exhibitions and offers professional museum training workshops frequented by museum, the museum serves its statewide mission by organizing and presenting programs and exhibitions in Anchorage, as well as by traveling exhibitions throughout the state. Examples include exhibits shared with museums in Unalaska, Bethel, Homer, Ketchikan, Kenai, Fairbanks, Kodiak, Eek, the museum provides professional recommendations on collections, exhibitions, education, archival organization and conservation to other Alaska museums, cultural centers and the public. The Anchorage Museum has over 40,000 square feet devoted to its permanent collection with a focus on Alaska history, Art of the North and this gallery is devoted to Alaskas rich history from the native fauna through the time of the first early migrations to the present. The Alaska Gallery exhibits more than 1,000 objects and is one of the most complete presentations of Alaskan history and ethnology. Full-scale and miniature dioramas give insight into the lifestyles of Alaskas Native peoples, exploration and settlement by the Russians, the permanent art collection represents the vast range of art from Alaska and the circumpolar North. Seven galleries on the ground floor are devoted to this collection. Exhibitions include juried shows, interpretive exhibitions and traveling exhibitions from other museums, the museum provides a substantial range of exhibits and programs that acquaint Alaskans with the art, culture, history and science of other peoples and places. The museum also seeks to ensure that its Alaska-focused programming and exhibitions represent the diversity of immigrant heritages in Alaska, public programs include lectures, classes, workshops, films, public and school tours, and special events. The museum is operated by the Anchorage Museum Association, a private non-profit organization under a long contract with the Municipality of Anchorage
Anchorage Museum of History and Art
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A landscape painting of
Mount McKinley, the tallest peak in North America by
Sydney Laurence on display at the Anchorage Museum
Anchorage Museum of History and Art
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Several Alaska Native arrows and a bow rest in the conservation lab at the museum in late March 2011.
Anchorage Museum of History and Art
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The Anchorage Museum's facade incorporates a large amount of custom insulated
fritted glass.
20.
Bishop Museum
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Founded in 1889, it is the largest museum in Hawaii and has the worlds largest collection of Polynesian cultural artifacts and natural history specimens. The museum is accessible on public transit, TheBus Routes A,1,2,7,10, the museum complex is home to the Richard T. Mamiya Science Adventure Center. Charles Reed Bishop, a businessman and philanthropist, co-founder of the First Hawaiian Bank and Kamehameha Schools, built the museum in memory of his late wife, Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop. Born into the family, she was the last legal heir of the Kamehameha Dynasty. Bishop had originally intended the museum to house family heirlooms passed down to him through the lineage of his wife. Bishop hired William Tufts Brigham as the first curator of the Museum, in 1898, Bishop had Hawaiian Hall and Polynesian Hall built on the campus, in the popular Richardsonian Romanesque architectural style. The Pacific Commercial Advertiser newspaper dubbed these two structures as the noblest buildings of Honolulu, today both halls are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Hawaiian Hall is home to a complete skeleton, accompanied by a papier-mâché body suspended above the central gallery. Along the walls are prized koa wood display cases, today this wood in total is more than the original Bishop Museum buildings. In 1940, Kamehameha Schools moved to its new campus in Kapālama, Bishop Hall, first built for use by the school, was adapted for museum use. Most other school structures were razed, and new facilities were constructed. By the late 1980s, the Bishop Museum had become the largest natural and cultural institution in Polynesia. In 1988, construction of the Castle Memorial Building was begun, dedicated on January 13,1990, Castle Memorial Building houses all the major traveling exhibits that come to the Bishop Museum from institutions around the world. The Richard T. Mamiya Science Adventure Center opened in November 2005, the building is designed as a learning center for children, and includes many interactive exhibits focused on marine science, volcanology, and related sciences. The museum library has one of the most extensive collections of books, periodicals, newspapers and special collections concerned with Hawaii and the Pacific. The archives hold the results of studies done by museum staff in the Pacific Basin, as well as manuscripts, photographs, artwork, oral histories, commercial sound recordings. Many of Hawaiʻis royalty, including Bernice Pauahi Bishop and Queen Liliʻuokalani, manuscripts in the collection also include scientific papers, genealogical records, and memorabilia. The library provides access to the collection of published diaries, narratives, memoirs
Bishop Museum
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Bishop Museum
Bishop Museum
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Ke Aliʻi Bernice Pauahi Paki Bishop's husband,
Charles Reed Bishop, created the museum to preserve royal heirlooms passed down to him upon his wife's death.
Bishop Museum
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Bishop Hall, 2010
Bishop Museum
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Front end of Hawaiian Hall, 2010
21.
Honolulu Museum of Art
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The Honolulu Museum of Art is an art museum in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. The museum is largest of its kind in the state, and was founded in 1922 by Anna Rice Cooke. The Honolulu Museum of Art was called “the finest small museum in the United Statesˮ by J. Carter Brown, director of the National Gallery of Art from 1969 to 1992. It presents international caliber special exhibitions and features a collection that includes Hokusai, van Gogh, Gauguin, Monet, Picasso and Warhol, located in two of Honolulu’s most beautiful buildings, visitors enjoy two cafés, gardens, and films and concerts at the theater. In 2011, The Contemporary Museum gifted its assets and collection to the Honolulu Academy of Arts, in 2012, the Museum is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums and registered as a National and State Historical site. In 1990, the Honolulu Museum of Art School was opened to expand the program of art classes. In 2001, the Henry R. Luce Pavilion Complex opened with the Honolulu Museum of Art Café, Museum Shop, the Honolulu Museum of Art has a large collection of Asian art, especially Japanese and Chinese works. Major collections include the Samuel H, other collections include the James A. Michener collection of ukiyo-e prints and the Hawaiian art collection, which chronicles the history of art in Hawaiʻi. The permanent collection is presented in 32 galleries and six courtyards, the Honolulu Museum of Art occupies 3.2 acres near downtown Honolulu, not far from Waikīkī beach. The Museum is open to the public Tuesday through Sunday, admission is free to members, children and for some events, but otherwise a fee is charged. Some events and certain days offer free admission to all, an optional audio guide includes 40 selections from the collection. Guided tours are offered several times daily, tours in the Japanese language, for the hearing impaired and specialty group tours for 10 or more are also available. The museum is open 10 a. m. to 4,30 p. m. on Tuesday to Saturday,1 p. m. to 5 p. m. on Sunday, and closed on Monday. The museums second location, Spalding House, is located in lush Makiki Heights and features galleries of art, a café, on permanent view is David Hockneys installation Lenfant et les sortilèges, the artists interpretation of his original stage designs for the 1981 Metropolitan Opera production. The Doris Duke Theatre at the Museum seats 280 and it hosts movies, concerts, lectures, and presentations. The theatre is home to Hawaiis GLBT film festival the Rainbow Film Festival. It is currently run by Theatre Manager, Taylour Chang, in 1927, the Robert Allerton Art Research Library opened with 500 books. In 1955, it was expanded and named for Robert Allerton, Collections include 45,000 books and periodicals, biographical files on artists, and auction catalogues dating to the beginning of the 20th century
Honolulu Museum of Art
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The Honolulu Museum of Art
Honolulu Museum of Art
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Mrs. Thomas Lincoln Manson Jr (Mary Groot) 1890, by
John Singer Sargent. Oil on canvas (56.06" x 44.25")
Honolulu Museum of Art
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Gautama Buddha and the Eight Great
Bodhisattvas, Korea,
Joseon Dynasty, 16th century
Honolulu Museum of Art
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Hemis (home dance)
kachina doll, Arizona,
Hopi people in the Honolulu Museum of Art
22.
Peabody Essex Museum
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The Peabody Essex Museum in Salem, Massachusetts, is considered one of the oldest continuously operating museums in the United States. It is a successor to the East India Marine Society, established in 1799 and it combines the collections of the former Peabody Museum of Salem and the Essex Institute. The museum holds one of the collections of Asian art in the US. Its total holdings include about 1.3 million pieces, as well as historic buildings. The Peabody Essex ranks among the top 20 art museums in the US by measures including gallery space, in 1992, the Peabody Museum of Salem merged with the Essex Institute to form the Peabody Essex Museum. Included in the merger was the legacy of the East India Marine Society, established in 1799 by a group of Salem-based captains, members of the Society were required by the societys charter to collect natural and artificial curiosities from beyond the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn. They were also required to circumnavigate the globe, and share navigational discoveries with other Society members. Due to the age, the items they donated to the collections are significant for their rare combination of age. The East India Marine Society built the East India Marine Hall and this collection was acquired by the Peabody Academy of Science in 1867, along with the building, which continued to serve as a museum space through these mergers and acquisitions. In 2011, the Peabody Essex Museum announced it had raised $550 million, the Boston Globe reported this was the largest capital campaign in the museums history, vaulting the Peabody Essex into the top tier of major art museums. The museum is led by Dan Monroe, the Rose-Marie and Eijk van Otterloo Director, in May 2012, the PEM confirmed that its expansion will not be finished until 2019, due the unexpected death of museum architect Rick Mather in April 2012 and the search for his replacement. The museum is still adding galleries, education space, and a restaurant, the museums expansion project was to start in 2015, and the new wing will open to the public in 2019. The museum presently owns collections of art, including works by marine artist James Bard. The museum owns 24 historic structures and gardens, some of which are concentrated in the old Essex Institute grounds which now form the Essex Institute Historic District, some are shown in the gallery below. H. Rogers Building, Ropes Mansion, Andrew Safford House, Summer School Building, Vilate Young House, some of these properties are open to guided tours. Pacific Collection in the Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, re-enactment and the Museum Case, Reading the Oceanic and Native American Displays in the Peabody Essex Museum. Journal of New Zealand Literature, No.27, art Museums Plus, Cultural Excursions in New England. Peabody Essex Museum Website Yin Yu Tang, a late Qing dynasty merchants house relocated to the museum
Peabody Essex Museum
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The main entrance to the museum
Peabody Essex Museum
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2006 Peabody Essex Museum, Salem MA
Peabody Essex Museum
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Peabody Essex Museum (Inside) - July 2013
Peabody Essex Museum
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John Tucker Daland House
23.
