1.
Order of Merit
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The Order of Merit is an order of merit recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or for the promotion of culture. While all members are awarded the right to use the post-nominal letters OM and a medallion for life, however, Sir Frederic Leighton, President of the Royal Academy, advised against the new order, primarily because of its selection process. From its inception, the order has been open to women, Florence Nightingale being the first woman to receive the honour, several individuals have refused admission into the Order of Merit, such as Rudyard Kipling, A. E. Housman, and George Bernard Shaw. To date, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, remains the youngest person inducted into the Order of Merit, having been admitted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1968. All citizens of the Commonwealth realms are eligible for appointment to the Order of Merit, since 1991, it has been required that the insignia be returned upon the recipients death. However, it has been claimed by Stanley Martin, in his book The Order of Merit 1902–2002, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, that the Order of Merit is the pinnacle of the British honours system. Some orders of precedence are as follows, Martin, Stanley, The Order of Merit, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, New York City, I. B
2.
Maldon, Essex
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Maldon is a town on the Blackwater estuary in Essex, England. It is the seat of the Maldon District and starting point of the Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation and it is most renowned for Maldon Sea Salt which is produced in the area. The place-name Maldon is first attested in 913 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, maldons name comes from Mael meaning monument or cross and dun meaning hill, so translates as monument on the hill. East Saxons settled the area in the 5th century and the area to the south is known as the Dengie Peninsula after the Dæningas. It became a significant Saxon port with a hythe or quayside, evidence of imported pottery from this period has been found in archaeological digs. From 958 there was a royal mint issuing coins for the late Anglo-Saxon and it was one of the only two towns in Essex, and King Edward the Elder is thought to have lived here while combating the Danish settlers who had overrun North Essex and parts of East Anglia. A Viking raid was beaten off in 924, but in another raid in 991 the defenders were defeated in the Battle of Maldon and it became the subject of the celebrated Old English poem The Battle of Maldon. The battle is commemorated by a window in St Marys Church, according to the Domesday Book there were 54 households and an estimated 180 townsmen in 1086. The town still had the mint and supplied a warhorse and warship for the service in return for its privileges of self-government. The town was awarded a charter by Henry II in 1171, stating the rights of the town as well as defining its borders, the towns All Saints Church, unique in England in having a triangular tower, dates from around this period. While the precise building date is unknown, the church existed by 1180, a Charter of Richard I of December 1189 confirms certain grants to Beeleigh Abbey, including the Church of Blessed Peter in Maldon and the Church of All Saints in the same town. St Marys Church, on the Hythe Quay has a grade 1 listed Norman nave from 1130, there were strong urban traditions, with two members elected to the Commons and three guilds which hosted lavish religious plays until they were suppressed by Puritans in 1576. Then, until 1630, professional actors were invited to perform plays, from 1570 to about 1800 a rival tradition of inviting prominent clergy to visit the town also existed. In 1629 a series of riots took place, led by the wife of a local butcher. The Plume Library is to be found at St Peters Church, only the original tower survives, the rest of the building having been rebuilt by Thomas Plume to house his library and what was Maldon Grammar School. Maldon was chosen as one of the sites of a planned French invasion of Britain in 1744. However, the French invasion fleet was wrecked in storms, in the church of All Saints is a memorial window to George Washington, whose great-great grandfather, Lawrence Washington, is buried here. Unveiled by an American diplomat on 5 July 1928, the window displays Saint Nicholas with the Mayflower, Saint George, at the top are the arms of the Washington family, and the arms of the USA, England, Scotland and Wales
3.