Yale University Art Gallery
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The Yale University Art Gallery houses a significant and encyclopedic collection of art in several buildings on the campus of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. Although it embraces all cultures and periods, the gallery emphasizes early Italian painting, African sculpture, the Yale University Art Gallery is the oldest university art museum in the western hemisphere. The gallery was founded in 1832, when patriot-artist, John Trumbull, donated more than 100 paintings of the American Revolution to Yale College and this building, on the universitys Old Campus, was razed in 1901. The gallerys main building was built in 1953, and was among the first designed by Louis Kahn, a complete renovation, which returned many spaces to Kahns original vision, was completed in December 2006, by Polshek Partnership Architects. The older Tuscan romanesque portion was built in 1928, and was designed by Egerton Swartwout, the Gallery reopened on December 12,2012, after a 14-year renovation and expansion project at a cost of $135 million. The expanded space totals 69,975 sq ft, the museum is a member of the North American Reciprocal Museums program. On the second floor was a valuable collection of paintings by John Trumbull. Among them were his paintings of the Battle of Bunker Hill, Death of Montgomery before Quebec, Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, Declaration of Independence. Trumbull gave the paintings to Yale in consideration of an annuity of $1,000 and subject to the condition that he, the Gallery’s encyclopedic collections number more than 185,000 objects ranging in date from ancient times to the present day. The permanent collection includes, African Art, over 1000 objects in wood, metal, ivory, American Decorative Arts, about 18,000 objects in silver, glass, wood, porcelain, and textile with an emphasis on the colonial and early federal periods. Ancient Art, over 13,000 objects from the Near East, Egypt, Greece, Etruria, Art of the Ancient Americas, Mayan and Olmec figurines, vessels and sculptures. Prints, Drawings, and Photographs In 2005, the announced that it had acquired 1,465 gelatin silver prints by the influential American landscape photographer. In 2009, the museum mounted an exhibition of its collection of Picasso paintings and drawings. For the first time, portions of the Yale University Librarys, as an affiliate of Yale University, the gallery maintains a robust roster of education programs for university students, New Haven schools, and the general public. One such program is the Gallery Guide program, founded in 1998, the Yale Art Gallery charges no admission
Yale University Art Gallery
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Yale University Art Gallery
Yale University Art Gallery
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Miniature of
George Washington by
Robert Field (1800)
Yale University Art Gallery
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Antiquities at the Yale University Art Gallery
Yale University Art Gallery
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The Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec, 1786,
John Trumbull
24.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
British Museum
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British Museum
British Museum
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The centre of the museum was redeveloped in 2001 to become the
Great Court, surrounding the original
Reading Room.
British Museum
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Sir
Hans Sloane
British Museum
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Montagu House, c. 1715
25.
The National Maritime Museum
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The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London, is the leading maritime museum of the United Kingdom and may be the largest museum of its kind in the world. The historic buildings form part of the Maritime Greenwich World Heritage Site, the museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Like other publicly funded museums in the United Kingdom, the National Maritime Museum does not levy an admission charge. The Museum was created by the National Maritime Act of 1934 Chapter 43, under a Board of Trustees and it is based on the generous donations of Sir James Caird. King George VI formally opened the Museum on 27 April 1937 when his daughter Princess Elizabeth, the first Director was Sir Geoffrey Callender. Since earliest times Greenwich has had associations with the sea and navigation and it was a landing place for the Romans, Henry VIII lived here, the navy has roots on the waterfront, and Charles II founded the Royal Observatory in 1675 for finding the longitude of places. An active loans programme ensures that items from the collection are seen in the UK, through its displays, exhibitions and outreach programmes the Museum also explores our current relationship with the sea and the future of the sea as an environmental force and resource. The museum plays host to exhibitions, including Ships Clocks & Stars in 2014, Samuel Pepys, Plague, Fire, Revolution in 2015 and Emma Hamilton, Seduction. The collection of the National Maritime Museum also includes items taken from the German Naval Academy Mürwik after World War II, including several ship models, the museum has been criticized for possessing what has been described as Looted art. The Museum regards these cultural objects as war trophies, removed under the provisions of the Potsdam Conference, the Museum awards the Caird Medal annually in honour of its major donor, Sir James Caird. The Caird Library is a comprehensive specialist reference library and a research resource for all. The reading room is open Monday to Friday,10. 00–16.45, the Archive and Library holds a fantastic range of resources for finding out more about maritime history. Material includes manuscripts, books, charts and maps dating back to the 15th century, the collection can be used to research maritime history and exploration, the history of the Merchant Navy and the Royal Navy and much more, including astronomy and timekeeping. Many of the resources they hold are useful for family historians, including collections of Master’s Certificates dating back to 1845. For news and interesting items from the collection, see Caird Library blog To request items to view in the Library, search Archive catalogue and Library catalogue. The Library has produced a range of guides to help people carry out their own research on a wide range of topics. The guides provide information about the Museums collections and other sources for research into maritime history, find out more about the research guides at Research Guides. The museum was established in 1934 within the 200 acres of Greenwich Royal Park in the buildings formerly occupied by the Royal Hospital School
The National Maritime Museum
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National Maritime Museum
The National Maritime Museum
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Portrait of Captain
James Cook by
Nathaniel Dance at the National Maritime Museum.
The National Maritime Museum
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The
Bretagne, painting by
Jules Achille Noël, 1859, at the National Maritime Museum
The National Maritime Museum
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Admiral
George Keith Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith by George Sanders.
26.
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
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The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa is the national museum and art gallery of New Zealand, located in Wellington. It is branded and commonly known as Te Papa and Our Place, in January 2013 Te Papa management announced the museum would be split into two parts – one operating much as it has in the past, and the other focusing on the future. The first predecessor of Te Papa was the Colonial Museum, founded in 1865 and it was built on Museum Street. Halfway through the 1930s the museum moved to the new Dominion Museum building in Buckle Street, the National Art Gallery was opened in 1936 and occupied the first floor of the National Art Gallery and Dominion Museum building on Buckle Street, Wellington. It was originally populated with a collection donated by Academy of Fine Arts, the Gallery was formed with the passing of the National Art Gallery and Dominion Museum Act. Both the Dominion Museum and Gallery were overseen by a board of trustees. The official opening was by the Governor General in 1934, the early holding consisted largely of donations and bequests, including those from Sir Harold Beauchamp, T. Lindsay Buick, Archdeacon Smythe, N. Chevalier, J. C. Richmond, William Swainson, Bishop Monrad, Sir John Ilott, eru D. Gore was secretary-manager from 1936 till his death in 1948 when Stewart Bell Maclennan was appointed the first director. This was the first appointment in New Zealand of an art gallery director. Te Papa was established in 1992 by the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Act 1992, the official opening took place on 14 February 1998, in a ceremony led by Sir Peter Blake, Prime Minister Jenny Shipley, and two children. The first Chief Executive of the Museum was Dame Cheryll Sotheran, Māori traditional instrumentalist Richard Nunns co-led the musicians at a dawn ceremony on opening day. The museum is run by a Board appointed by the Minister for Arts, Culture, the museum had one million visitors in the first five months of operation, and between 1 and 1.3 million visits have been made in each subsequent year. In 2004, more space was devoted to exhibiting works from the New Zealand art collection in an exhibition called Toi Te Papa. Filmmakers Gaylene Preston and Anna Cottrell documented the development of Te Papa in their film Getting to Our Place, the main Te Papa building is on the waterfront in Wellington, on Cable Street. Inside the building are six floors of exhibitions, cafés and gift shops dedicated to New Zealands culture, the museum also incorporates outdoor areas with artificial caves, native bushes and wetlands. A second building on Tory Street is a research facility and storage area. Te Papa was designed by Jasmax Architects and built by Fletcher Construction, the 36,000 square metre building had cost NZ$300 million by its opening in 1998. The site was occupied by a modern five-storey hotel
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
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Te Papa ("Our Place"), The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
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The remains of the
colossal squid on permanent display at the museum
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
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Full Moon rising over Te Papa
27.