Witham
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Witham /ˈwɪtəm/ is a town in the county of Essex in the East of England, with a population of 25,353. It is part of the District of Braintree and is twinned with the town of Waldbröl, Witham stands between the city of Chelmsford and the town of Colchester, on the Roman road between the two. The River Brain runs through the town and joins the River Blackwater just outside, excavations of the Witham Lodge area of the town in the 1970s unveiled remains of a Roman temple as well as a pottery kiln. This would have been alongside the main Roman road from Colchester to London, another notable find during the excavation was a votive offering pool in the grounds of the temple, containing several artefacts that would have been offered to the gods. In 913, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Edward the Elder marched from Hertford to reconquer Essex, and encamped in Witham on his route to set up a base at Maldon. Withams position on the Roman road in relation to the major Viking army based at Colchester was the most likely reason for this, the name Witham is a composite name, part Brythonic and ham a typical Saxon ending, and remains unchanged in spelling. The parish of Witham appears in the Domesday Book of 1086, the manor of Witham was given to the Knights Templar in 1148. To the north of the current town is Cressing Temple which was the earliest foundation of Templar lands in Britain, the town as it is now started life on Chipping Hill, where the old forge and the church still exist to this day. As the years went by, the hamlet grew to become Witham and his funeral cortège through the town in 1910 was witnessed by thousands. In the 18th century, Witham briefly enjoyed a period as an affluent spa town after the discovery of a spa by a Dr Taverner. Witham was also a centre of the trade until the decline of the industry in the late 17th century. Witham railway station was the scene of an accident on Saturday 1 September 1905. The 09,27 London Liverpool Street to Cromer 14-coach express derailed whilst travelling at speed through the station, ten passengers and a luggage porter were killed when several of the carriages somersaulted on to the platforms causing considerable damage to the rolling stock and the station. It remains to day the worst single loss of life in a railway accident in Essex. In 2005, an opportunity to commemorate the centenary was missed, Ben Sainty, a signalman, whose quick action averted the next train hitting the wreckage has a road named after him in the town, Ben Sainty Court. A famous one-time resident of the town was the author Dorothy L. Sayers, whose statue stands opposite the towns library, the library stands on the site of the old Whitehall cinema, which closed in the late 1970s. Witham has grown in size after the development of the Maltings Lane estate to the south of the town between 2002 and 2003 and this was followed in 2012 by the moving of the Chipping Hill Primary School from its old premises in Church Street to newly-built premises in Owers Road. The development of area has continued, including the opening in 2015 of an Aldi superstore
4.
Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college and one Abel Prize was won. Other royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, along with Christs, Jesus, Kings and St Johns colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society. In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, Trinitys sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the schools re-foundation in 1560, the college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges, Michaelhouse, and Kings Hall. At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, the Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he combined two colleges and seven hostels to form Trinity. Contrary to popular belief, the lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinitys eventual rise. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its college of St Johns. Its first four Masters were educated at St Johns, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Masters Lodge, most of the Trinitys major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and this work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Neviles Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Neviles Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, in the 20th century, Trinity College, St Johns College and Kings College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society. In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity Colleges Master, Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college, with a landholding alone worth £800 million. Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK – after the Crown Estate, the National Trust, in 2005, Trinitys annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million
5.
Argon
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Argon is a chemical element with symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third-most abundant gas in the Earths atmosphere, at 0. 934% and it is more than twice as abundant as water vapor,23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide, and more than 500 times as abundant as neon. Argon is the most abundant noble gas in Earths crust, comprising 0. 00015% of the crust, nearly all of the argon in Earths atmosphere is radiogenic argon-40, derived from the decay of potassium-40 in the Earths crust. In the universe, argon-36 is by far the most common argon isotope, the name argon is derived from the Greek word ἀργόν, neuter singular form of ἀργός meaning lazy or inactive, as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions. The complete octet in the atomic shell makes argon stable. Its triple point temperature of 83.8058 K is a fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990. Argon is produced industrially by the distillation of liquid air. Argon is also used in incandescent, fluorescent lighting, and other gas-discharge tubes, Argon makes a distinctive blue-green gas laser. Argon is also used in fluorescent glow starters, Argon has approximately the same solubility in water as oxygen and is 2.5 times more soluble in water than nitrogen. Argon is colorless, odorless, nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid, liquid or gas, Argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature. Although argon is a gas, it can form some compounds under extreme conditions. Argon fluorohydride, a compound of argon with fluorine and hydrogen that is stable below 17 K, has been demonstrated. Although the neutral ground-state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF, ions, such as ArH+, and excited-state complexes, such as ArF, have been demonstrated. Theoretical calculation predicts several more argon compounds that should be stable but have not yet been synthesized, Argon was suspected to be a component of air by Henry Cavendish in 1785. Argon was first isolated from air in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and they had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was 0. 5% lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere. The difference was slight, but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months and they concluded that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen. Argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of H. F. Newall, each observed new lines in the color spectrum of air that did not match known elements
6.
Rayleigh waves
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Rayleigh waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel along the surface of solids. They can be produced in materials in many ways, such as by an impact or by piezo-electric transduction. They are part of the waves that are produced on the Earth by earthquakes. When guided in layers they are referred to as Lamb waves, Rayleigh–Lamb waves, Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that travel near the surface of solids. Rayleigh waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions that decrease exponentially in amplitude as distance from the surface increases, there is a phase difference between these component motions. The existence of Rayleigh waves was predicted in 1885 by Lord Rayleigh, at the surface and at shallow depths this motion is retrograde, that is the in-plane motion of a particle is counterclockwise when the wave travels from left to right. At greater depths the particle motion becomes prograde, in addition, the motion amplitude decays and the eccentricity changes as the depth into the material increases. The depth of significant displacement in the solid is equal to the acoustic wavelength. Rayleigh waves have a slightly less than shear waves by a factor dependent on the elastic constants of the material. The typical speed of Rayleigh waves in metals is of the order of 2–5 km/s, for linear elastic materials with positive Poisson ratio, the Rayleigh wave speed can be approximated as c R / c S =0.862 +1.14 ν1 + ν. Since Rayleigh waves are confined near the surface, their in-plane amplitude when generated by a point source decays only as 1 / r, Surface waves therefore decay more slowly with distance than do bulk waves, which spread out in three dimensions from a point source. This slow decay is one reason why they are of particular interest to seismologists, Rayleigh waves can circle the globe multiple times after a large earthquake, since this equation has no inherent scale, the boundary value problem giving rise to Rayleigh waves are dispersionless. An interesting special case is the Poisson solid, for which λ = μ, the elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material. This means that the velocity of a Rayleigh wave in practice becomes dependent on the wavelength, Waves affected by dispersion have a different wave train shape. Rayleigh waves on ideal, homogeneous and flat elastic solids show no dispersion, however, if a solid or structure has a density or sound velocity that varies with depth, Rayleigh waves become dispersive. One example is Rayleigh waves on the Earths surface, those waves with a higher frequency travel more slowly than those with a lower frequency and this occurs because a Rayleigh wave of lower frequency has a relatively long wavelength. The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves, since the speed of waves in the Earth increases with increasing depth, the longer wavelength waves can travel faster than the shorter wavelength waves. Rayleigh waves thus often appear spread out on seismograms recorded at distant earthquake recording stations and it is also possible to observe Rayleigh wave dispersion in thin films or multi-layered structures
7.
Rayleigh scattering
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Rayleigh scattering does not change the state of material and is, hence, a parametric process. The particles may be atoms or molecules. It can occur when light travels through transparent solids and liquids, Rayleigh scattering results from the electric polarizability of the particles. The oscillating electric field of a light wave acts on the charges within a particle, the particle therefore becomes a small radiating dipole whose radiation we see as scattered light. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in the atmosphere causes diffuse sky radiation, which is the reason for the color of the sky. The amount of scattering is proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. This can lead to changes in the state of the molecules. Furthermore, the contribution has the same wavelengths dependency as the elastic part. Scattering by particles similar to, or larger than, the wavelength of light is treated by the Mie theory. Rayleigh scattering applies to particles that are small with respect to wavelengths of light, on the other hand, anomalous diffraction theory applies to optically soft but larger particles. The size of a particle is often parameterized by the ratio where r is its characteristic length. The wavelength dependence is characteristic of dipole scattering and the volume dependence will apply to any scattering mechanism, objects with x ≫1 act as geometric shapes, scattering light according to their projected area. At the intermediate x ≃1 of Mie scattering, interference effects develop through phase variations over the objects surface, Rayleigh scattering applies to the case when the scattering particle is very small and the whole surface re-radiates with the same phase. For example, the constituent of the atmosphere, nitrogen, has a Rayleigh cross section of 5. 1×10−31 m2 at a wavelength of 532 nm. This means that at atmospheric pressure, where there are about 2×1025 molecules per cubic meter, the strong wavelength dependence of the scattering means that shorter wavelengths are scattered more strongly than longer wavelengths. This results in the blue light coming from all regions of the sky. Rayleigh scattering is an approximation of the manner in which light scattering occurs within various media for which scattering particles have a small size. A portion of the beam of light coming from the sun scatters off molecules of gas, here, Rayleigh scattering primarily occurs through sunlights interaction with randomly located air molecules
8.