Mitchell Library (Australia)
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The State Library of New South Wales is a large reference and research library open to the public. It is the oldest library in Australia, being the first established in New South Wales in 1826, the library is located on the corner of Macquarie Street, Sydney and Shakespeare Place, adjacent to the Domain and the Royal Botanic Gardens. The library is a member of the National and State Libraries Australasia consortium, the first library collections were part of the Australian Subscription Library which was started by a group of wealthy Sydney citizens in 1826. It was then purchased for £5100 by the New South Wales Government in 1869, in 1895 it was renamed the Public Library of New South Wales until its most recent name change in 1975, when it became the State Library of New South Wales. The Australian Subscription Library was established in 1826 at a meeting at the Sydney Hotel chaired by barrister John Mackaness, Library membership was subject to committee approval. Dr James Mitchell, father of David Scott Mitchell, was a member from 1832 to 1853. Fortunately for the later negotiations with the government were more successful. The foundation stone for new building, on the corner of Bent and Macquarie Streets, was laid by Alexander Macleay. Financial difficulties continued, and by 1869 the subscription library was in serious debt, the New South Wales Government was persuaded to buy it for £5100. In September 1869, the Sydney Free Public Library opened its doors with a stock of 20000 volumes, over 60,000 people visited the library in its first year of operation as the Free Public Library. Robert Cooper Walker was appointed Principal Librarian and he, in collaboration with the Trustees, worked to expand the educational role of the library both through collection expansion and the production of printed catalogues of the librarys collection. The library expanded its operations, opening a branch in 1877. This lending branch was handed to the Sydney Municipal Council in 1909, the librarys collection continued to grow, causing continual storage and overcrowding problems, new additions included a First Folio in 1885 and the papers of William Bligh in 1902. Australiana was a focus for the library and David Scott Mitchells collecting activities came to the attention of Henry Charles Lennox Anderson. Andersons stated aim of making the library a National, and not a Municipal, Anderson realised that the library did not have the budget or contacts to compete with Mitchell, and attempted to build a working relationship with Mitchell. In 1898, Mitchell announced his intention to leave his collection to the people of New South Wales, although his offer was quickly accepted, construction of a new building to house the collection was delayed for several years. Construction commenced in 1906, one year before Mitchells death, following Andersons resignation in 1907, Frank Murcott Bladen was appointed Principal Librarian. In 1909, Hugh Wright was appointed to the newly created position of Mitchell Librarian, nita Kibble was another early member of the library staff
Mitchell Library (Australia)
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State Library of New South Wales
Mitchell Library (Australia)
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State Library of New South Wales, Mitchell Wing, exterior
Mitchell Library (Australia)
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Portrait of
David Scott Mitchell in the Mitchell Library
Mitchell Library (Australia)
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Portrait of Sir
William Dixson
28.
San Antonio Museum of Art
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The San Antonio Museum of Art is an art museum in downtown San Antonio, Texas, USA. The Museum was funded through grants from the Economic Development Administration of San Antonio, the Museum is situated on the northern section of the San Antonio Riverwalk. With the opening of the Gloria Galt River Landing in 2009, when the Museum opened it specialized in art of the Americas including pre-Columbian, Spanish Colonial, and Latin American folk art. It also included eighteenth-, nineteenth- and twentieth-century American and European paintings, photography, sculpture, in 1985, the Museum received collections of Latin American Folk Art formed by former Vice President Nelson A. Rockefeller and Robert K. Winn. In 1998, the Nelson A. Rockefeller Center for Latin American Art, the Egyptian collection hold objects from the Pre-dynastic through the late Roman and Byzantine periods. The Museum also houses an important and rare collection of Greek and Roman sculpture that encompasses portraits, funerary sculpture, and mythological subject. Asian Art The Asian art collection is housed in the Lenora and Walter F. Brown Asian Art Wing, Latin American The San Antonio Museum of Art has one of the most comprehensive collections of Latin American art in the United States. The collection is housed in the Nelson A. Rockefeller Center for Latin American Art, Contemporary A significant portion of the Museum’s Contemporary collection is devoted to post-World War II American painting and sculpture, including an emphasis on modernist abstraction. In addition, the Museum has always been committed to the collection of Contemporary Texas Art, the collection includes two sculptures by San Antonio-born Bonnie MacLeary. General Admission Pricing Members, Free Adult, $10 Seniors, $7 Students and Military, $5 Children under 12, general admission is free to the public Tuesdays from 4–9 p. m. and Sundays from 10 a. m. –12 p. m. The all-yellow car operated on a section of Texas Transportation Company tracks behind the museum. TXTC was a railroad, operating trains powered from overhead trolley wires. Streetcar service in San Antonio ended in 1933, but car 300 was preserved at that time by the San Antonio Museums Association, in 1981, volunteers restored car 300 to operating condition as a historical attraction. Public operation began in October 1982, the car ran twice a day Tuesday through Friday and six times a day on weekends, but budget cuts led to the services being discontinued at the end of 1985
San Antonio Museum of Art
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The San Antonio Museum of Art
San Antonio Museum of Art
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Landing for the San Antonio Museum of Art on the
San Antonio River Walk "Museum Reach" extension
San Antonio Museum of Art
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A
William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) painting on display entitled Admiration (1897).
29.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
James Cook
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James Cook, portrait by
Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775,
National Maritime Museum,
Greenwich
James Cook
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Portrait of Mrs. Elizabeth Cook by William Henderson, dated 1830.
James Cook
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James Cook's 1775 chart of
Newfoundland
James Cook
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Endeavour replica in
Cooktown, Queensland harbour — anchored where the original Endeavour was beached for seven weeks in 1770.
30.
First voyage of James Cook
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The first voyage of James Cook was a combined Royal Navy and Royal Society expedition to the south Pacific Ocean aboard HMS Endeavour, from 1768 to 1771. It was the first of three Pacific voyages of which Cook was the commander, the aims of this first expedition were to observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun, and to seek evidence of the postulated Terra Australis Incognita or unknown southern land. The voyage was commissioned by King George III and commanded by Lieutenant James Cook, departing from Plymouth-Dock in August 1768, the expedition crossed the Atlantic, rounded Cape Horn and reached Tahiti in time to observe the transit of Venus. In September 1769 the expedition reached New Zealand, being the second Europeans to visit there, Cook and his crew spent the following six months charting the New Zealand coast, before resuming their voyage westward across open sea. In April 1770 they became the first Europeans to reach the east coast of Australia, making landfall at Point Hicks, the expedition continued northward along the Australian coastline, narrowly avoiding shipwreck on the Great Barrier Reef. In October 1770 the badly damaged Endeavour came into the port of Batavia in the Dutch East Indies and they resumed their journey on 26 December, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771, and reached the English port of Deal on 12 July. The voyage lasted almost three years, the year following his return Cook set out on a second voyage of the Pacific, which lasted from 1772 to 1775. His third and final voyage lasted from 1776 to 1779, the Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy. However, First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused, going so far as to say he would cut off his right hand than give command of a Navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman. The impasse was broken when the Admiralty proposed James Cook, an officer with a background in mathematics. Acceptable to both parties, Cook was promoted to Lieutenant and named as commander of the expedition, the vessel chosen by the Admiralty for the voyage was a merchant collier named Earl of Pembroke, launched in June 1764 from the coal and whaling port of Whitby in North Yorkshire. She was ship-rigged and sturdily built with a broad, flat bow, a square stern, a flat-bottomed design made her well-suited to sailing in shallow waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo and for basic repairs without requiring a dry dock. Her hull was sheathed and caulked, and a third internal deck installed to provide cabins, a longboat, pinnace and yawl were provided as ships boats, as well as a set of 28 ft sweeps to allow the ship to be rowed if becalmed or demasted. Alcohol supplies consisted of 250 barrels of beer,44 barrels of brandy and 17 barrels of rum, on 30 July 1768 the Admiralty authorised a ships company for the voyage, of 73 sailors and 12 Royal Marines. The voyage was commanded by 40-year-old Lieutenant James Cook and his second lieutenant was Zachary Hicks, a 29-year-old from Stepney with experience as acting commander of the Hornet, a 16-gun cutter. The third lieutenant was John Gore, a 16-year Naval veteran who had served as mate aboard HMS Dolphin during its circumnavigation of the world in 1766. Other notable people on the expedition include the official astronomer, Charles Green, then assistant to the Astronomer Royal, Joseph Banks had been appointed to the voyage as the official botanist. Banks funded seven others to him, a Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander
First voyage of James Cook
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Earl of Pembroke, later HMS Endeavour, leaving Whitby Harbour in 1768. By
Thomas Luny, dated 1790
First voyage of James Cook
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Route of the first voyage of
James Cook
First voyage of James Cook
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Cook's map of New Zealand
First voyage of James Cook
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E. Phillips Fox, Landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, 1770, 1902
31.
Second voyage of James Cook
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Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that this massive southern continent should exist. After a delay brought about by the botanist Joseph Banks unreasonable demands, on 17 January 1773, Resolution was the first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle which she crossed twice more on the voyage. The third crossing, on 3 February 1774, was to be the most southerly penetration, Cook undertook a series of vast sweeps across the Pacific, finally proving there was no Terra Australis by sailing over most of its predicted locations. Cook proved the Terra Australis Incognita to be a myth and predicted that an Antarctic land would be found beyond the ice barrier, on this voyage the Larcum Kendall K1 chronometer was successfully employed by William Wales to calculate longitude. This discovery led Dalrymple to publish An Historical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean, in 1770–1771 which aroused widespread interest in his claim of the existence of an unknown continent. Cook commanded HMS Resolution on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship and she was 111 feet long and 35 feet abeam. She was originally registered as HMS Drake, but fearing this would upset the Spanish, twelve light 6-pounder guns and twelve swivel guns were carried. At his own expense Cook had brass door-hinges installed in the great cabin, HMS Adventure began her career as the 340 ton North Sea collier Marquis of Rockingham, launched at Whitby in 1771. She was purchased by the Navy that year for £2,103 and named Rayleigh and she was 97 feet long,28 feet abeam and her draft was 13 feet and carried ten guns. Both were built at the Fishburn yard at Whitby and purchased from Captain William Hammond of Hull, Cook was asked to test the Larcum Kendall K1 chronometer on this voyage. The Board of Longitude had asked Kendall to copy and develop John Harrisons fourth model of a clock useful for navigation at sea, the first model finished by Kendall in 1769 was an accurate copy of H4, cost £450, and is known today as K1. Although constructed like a watch, the chronometer had a diameter of 13 cm, three other clocks, constructed by John Arnold were carried but did not withstand the rigors of the journey. As anti-scorbutics they took nearly 20,000 pounds of Sour Krout and 30 imperial gallons of Mermalade of Carrots, both ships carried livestock, including bullocks, sheep, goats, hogs and poultry. The crews had fishing gear and a water system was carried for distilling sea-water or purifying foul fresh-water. Various pieces of hardware and trinkets to be used for barter or as gifts for the natives were taken aboard. Furneaux, commander of Adventure, was an explorer, having served on Samuel Walliss circumnavigation in Dolphin in 1766–1768. He headed a crew of 81 which included Joseph Shank as first lieutenant, there were also twelve marines headed by Lieutenant James Scott, Furneauxs personal servant, James Tobias Swilley, and, as masters mate John Rowe who was a relation of Furneaux. The ships astronomer was William Bayly and this refit cost £10,080 12s 9d
Second voyage of James Cook
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Map of the supposed position of the hypothetical continent of
Terra Australis Incognita (1657)
Second voyage of James Cook
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Tobias Furneaux
Second voyage of James Cook
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Cook in Antarctica drawn by
William Hodges
Second voyage of James Cook
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Resolution and Adventure in
Matavai Bay, by Hodges
32.
Ships of James Cook
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Captain James Cook, FRS, RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. During his long career he served on a number of British ships, Cook Served his early career in the merchant fleet mostly on Colliers. Ships he sailed on were, Freelove a Collier where Cook Served as an Apprentice from 26.2.1746 to 22.4.1748, three Brothers he served as Apprentice from 14.6.1748 -8.12.1749. Mary of Whitby where he was a Seaman from 8.2.1750 to 5.12.1750, three Brothers with the rank of Seaman from 19.2.1751 to 30.7.1751. Friendship serving as a Seaman from 31.7.1751 to 14.6.1755, in 1755 he joined the Royal Navy, and served on, Eagle, Pembroke Grenville Endeavour, the only vessel on Cooks First Voyage. Adventure Sailed on Cooks Second Voyage, captained by Tobias Furneaux, discovery The support vessel on the Third Voyage. The smallest of Cooks Pacific ships Resolution Cook sailed in her twice, but with different escort vessels
Ships of James Cook
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HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery
Ships of James Cook
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Endeavour beached at
Endeavour River By Johann Fritzsch, 1786.
33.
HMS Adventure (1771)
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HMS Adventure was a barque that the Royal Navy purchased in 1771. She had been the merchant vessel Marquis of Rockingham, launched in 1770 at Whitby, in naval service she sailed with Resolution on James Cooks second expedition to the Pacific in 1772–1775. She was the first ship to circumnavigate the globe from west to east, after her return she served as a store ship until 1779. The navy sold her in 1783 and she resumed a civilian career and she was lost in May 1811. She began her career as the North Sea collier Marquis of Rockingham and he arranged for the Navy to purchase two ships, the second and smaller of which was Marquis of Rockingham. The Navy purchased her in 1771 and first named her Raleigh or Rayleigh, the Navy commissioned her under Joseph Shank. Cook was given the command of Resolution, with Commander Tobias Furneaux accompanying him in Adventure, Furneaux was an experienced explorer, having served on Samuel Walliss circumnavigation in Dolphin in 1766–1768. Resolution and Adventure left Plymouth on 13 July 1772 and on 17 January 1773 were the first European ships to cross the Antarctic Circle. On 8 February 1773 the two became separated in a fog and Furneaux directed Adventure towards the prearranged meeting point of Queen Charlotte Sound. On the way to the rendezvous, Adventure surveyed the southern and eastern coasts of Tasmania, Furneaux made the earliest British chart of this shore, but as he did not enter Bass Strait he assumed Tasmania to be part of Australia. Most of his names here survive, Cook, visiting this shore-line on his voyage, confirmed Furneauxs account and delineation of it. Adventure arrived at Queen Charlotte Sound on 7 May 1773 and Resolution followed on 17 May, from June to October the two ships explored the southern Pacific, reaching Tahiti on 15 August, where Omai of Raiatea embarked on Adventure. After calling at Tonga in the Friendly Islands the ships returned to New Zealand but were separated by a storm on 22 October and this time the rendezvous at Queen Charlotte Sound was missed — Resolution departed on 26 November, four days before Adventure arrived. Cook had left a message buried in the setting out his plan to explore the South Pacific. Furneaux decided to home and buried a reply to that effect. Before he could leave, a fight out between Adventures crew and the local Māori people, in which ten crewmen and two Māoris were killed. This was reportedly prompted by a breach of tapu by a sailor. Lieutenant John Hallum recommissioned Adventure in March 1775 and he sailed for North America on 26 June 1775
HMS Adventure (1771)
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Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in
Matavai Bay by
William Hodges, painted 1776, shows the two ships at anchor in
Tahiti.
34.
HMS Discovery (1774)
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HMS Discovery was the consort ship of James Cooks third expedition to the Pacific Ocean in 1776–1780. Like Cooks other ships, Discovery was a Whitby-built collier originally named Diligence when she was built in 1774, purchased in 1775, the vessel was measured at 299 tons burthen. Originally a brig, Cook had her changed to a full rigged ship and she was commanded by Charles Clerke, who had previously served on Cooks first two expeditions, and had a complement of 70. When Cook was killed in a skirmish with natives of Hawaii, Clerke transferred to the expeditions flagship HMS Resolution and she then became a dockyard craft at Woolwich, and was broken up at Chatham Dockyard in October 1797. European and American voyages of scientific exploration Kidnapping of Kalaniʻōpuʻu by Captain James Cook Colledge, J. J. Warlow, Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy. Rif Winfield, British Warships in the Age of Sail, 1714-1792, the Life of Captain James Cook. Ships of the World entry Digitised copies of the logs of HMS Discovery
HMS Discovery (1774)
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Resolution and Discovery by Samuel Adkin
35.