Angular resolution
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In scientific analysis, in general, the term resolution is used to describe the precision with which any instrument measures and records any variable in the specimen or sample under study. The imaging systems resolution can be limited either by aberration or by diffraction causing blurring of the image and these two phenomena have different origins and are unrelated. Aberrations can be explained by geometrical optics and can in principle be solved by increasing the optical quality —, on the other hand, diffraction comes from the wave nature of light and is determined by the finite aperture of the optical elements. The lens circular aperture is analogous to a version of the single-slit experiment. The interplay between diffraction and aberration can be characterised by the point spread function, the narrower the aperture of a lens the more likely the PSF is dominated by diffraction. If the distance is greater, the two points are well resolved and if it is smaller, they are regarded as not resolved, Rayleigh defended this criteria on sources of equal strength. Considering diffraction through an aperture, this translates into, θ =1.220 λ D where θ is the angular resolution, λ is the wavelength of light. The factor 1.220 is derived from a calculation of the position of the first dark circular ring surrounding the central Airy disc of the diffraction pattern and this number is more precisely 1.21966989. The first zero of the order-one Bessel function of the first kind J1 divided by π, the formal Rayleigh criterion is close to the empirical resolution limit found earlier by the English astronomer W. R. Dawes who tested human observers on close binary stars of equal brightness. The result, θ =4. 3% dip, modern image processing techniques including deconvolution of the point spread function allow resolution of binaries with even less angular separation. The angular resolution may be converted into a resolution, Δℓ. For a microscope, that distance is close to the length f of the objective. For this case, the Rayleigh criterion reads, Δ ℓ =1.220 f λ D. This is the size, in the plane, of smallest object that the lens can resolve. The size is proportional to wavelength, λ, and thus, for example and this result is related to the Fourier properties of a lens.220 f λ D =1.22 λ ⋅. Since this is the radius of the Airy disk, the resolution is better estimated by the diameter,2.44 λ ⋅ Point-like sources separated by a smaller than the angular resolution cannot be resolved. A single optical telescope may have a resolution less than one arcsecond. The angular resolution R of a telescope can usually be approximated by R = λ D where λ is the wavelength of the observed radiation, the Resulting R is in radians
9.
Interaural time difference
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The interaural time difference when concerning humans or animals, is the difference in arrival time of a sound between two ears. It is important in the localization of sounds, as it provides a cue to the direction or angle of the source from the head. If a signal arrives at the head from one side, the signal has further to travel to reach the far ear than the near ear. This pathlength difference results in a difference between the sounds arrivals at the ears, which is detected and aids the process of identifying the direction of sound source. For an abrupt stimulus such as a click, onset ITDs are measured, an onset ITD is the time difference between the onset of the signal reaching two ears. A transient ITD can be measured using a random noise stimulus and is calculated as the time difference between a set peak of the noise stimulus reaching the ears. If the stimulus used is not abrupt but periodic then ongoing ITDs are measured and this is where the waveforms reaching both ears can be shifted in time until they perfectly match up and the size of this shift is recorded as the ITD. This shift is known as the phase difference and can be used for measuring the ITDs of periodic inputs such as pure tones. An amplitude modulated stimulus IPD can be assessed by looking at either the envelope or the waveform fine structure. But there still lies a question whether ITD or ILD is prominent, the duplex theory states that ITDs are used to localise low frequency sounds, in particular, while ILDs are used in the localisation of high frequency sound inputs. Also the theory relates to localising sounds in the horizontal plane around the head. The theory also does not take account the use of the pinna in localisation. Experiments conducted by Woodworth tested the theory by using a solid sphere to model the shape of the head. The model used had a distance between the 2 ears of approximately 22–23 cm, initial measurements found that there was a maximum time delay of approximately 660 μs when the sound source was placed at directly 90° azimuth to one ear. This time delay correlates to the wavelength of an input with a frequency of 1500 Hz. The results concluded that when a sound played had a less than 1500 Hz the wavelength is greater than this maximum time delay between the ears. Therefore there is a difference between the sound waves entering the ears providing acoustic localisation cues. With a sound input with a closer to 1500 Hz the wavelength of the sound wave is similar to the natural time delay
10.