HMS Endeavour
–
The navy renamed and commissioned her as His Majestys Bark the Endeavour. She departed Plymouth in August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, and she then set sail into the largely uncharted ocean to the south, stopping at the Pacific islands of Huahine, Bora Bora, and Raiatea to allow Cook to claim them for Great Britain. In September 1769, she anchored off New Zealand, the first European vessel to reach the islands since Abel Tasmans Heemskerck 127 years earlier. In April 1770, Endeavour became the first ship to reach the east coast of Australia, Endeavour then sailed north along the Australian coast. She narrowly avoided disaster after running aground on the Great Barrier Reef and he then beached her on the mainland for seven weeks to permit rudimentary repairs to her hull. On 10 October 1770, she limped into port in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies for more substantial repairs, her crew sworn to secrecy about the lands they had visited. She resumed her journey on 26 December, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771. Largely forgotten after her voyage, Endeavour spent the next three years sailing to and from the Falkland Islands. As of 2016 her wreck had not been located but was thought to be one of a cluster of five in Newport Harbor. Relics, including six of her cannon and an anchor, are displayed at maritime museums worldwide, a replica of Endeavour was launched in 1994 and is berthed alongside the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney Harbour. The US space shuttle Endeavour is named after the ship and she is depicted on the New Zealand fifty-cent coin and she was ship-rigged and sturdily built with a broad, flat bow, a square stern, and a long box-like body with a deep hold. A flat-bottomed design made her well-suited to sailing in waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo. Her hull, internal floors, and futtocks were built from white oak, her keel and stern post from elm. Plans of the ship also show a double keelson to lock the keel, floors, some doubt exists about the height of her standing masts, as surviving diagrams of Endeavour depict the body of the vessel only, and not the mast plan. If correct, this would produce an oddly truncated mast a full 9 feet shorter than the standards of the day,1794 at the top of this page. The replica standing mizzen is built to this shorter measurement and stepped in the hold on the keelson, on 16 February 1768, the Royal Society petitioned King George III to finance a scientific expedition to the Pacific to study and observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun. The Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy. However, First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused, going so far as to say he would cut off his right hand than give command of a navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman
HMS Endeavour
–
HMS Endeavour off the coast of New Holland, by Samuel Atkins c. 1794
HMS Endeavour
–
Earl of Pembroke, later HMS Endeavour, leaving Whitby Harbour in 1768. By
Thomas Luny, dated 1790.
HMS Endeavour
–
An 1893 chart showing Endeavour' s track
HMS Endeavour
–
Endeavour beached at
Endeavour River for repairs after her grounding on the Great Barrier Reef in 1770. By Johann Fritzsch, published 1786.
36.
HMS Resolution (1771)
–
She impressed him enough that he called her the ship of my choice, and the fittest for service of any I have seen. Resolution began her career as the North Sea collier Marquis of Granby, launched at Whitby in 1770 and she was originally registered as HMS Drake, but fearing this would upset the Spanish, she was soon renamed Resolution, on 25 December 1771. Her armament consisted of 12 6-pounder guns and 12 swivel guns, at his own expense Cook had brass door-hinges installed in the great cabin. However, in sea trials the ship was found to be top-heavy, banks subsequently refused to travel under the resulting adverse conditions and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son, George, replaced him. Resolution departed Sheerness on 21 June 1772, carrying 118 people, including 20 volunteers who had sailed on Cooks first voyage in HMS Endeavour in 1768–1771 and she joined HMS Adventure at Plymouth and the two ships departed English waters on 13 July 1772. Resolutions first port of call was at Funchal in the Madeira Islands, which she reached on 1 August. The ship was reprovisioned with fresh water, beef, fruit and onions, several of the crew had brought monkeys aboard as pets, but Cook had them thrown overboard to prevent their droppings from fouling the ship. Kendalls K1 was remarkably accurate and was to prove to be most efficient in determining longitude on board Resolution, on 17 January 1773, Resolution was the first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle and crossed twice more on the voyage. The third crossing, on 3 February 1774, was the most southerly penetration, Resolution thus proved Alexander Dalrymples Terra Australis Incognita to be a myth. She returned to Britain in 1775 and was paid off. She arrived back in Britain on 4 October 1780, in 1780, Resolution was converted into an armed transport and sailed for the East Indies in March 1781. Sphinx and Annibal of Suffrens squadron captured Resolution on 9 June 1782, after the action at Negapatam on 6 July 1782, Resolution sailed to Manila for wood, biscuit and rigging, and to press any seaman she found there. She then sailed on 22 July 1782 and was never seen again, on 5 June 1783 de Suffren wrote that Resolution had last been seen in the Sunda Strait, and that he suspected she had either foundered or fallen into the hands of the English. An item from the Melbourne Argus,25 February 1879, said that she ended her days as a Portuguese coal-hulk at Rio de Janeiro, alternatively, in 1789 she may have been renamed Général Conway, in November 1790 Amis Réunis, and in 1792 Liberté. She settled to the bottom just a mile from Endeavour, european and American voyages of scientific exploration Beaglehole, J. C. ed. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery II, I, The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772–1775. Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy, dugard, Martin Farther Than Any Man The Rise and Fall of Captain James Cook, Washington Square Press. Paine, Lincoln P Ships of the World, an Historical Encyclopedia, Houghton Mifflin
HMS Resolution (1771)
–
Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in
Matavai Bay by
William Hodges, painted 1776, shows the two ships at anchor in
Tahiti in August 1773.
37.
Joseph Banks
–
Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was a British naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. Banks made his name on the 1766 natural history expedition to Newfoundland and he took part in Captain James Cooks first great voyage, visiting Brazil, Tahiti, and, after 6 months in New Zealand, Australia, returning to immediate fame. He held the position of President of the Royal Society for over 41 years and he advised King George III on the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and by sending botanists around the world to collect plants, he made Kew the worlds leading botanical gardens. He is credited with introducing the eucalyptus, acacia, and the named after him, Banksia. Approximately 80 species of plants bear his name and he was the leading founder of the African Association and a member of the Society of Dilettanti which helped to establish the Royal Academy. Banks was born on Argyle Street in London to William Banks, a wealthy Lincolnshire country squire and member of the House of Commons and he had a younger sister, Sarah Sophia Banks, born in 1744. Banks was educated at Harrow School from the age of 9 and at Eton College from 1756, as a boy, Banks enjoyed exploring the Lincolnshire countryside and developed a keen interest in nature, history and botany. When he was 17, he was inoculated with smallpox, but he became ill, in late 1760, he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner at the University of Oxford. At Oxford, he matriculated at Christ Church, where his studies were focused on natural history rather than the classical curriculum. Determined to receive instruction, he paid the Cambridge botanist Israel Lyons to deliver a series of lectures at Oxford in 1764. Banks left Oxford for Chelsea in December 1763 and he continued to attend the university until 1764, but left that year without taking a degree. He began to make friends among the men of his day and to correspond with Carl Linnaeus. As Bankss influence increased, he became an adviser to King George III and urged the monarch to support voyages of discovery to new lands and he became a Freemason sometime before 1769. He made his name by publishing the first Linnean descriptions of the plants and animals of Newfoundland and his diary, describing his expedition to Newfoundland, was rediscovered recently in the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia. Banks also documented 34 species of birds, including the great auk, on 7 May, he noted a large number of penguins swimming around the ship on the Grand Banks, and a specimen he collected in Chateau Bay, Labrador, was later identified as the great auk. Banks was appointed to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the south Pacific Ocean on HMS Endeavour and this was the first of James Cooks voyages of discovery in that region. Banks funded seven others to him, the Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander. The voyage went to Brazil, where Banks made the first scientific description of a now common garden plant, bougainvillea, and to other parts of South America
Joseph Banks
–
Sir Joseph Banks, as painted by
Sir Joshua Reynolds in 1773
Joseph Banks
Joseph Banks
–
Signature
Joseph Banks
–
A 1757 portrait of Banks with a botanical illustration. Unknown artist, but attributed to
Lemuel Francis Abbott or
Johann Zoffany
38.
William Bligh
–
Vice admiral William Bligh FRS RN was an officer of the British Royal Navy and a colonial administrator. Fifteen years after the Bounty mutiny, he was appointed Governor of New South Wales in Australia and his actions directed against the trade resulted in the so-called Rum Rebellion, during which Bligh was again placed under arrest and deposed from his command. William Bligh was born on 9 September 1754 but it is not clear where. It is likely that he was born in Plymouth, Devon, as he was baptised at St Andrews Church, Plymouth on 4 October 1754, Blighs ancestral home of Tinten Manor in St Tudy near Bodmin, Cornwall, is also a possibility. Blighs mother, Jane Pearce, was a widow who married Francis at the age of 40. Bligh was signed for the Royal Navy at age seven, at a time when it was common to sign on a young gentleman simply to gain, or at least record, the experience at sea required for a commission. In 1770, at age 16, he joined HMS Hunter as an able seaman and he became a midshipman early in the following year. In September 1771, Bligh was transferred to the Crescent and remained on the ship for three years, Bligh returned to England at the end of 1780 and was able to give details of Cooks last voyage. Bligh married Elizabeth Betham, daughter of a collector, on 4 February 1781. The wedding took place at nearby Onchan, a few days later, he was appointed to serve on HMS Belle Poule as master. Soon after this, in August 1781, he fought in the Battle of Dogger Bank under Admiral Parker, for the next 18 months, he was a lieutenant on various ships. He also fought with Lord Howe at Gibraltar in 1782, between 1783 and 1787, Bligh was a captain in the merchant service. Like many lieutenants, he would have found employment in the Navy, however. In 1787, Bligh was selected as commander of Bounty and he rose eventually to the rank of vice admiral in the Royal Navy. William Blighs naval career involved various appointments and assignments and he first rose to prominence as Master of Resolution, under the command of Captain Cook. Bligh received praise from Cook during what would be the final voyage. Bligh served on three of the ships from Fletcher Christians naval career. In the early 1780s, while in the merchant service, Bligh became acquainted with a man named Fletcher Christian
William Bligh
–
1814 portrait
William Bligh
–
The
mutineers turning Lt Bligh and some of the officers and crew adrift from His Majesty's Ship
Bounty. By
Robert Dodd
William Bligh
–
Original illustration by S. Drée from
Jules Verne 's story "
The Mutineers of the Bounty " (Les Révoltés de la Bounty) (1879).
William Bligh
–
William Bligh, pictured in his 1792 account of the Mutiny voyage, A Voyage to the South Sea
39.
Charles Clerke
–
Captain Charles Clerke RN was an officer in the Royal Navy who sailed on four voyages of exploration,3 with Captain James Cook. When Cook was killed during his 3rd expedition to the Pacific, Clerke took command, Clerke started studying at the Royal Naval Academy in Portsmouth when he was 13. During the Seven Years War he served aboard HMS Dorsetshire and HMS Bellona and he was in the mizzen-top of HMS Bellona when the mast was shot away in 1761 and he became the only survivor of those who consequently fell overboard. In June 1764 he joined Captain John Byron, aboard HMS Dolphin, the Dolphin returned in May 1766. Its circumnavigation of 22 months was the shortest up to that point, upon his return Clerke published an account of encountering Patagonian giants, a hoax which the Dictionary of Canadian Biography attributed to his high spirits. Clerkes last three voyages were all under the command of Captain James Cook and he started the first voyage aboard HM Bark Endeavour as a masters mate. Cook promoted him to acting lieutenant in 1771, and he was confirmed in that rank on 31 July 1771. He was HMS Resolutions second lieutenant on Cooks second voyage, while ashore between Cooks 2nd and 3rd voyages Clerke agreed to serve time in the Kings Bench debtors prison for a debt one of his brothers, Sir John Clerke had incurred. While in debtors prison he was infected with the tuberculosis that killed him. For Cooks third expedition, Clerke was placed in command of HMS Discovery, when Cook was killed in a skirmish with Hawaiians on 14 February 1779, Clerke took command of the expedition and of HMS Resolution. He continued the exploration of the Northern Pacific coast, searching for a navigable Northwest Passage. The expedition then proceeded to the Pacific coast of Siberia, Lieutenant James King, one of his subordinates, wrote that Clerkes illness had reduced him to skeletal thinness. Clerke died from tuberculosis on his 38th birthday en route to Kamchatka from the Bering Strait and he was buried in Kamchatka on 29 August 1779. Clerkes second in command, Lieutenant John Gore took command of the expedition as captain of Resolution, the expedition then sailed via China and the Sunda Strait to Cape Town, returning to England in August 1780. In 1913, the British Admiralty erected an obelisk in Clerkes honour at Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy, Russia
Charles Clerke
–
Charles Clerke, by
Nathaniel Dance-Holland, 1776
40.
Alexander Dalrymple
–
Alexander Dalrymple FRS was a Scottish geographer and the first Hydrographer of the British Admiralty. He was the proponent of the theory that there existed a vast undiscovered continent in the South Pacific. He produced thousands of nautical charts, mapping a remarkable number of seas and oceans for the first time, and contributing significantly to the safety of shipping. Dalrymple was born at Newhailes, near Edinburgh, the eleventh of fifteen children of Sir James Dalrymple and his wife, Lady Christian Hamilton and he went to London in 1752 and was appointed a writer in the British East India Company, being first posted to Madras. He arrived in Madras in 1753 and he was elected Provisional Deputy Governor by the Manila Council with the departure of Dawsonne Drake on 29 March 1764. He then departed Manila 10 April for Sulu with Sultan Alimuddin I, in 1765 he returned to London where was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. There he became acquainted with the civil engineer John Smeaton, who during the course of his studies on windmills had devised a descriptive scale for grading wind speed and this scale was included in the paper for which he was awarded the Copley Medal. It is believed that Dalrymple conveyed this information to Francis Beaufort, who refined the wind scale that bears his name. Whilst translating some Spanish documents captured in the Philippines in 1762, meanwhile, James Cook had been appointed in his place to lead an expedition to the South Pacific which in 1770 discovered the east coast of Australia. In 1772 Dalrymple published his first set of charts, four of which were of the seas around Sulu, in 1779, he headed the hydrographic office of the East India Company, and that of the Admiralty in 1795. In 1782 he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Royal Society—Dalrymple was elected to membership in the Society in 1771 and those signing that nomination letter were, Benjamin Franklin, Richard Hazard, John Colebrooke, John Pringle, Daniel Wray, Charles Morton, James Burrow, William Hunter, Nevil Maskelyne. James Horsburgh, Alexander Dalrymples successor Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Library of Scotland, shelfmark Nha. M90 Friendly, Alfred. Defining the Wind, The Beaufort Scale, and How a 19th-Century Admiral Turned Science into Poetry, ISBN 978-1-4000-4884-7 Howard T. Fry, Alexander Dalrymple and the Expansion of British Trade, London, Cass for the Royal Commonwealth Society,1970. ISBN 0-7146-2594-9 Portrait of Alexander Dalrymple, National Museum of Scotland
Alexander Dalrymple
–
Alexander Dalrymple, engraving by Conrad Westermayr.
41.
Georg Forster
–
Johann Georg Adam Forster was a naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist, and revolutionary. At an early age, he accompanied his father, Johann Reinhold Forster, on scientific expeditions. His report of that journey, A Voyage Round the World, contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people of Polynesia and remains a respected work. As a result of the report, Forster was admitted to the Royal Society at the age of twenty-two. After returning to continental Europe, Forster turned toward academia and he traveled to Paris to seek out a discussion with the American revolutionary Benjamin Franklin in 1777. He taught natural history at the Collegium Carolinum in the Ottoneum, Kassel, in 1788, he became head librarian at the University of Mainz. Forster was a figure of the Enlightenment in Germany, and corresponded with most of its adherents. His ideas and personality influenced Alexander von Humboldt, one of the scientists of the 19th century. During July 1793 and while he was in Paris as a delegate of the young Mainz Republic, Prussian and Austrian coalition forces regained control of the city, unable to return to Germany and separated from his friends and family, he died in Paris of illness in early 1794. Georg Forster was born in the village of Nassenhuben near Danzig, in the province of Royal Prussia. He was the oldest of seven surviving children of Johann Reinhold Forster and his father was a naturalist, scientist and Reformed pastor. In 1765, the Russian empress Catherine II commissioned the pastor to travel through Russia on a research journey, Georg, then ten years old, joined him. On the journey, which reached the Kalmyk steppe on the lower Volga, they discovered several new species, and he also became fluent in Russian. The report of the journey, which included criticism of the governor of Saratov, was not well received at court. The Forsters claimed they had not received payment for their work and had to move house. They chose to settle in England in 1766, the father took up teaching at the Dissenters Academy in Warrington and also translation work. At the age of thirteen, the young Forster published his first book, an English translation of Lomonosovs history of Russia. In 1772, Forsters father became a member of the Royal Society and this and the withdrawal of Joseph Banks resulted in his invitation by the British admiralty to join James Cooks second expedition to the Pacific
Georg Forster
–
Georg Forster at age 26, by
J. H. W. Tischbein, 1781 (also ascribed to
Anton Graff)
Georg Forster
–
James Cook, portrait by Nathaniel Dance, c. 1775,
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich
Georg Forster
–
Resolution and
Adventure in
Matavai Bay by
William Hodges
Georg Forster
–
One of Forster's many illustrations of birds now extinct, the
Tanna ground dove, also known as Forster's dove of Tanna
42.
Johann Reinhold Forster
–
Johann Reinhold Forster was a Reformed pastor and naturalist of partially Scottish descent who made contributions to the early ornithology of Europe and North America. He is best known as the naturalist on James Cooks second Pacific voyage and they also laid the framework for general concern about the impact that alteration of the physical environment for European economic expansion would have on exotic societies. Forster himself was born in the city of Tczew in Poland and he studied languages and natural history at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, theology at the University of Halle, afterwards serving as a Protestant pastor in Mokry Dwór Pomeranian Voivodship. He married his cousin Elisabeth Nikolai and they had several children including a son, Georg Forster. In 1765 he accepted an offer made to him by the Russian government to inspect and report upon the new colonies founded on the banks of the Volga and he spent three years teaching at the Dissenting Warrington Academy, succeeding Joseph Priestley. Compelled by his violent temper to resign this appointment, Forster then moved with his son to London, in 1771, he published A Catalogue of the Animals of North America, which listed the regions mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, arachnids, and crustaceans. When Joseph Banks withdrew at the last moment as naturalist on Cooks second voyage, Forster, in July 1772 they set sail on the Resolution, returning to England in July 1775. During a stop in Cape Town, Forster engaged Anders Sparrman to act as his assistant, both the Forsters kept detailed diaries of everything they saw on the voyage, and made extensive collections of both natural history specimens and artifacts. On his return Forster published Observations Made during a Voyage round the World, however the income from the book was insufficient to clear his debts, and the bulk of Georgs drawings from the voyage had to be sold to Joseph Banks. During the next few years Forster undertook a variety of writing work and his Descriptiones animalium, completed within a month of returning to England with Cook, was eventually edited by Hinrich Lichtenstein and published in 1844. Forsters Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on zoology, ornithology, and ichthyology established him as one of the earliest authorities on North American zoology. Gaedike, R. Groll, E. K. & Taeger, A.2012, Bibliography of the literature from the beginning until 1863
Johann Reinhold Forster
–
Johann Reinhold Forster
Johann Reinhold Forster
–
Johann Reinhold Forster and
Georg Forster in
Tahiti, by
John Francis Rigaud (1742–1810), 1780.