Acoustics
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Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of technology may be called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in almost all aspects of society with the most obvious being the audio. Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound, art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsays Wheel of Acoustics is a well accepted overview of the fields in acoustics. The word acoustic is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός, meaning of or for hearing, ready to hear and that from ἀκουστός, heard, audible, which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω, I hear. The Latin synonym is sonic, after which the term used to be a synonym for acoustics. Frequencies above and below the range are called ultrasonic and infrasonic. If, for example, a string of a length would sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length. In modern parlance, if a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In one system of tuning, the tones in between are then given by 16,9 for D,8,5 for E,3,2 for F,4,3 for G,6,5 for A. Aristotle understood that sound consisted of compressions and rarefactions of air which falls upon, a very good expression of the nature of wave motion. The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and after the Scientific Revolution, mainly Galileo Galilei but also Marin Mersenne, independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating strings. Experimental measurements of the speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators, prominently Mersenne, meanwhile, Newton derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical acoustics. The eighteenth century saw advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between electricity and acoustics, the twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first World War
11.
Rayleigh flow
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Rayleigh flow refers to frictionless, non-Adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of heat addition or rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the Rayleigh flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow, for this model, the duct area remains constant and no mass is added within the duct. Therefore, unlike Fanno flow, the temperature is a variable. The heat addition causes a decrease in pressure, which is known as the Rayleigh effect and is critical in the design of combustion systems. Heat addition will cause both supersonic and subsonic Mach numbers to approach Mach 1, resulting in choked flow, conversely, heat rejection decreases a subsonic Mach number and increases a supersonic Mach number along the duct. It can be shown that for calorically perfect flows the maximum occurs at M =1. Rayleigh flow is named after John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, the Rayleigh flow model begins with a differential equation that relates the change in Mach number with the change in stagnation temperature, T0. The differential equation is shown below, T0 T0 ∗ =2 M22 These values are significant in the design of combustion systems. For the Rayleigh flow model, the change in entropy relation is shown below. Δ S = Δ s c p = l n The above equation can be used to plot the Rayleigh line on a Mach number versus ΔS graph, but the dimensionless enthalpy, H, versus ΔS diagram is more often used. Figure 1 shows that heating will increase an upstream, subsonic Mach number until M =1.0, conversely, adding heat to a duct with an upstream, supersonic Mach number will cause the Mach number to decrease until the flow chokes. Cooling produces the opposite result for each of two cases. The Rayleigh flow model reaches maximum entropy at M =1.0 For subsonic flow, therefore, this is a situation where heat is added but T/T* decreases in that region. The area and mass flow rate are held constant for Rayleigh flow, unlike Fanno flow, the Fanning friction factor, f, remains constant. These relations are shown below with the * symbol representing the location where choking can occur. A = A ∗ = constant m ˙ = m ˙ ∗ = constant Differential equations can also be developed and solved to describe Rayleigh flow property ratios with respect to the values at the choking location. The ratios for the pressure, density, static temperature, velocity and stagnation pressure are shown below and they are represented graphically along with the stagnation temperature ratio equation from the previous section. A stagnation property contains a 0 subscript, for instance, the combustion chambers inside turbojet engines usually have a constant area and the fuel mass addition is negligible
12.
Smith's Prize
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The Smiths Prize was the name of each of two prizes awarded annually to two research students in mathematics and theoretical Physics at the University of Cambridge from 1769. Following the reorganization in 1998, it is now awarded under the name of Smith-Knight Prize, the Smith Prize fund was founded by bequest of Robert Smith upon his death in 1768, having by his will left £3500 South Sea Company stock to the University. Every year two or more junior Bachelor of Arts students who had made the greatest progress in mathematics, the prize was awarded every year from 1769 to 1998 except 1917. From 1769 to 1885, the prize was awarded for the best performance in a series of examinations, in 1854 George Stokes included an examination question on a particular theorem which William Thomson had written to him about, which is now known as Stokes theorem. T. W. Körner notes Only a small number of students took the Smiths prize examination in the nineteenth century, in 1885, the examination was renamed Part III, and the prize was awarded for the best submitted essay rather than examination performance. The majority of prize-winners have gone on to professional mathematicians or physicists. The Rayleigh Prize was a prize, which was awarded for the first time in 1911. The Smiths and Rayleigh prizes were available to Cambridge graduate students who had been undergraduates at Cambridge. Knight Prize was established in 1974 for Cambridge graduates who had been undergraduates at other universities, the prize commemorates J. T. Knight, who had been an undergraduate student at Glasgow and a graduate student at Cambridge. He was killed in a car accident in Ireland in April 1970. Originally, in 1769, the prizes were worth £25 each, in 1867, they fell to £23 and in 1915 were still reported to be worth that amount. By 1930, the value had risen to about £30, and by 1940, by 1998, a Smith’s Prize was worth around £250. In 2007, the value of the three funds was roughly £175,000. In 1998 the Smith Prize, Rayleigh Prize and J. T, Knight Prize were replaced by the Smith-Knight Prize and Rayleigh-Knight Prize, the standard for the former being higher than that required for the latter. For the period up to 1940 a complete list is given in Barrow-Green including titles of prize essays from 1889-1940, the following is a selection from this list. Richer, M. J. Vartiainen, T. A. Fisher, J. Rosenzweig, J. Wierzba, wunderer, J. H. P. Dawes, D. M. Rodgers, H-M. Roche and B. M. J. B. Walker 2004 Oliver Rinne 2005 Guillaume Pierre Bascoul and Giuseppe Di Graziano 2007 Anders Hansen and Vladimir Lazić
13.