43.
Tobias Furneaux
–
Captain Tobias Furneaux was an English navigator and Royal Navy officer, who accompanied James Cook on his second voyage of exploration. He was one of the first men to circumnavigate the world in both directions, and later commanded a British vessel during the American Revolutionary War, Furneaux was born at Swilly House near Stoke Damerel, Plymouth-Dock, son of William Furneaux of Swilly, and Susanna Wilcocks. He entered the Royal Navy and was employed on the French and African coasts, on this expedition Furneaux was twice separated from his leader. On the former occasion he explored a part of the south and east coasts of Van Diemens Land. After Adventure was finally separated from Resolution off New Zealand in October 1773, Furneaux returned home alone and this first South Sea Islander to travel to Great Britain returned to Tahiti with Cook in 1776–1777. Furneaux was made a captain in 1775, during the American Revolutionary War, he commanded Syren in the British attack of 28 June 1776 upon Charleston, South Carolina. Syren, with Furneaux in command, was wrecked near Point Judith, by 10 November Furneaux and his crew were prisoners in Providence, awaiting later exchange. RIMAP has also noted that the Syren is one of at least five ships associated with Captain Cook, european and American voyages of scientific exploration Hough, Richard. Marx, Robert F. Shipwrecks in the Americas, British Warships in the Age of Sail,1714 to 1792. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Furneaux. Works by Tobias Furneaux at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Tobias Furneaux at Internet Archive
Tobias Furneaux
–
Tobias Furneaux
44.
John Gore (seaman)
–
Although little is known about John Gore before his service with the Royal Navy, it is believed he was born in the British Colony of Virginia in either 1729 or 1730. He first appears in the books in 1755, joining HMS Windsor at Portsmouth as a midshipman. Five years later Gore took his lieutenants exam and was appointed masters mate of HMS Dolphin, aboard the Dolphin Gore circumnavigated the globe twice—first under John Byron and then Samuel Wallis. On Endeavour, Gore was initially third-in-command behind Cook and Zachary Hicks, later, on 14 July 1770 Gore became famous for being the first person to shoot and kill a kangaroo as the expedition made its way up the eastern seaboard of Australia. Returning to England, in 1772 Gore joined the botanist Joseph Banks in a scientific expedition to Iceland. Gore and Banks may have become friends as evidence shows that Banks was the executor of Gores will, the trip did not return until after Cook had sailed on his second Pacific voyage. However, in 1776 Gore answered the call from Cook and the admiralty once again, as the Resolution explored the Pacific in search of the famed Northwest Passage, Gore would sight the American continent of his birth from the west coast. Later, following Cooks death in Hawaii, Charles Clerke, captain of Resolutions sister ship HMS Discovery took command, Gore then assumed command of Discovery in Clerkes place. When Clerke himself died shortly after, Gore took responsibility for the entire expedition and he was formally promoted to the post of captain on 2 October 1780. In recognition of his achievements John Webber, who had previously painted Cook, took Gores portrait as the navy made him an honorary post-captain, moving further in the footsteps of Cook, he was offered the late Captains vacant rooms at the Greenwich Hospital. In 1790, having circumnavigated the globe four times, he died on 10 August and he moved to Australia in 1834 as one of the first free settlers. Little is known of his mother, Ann Gore, although she is known to have received a Royal Navy widows pension from 1790, there are also several Australian sites named after John Gore
John Gore (seaman)
–
John Gore by
John Webber, 1780
45.
Charles Green (astronomer)
–
Born sometime in December 1734, Green was the youngest son of Joshua Green, a prosperous farmer who lived near Swinton in Yorkshire. His education, according to his future brother-in-law William Wales, was chiefly at a school near Denmark Street in Soho, following Bradleys death in 1762, Green continued in the role of assistant for Bradleys successor Nathaniel Bliss. Due to the ill-health of Bliss, much of the work of practical observational astronomy devolved upon Green at this time. On the voyage to Barbados, the pair were using their observations to determine the accuracy of the lunar distance method. A compromise was reached in which the monitoring of the Harrison mechanism was undertaken by Maskelyne, Greens return to England in the autumn of 1764 coincided with the death of Nathaniel Bliss, Green returned to Greenwich to continue Bliss work until the appointment of a new Astronomer Royal. The new Astronomer Royal proved to be Nevil Maskelyne, Green briefly served under him as assistant, but left Greenwich after a disagreement with his new superior. Although this is unmentioned in Waless short biography, Green is recorded as being the purser on the HMS Aurora in 1768, Green joined Cooks first voyage of circumnavigation in 1768, accompanied by a servant. Green was one of two official astronomers appointed by the Royal Society to observe the transit, the other was Cook himself, Green was to receive 200 guineas from the Society for the appointment. The expedition arrived at Tahiti, the site for the observation of the transit, on 11 April 1769. A camp was established and the equipment was in place by the start of May. Of paramount importance for Green was the calculation of a position of the location. The day of the transit, June 3, was a clear day, due to Greens death on the homeward voyage, the work of collating and analysing his results fell first to Cook, and ultimately to Nevil Maskelyne. Following the departure from Tahiti, the Endeavour continued south-westwards as Cook carried out his orders to explore the Southern Ocean. The expedition reached New Zealand in October 1769, giving Green an opportunity to observe the transit of Mercury from land, a landing was made at an inlet that would be subsequently called Mercury Bay on 3 November, the transit was successfully observed by Green on November 9. On reaching Australia, and during Cooks voyage along the coast, he named an island, Green Island, Green, by this time had contracted scurvy. The Endeavour was forced to make for Batavia for repairs, disease were rife in the Dutch-controlled city, including malaria and dysentery, Green contracted the latter, dying on 29 January 1771, twelve days after the ships departure from the port. Cook, in recording Greens death in his log, went on to add that Green had been in ill-health for some time and his lifestyle had contributed to his early death. Green married Elizabeth Long in March 1768 in London, the records of the Royal Society mention making a provision of £50 per annum for his wife for the duration of the expedition
Charles Green (astronomer)
–
Sketchings of the 1769 Venus Transit by Captain James Cook and Charles Green, showing the
black drop effect.
46.
Zachary Hickes
–
Zachary Hickes was a Royal Navy officer, second-in-command on Lieutenant James Cooks first voyage to the Pacific and the first among Cooks crew to sight mainland Australia. Hickes quick thinking while in command of HMS Endeavour also saved the lives of Cook, Joseph Banks. Yet despite his vigorous service Hickes was dogged by ill health and he died in May 1771 of a consumptive illness likely contracted before sailing from England, and his remains were buried at sea off the Atlantic island of Saint Helena. New Zealands Hicks Bay and eastern Australias Point Hicks are named in his honour, Hickes was born in Stepney in 1739. He enlisted or was pressed into service at Ripon and first appears in navy muster-books as serving as able seaman. A skilled seaman, he was promoted to midshipman aboard the sloop HMS Hornet in August 1767 and his officers commission was formalised on 26 May 1767 with a transfer to James Cooks HMS Endeavour as second lieutenant and second-in-command. He formally joined the ship on 3 June, Hickes early months aboard Endeavour were uneventful. There Hickes was given his first specific duties by Cook, to put ashore in command of the pinnace, to make contact with local authorities. The engagement did not go well, as the Portuguese Viceroy Antônio Rolim de Moura refused to believe that Endeavour was on a scientific mission. Instead, Hickes and masters mate Charles Clerke were detained on shore while answers were sought from Cook regarding his vessel, armaments, the pinnace was returned to Endeavour without Hickes, and he and Clerke were only permitted to return to their ship after some hours delay. On 19 November Hickes was again sent ashore, to present a letter from Cook to the Viceroy. On arrival at Rios docks he objected when a Portuguese soldier boarding his boat and refused to leave, at which point he and his crew were arrested, Portuguese authorities confiscated Endeavours pinnace and imprisoned the crew, sending Hickes back to his ship alone. After formal protests from Cook, Hickes crew was released and the vessel returned, Portuguese authorities accused Hickes of threatening their soldiers life and of displaying petulancy and imprudence, they asked that he be confined to Endeavour and not return to shore. However Cook considered that Hickes had offered no provocation to Portuguese authorities that would justify their depriving him of his boat, departing Rio, Endeavour rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific to reach Tahiti in April 1769. Hickes abilities as a leader were tested when, three days before Endeavour was due to depart, two of her marines deserted to the mountains to stay with their Tahitian wives. Cook deputised Hickes to secure their return, ordering him to kidnap local chief Tootaha, the kidnapping was a success but the stratagem failed, the Tahitians responded by abducting Endeavours surgeon William Monkhouse and four of her crew, and holding them hostage near the shore. Again Cook turned to Hickes, who led a detachment of marines to the shore. Hickes threat succeeded – Monkhouse and the sailors were released, the Tahitians found and returned the deserters, on 3 June Cook chose Hickes as one of the six men designated to record the Transit of Venus upon which Endeavours voyage was ostensibly based
Zachary Hickes
–
Portuguese Viceroy Antônio Rolim de Moura, on whose authority Hickes was twice detained in Rio de Janeiro.
Zachary Hickes
–
Hicks Bay on New Zealand's east coast. First sighted by Zachary Hickes from Endeavour 's deck, 31 October 1769.
47.
James King (Royal Navy officer)
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James King FRS was an officer of the Royal Navy. He served under James Cook on his last voyage around the world, after Cook died he helped lead the ships on the remainder of their course, also completing Cooks account of the voyage. He continued his career in the Navy, reaching the rank of post-captain, commanding several ships, King was born in Clitheroe, Lancashire, in 1750, the son of James King, who was at that time curate of St Mary Magdalene, Clitheroe. According to the parish registers young James King was baptised on 13 July 1750, at an early age King entered Clitheroe Royal Grammar School, where he remained until he was 12 years old. King then served aboard HMS Alarm in the Mediterranean under Captain John Jervis, having passed for lieutenant on 7 March 1769, King was promoted to this rank on 10 January 1771, serving in several ships before being placed on half pay in May 1773. He was then granted leave to go abroad on his affairs for one year. Thus Kings geographical positions were an important contribution to the accuracy of the various surveys carried out during the voyage, but shortly after his return King was promoted Post-captain and appointed commander of HMS Crocodile in the English Channel. He then returned to Woodstock to continue to work on Cooks third voyage and he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1782 in recognition of his astronomical observations during Cooks third voyage he was also made an honorary L. L. D. Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
James King (Royal Navy officer)
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Captain James King, 1782 by
John Webber
48.
John Ledyard
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John Ledyard was an American explorer and adventurer. Ledyard was born in Groton, Connecticut, in November 1751 and he was the first child of Abigail and Capt. A day or so after the child was born Capt, John boarded his ship and sailed for the West Indies. Three years later Ledyard joined his grandfather in Hartford, Connecticut and his grandfather died just before Ledyard turned 20. Ledyard briefly attended Dartmouth College, arriving on 22 April 1772 and he left for two months without permission in August and September of that year, led a mid-winter camping expedition, and finally abandoned the college for good in May 1773. Memorably he fashioned his own canoe, and paddled it for a week down the Connecticut River to his grandfathers farm. Today, the Ledyard Canoe Club, a division of the Dartmouth Outing Club sponsors an annual canoe trip down the Connecticut River in his honor, at loose ends, he decided to travel, I allot myself a seven years ramble more, he wrote to a cousin. He shipped as a seaman on a year-long trading voyage to Gibraltar, the Barbary Coast. On his next voyage, he jumped ship in England, but was impressed and forced to join the British Navy as a marine. In June 1776, Ledyard joined Captain James Cooks third and final voyage as a British marine, the expedition lasted until October 1780. He attempted to climb from Kealakekua Bay to Mokuaweoweo, the summit of Mauna Loa, the return voyage touched upon Kamchatka, Macau, Batavia, around the Cape of Good Hope again, and back to England. Still a marine in the British Navy, Ledyard was sent to Canada to fight in the American Revolution, instead he deserted, returned to Dartmouth, and began to write his Journal of Captain Cooks Last Voyage. It was published in 1783, five years after he had visited Hawaii, today, this work is annotated in rare-book bibliographies as the first travelogue describing Hawaii ever to be published in America. As Ledyard had noticed that sea otter furs from the American northwest commanded extremely high prices in Macau, Ledyard suggested trading furs for Chinese silk and porcelain, which could then be sold in the United States. Although his partnership with Philadelphia financier Robert Morris was not successful, Ledyard left the United States in June 1784 to find financial backers in Europe. In Paris he partnered with John Paul Jones, however this venture, too, Ledyard left London in December 1786, and made it most of the way across Russia. He left St. Petersburg in June 1787 to travel through Moscow, Ekaterinburg, Omsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, here he stopped for the winter but then returned to Irkutsk to join a larger expedition led by Joseph Billings. However, Ledyard was arrested under orders from Empress Catherine the Great in February 1788, returned to Moscow by approximately his original route, back in London, Ledyard came across the African Association, then recruiting explorers for Africa
John Ledyard
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John Ledyard
49.
Omai
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Mai, mistakenly known as Omai in Britain, was a young Raiatean man who became the second Pacific Islander to visit Europe, after Ahu-toru who was brought to Paris by Bougainville in 1768. Omai met Samuel Wallis in 1767 and Captain James Cook in 1769 in Tahiti, Omai travelled to Europe on Adventure, arriving at London in October 1774 where he was introduced into British society by the naturalist Sir Joseph Banks. During his two-year stay in England, Omai became much admired within London high society, renowned for his charm, quick wit and exotic good looks, he quickly became a favourite of the aristocratic elite. Richard Holmes remarks that Omais idiosyncratic behaviour and distinctive bow were widely celebrated, indeed, during one famed meeting with King George III at Kew, Omai is said to have delivered his bow then grasped the Kings hand, declaring, How do, King Tosh. Omai returned to Huahine in August 1777 and was settled wth a European-style house, furniture, vineyard, during the Bountys visit to Tahiti in 1789, Captain Bligh was told Omai had died about two and a half years after Cooks departure in November 1777. Connaughton, Richard, Omai, The Prince Who Never Was, London, Timewell Press, ISBN 1-85725-205-5 Omai, Captain Cook Birthplace Museum website
Omai
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Omai of the Friendly Isles by Sir
Joshua Reynolds, c.1774
Omai
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William Parry 's painting Sir
Joseph Banks with Omai and Dr.
Daniel Solander, circa 1775-76
Omai
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Sir
Joshua Reynolds,
Portrait of Omai, a South Sea Islander who travelled to England with the second expedition of captain Cook, 1776
50.
Hugh Palliser
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Admiral Sir Hugh Palliser, 1st Baronet was an officer of the British Royal Navy during the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War. During the latter he came into a dispute with Augustus Keppel over the Battle of Ushant which led to Palliser being court-martialled. Palliser was the son of Hugh Palliser and Mary Robinson. At Kirk Deighton, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the family had estates in Yorkshire and Ireland. His parents died when he was young, so he. He entered the navy in 1735 as a midshipman on HMS Aldborough commanded by his uncle Nicholas Robinson and he followed his uncle to HMS Kennington in 1737, and then to HMS Tiger and HMS Essex. Palliser passed his lieutenants examination on 12 May 1741 and was promoted to the rank on 18 September 1741 and he continued to serve aboard Essex, at first under Robinson, and after he was superseded, under Captain Richard Norris, the son of Sir John Norris. In February 1746 he was placed in command of HMS Weazel, on 25 November of that year he was appointed post-captain of HMS Captain, sailing for the West Indies with the broad pennant of Commodore Edward Legge. Legge died on 19 September 1747, and Palliser transferred to HMS Sutherland. Six months later a fire in that ships arms chest wounded Palliser, a ball entered his back and exited his groin, another ball struck his right hip. Two other men were killed in the explosion, Palliser returned to England to recover, but remained lame in his left leg, and suffered perpetual and sometimes excruciating pain to which his death was eventually attributed. Palliser was then part of Edward Boscawens squadron on the Coromandel coast from July 1749, as an alternative to half-pay he took up appointment as captain of HMS Yarmouth, the guardship at Chatham. The sailor took refuge aboard the ship, and Palliser refused to him over. Palliser was thereupon arrested in the place and held for several days in the Tolbooth Jail in Edinburgh. Palliser sailed in January 1755, directing the convoy in a southern arc across the Atlantic. This represented a substantial deviation from the traditional and more easterly route. The unorthodox navigation won Palliser some praise from British authorities, the ongoing friction between Britain and France ignited into open warfare in 1755. In October of that year Palliser was placed in command of the 60-gun HMS Eagle and that ship engaged and defeated the French 50-gun Duc dAquitain off Ushant on 30 May 1757
Hugh Palliser
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Hugh Palliser, portrait by
George Dance, c. 1775,
National Maritime Museum,
Greenwich
Hugh Palliser
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James Cook's 1775 Chart of Newfoundland