Copley Medal
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The Copley Medal is a scientific award given by the Royal Society, London, for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science. It alternates between the physical and the biological sciences, the medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years. A second donation of £1666 13s, 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal. The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt, since its inception, it has been awarded to many notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize,17 in Physics,21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning in 1734,1736 and 1741, in 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first and as of 2015 the only female recipient
14.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
15.
Elliott Cresson Medal
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The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, the medal was first awarded in 1875,21 years after Cressons death. The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on a basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella. A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the awards lifetime
16.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
17.
Edward John Routh
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He also did much to systematise the mathematical theory of mechanics and created several ideas critical to the development of modern control systems theory. Routh was born of an English father and a French-Canadian mother in Quebec and his fathers family could trace its history back to the Norman conquest when it acquired land at Routh near Beverley, Yorkshire. His mothers family, the Taschereau family, was well-established in Quebec and his parents were Sir Randolph Isham Routh and his second wife, Marie Louise Taschereau. Routh came to England aged eleven and attended University College School and then entered University College, London in 1847, there he studied under Augustus De Morgan, whose influence led to Routh to decide on a career in mathematics. Routh obtained his B. A. and M. A. in London and he attended Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he was taught by Isaac Todhunter and coached by senior wrangler maker William Hopkins. In 1854, Routh graduated just above James Clerk Maxwell, as Senior Wrangler, Routh was elected fellow of Peterhouse in 1855. Routh inherited Steeles pupils, going on to establish a record as a coach. He coached over 600 pupils between 1855 and 1888,27 of them making Senior Wrangler, as to Hopkins 17, Routh worked conscientiously and systematically, taking rigidly timetabled classes of ten pupils during the day and spending the evenings preparing extra material for the ablest men. His lectures were enlivened by mathematical jokes of a heavy kind. Astronomer Royal George Biddell Airy sought to entice Routh to work at the Royal Observatory, though Airy did not succeed, at Greenwich Routh met Airys eldest daughter Hilda whom he married in 1864. The couple had five sons and a daughter, Routh was a kindly man and a good conversationalist with friends, but with strangers he was shy and reserved. Fellow of the Royal Society, Adams Prize, Routh collaborated with Henry Brougham on the Analytical View of Sir Isaac Newtons Principia. He published a textbook, Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies in which he did much to define and this influenced Felix Klein and Arnold Sommerfeld. In fact, Klein arranged the German translation and it also did much to influence William Thomson and Peter Guthrie Taits Treatise on Natural Philosophy. The Routhian, which can be obtained from the Lagrangian by the Legendre transform, central tenets of modern control systems theory relies upon the Routh stability criterion, an application of Sturms Theorem to evaluate Cauchy indices through the use of the Euclidean algorithm. Routh, E. J. Treatise on the Stability of a Given State of Motion, reprinted in Stability of Motion London 1975. A Treatise on Dynamics of a Particle, the Elementary Part Of a Treatise on the Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies, Being Part I of a Treatise on the Whole Subject. The Advanced Part of a Treatise on the Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies, London, Macmillan and Co. Ltd. —
18.
Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet
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Sir George Gabriel Stokes, 1st Baronet, PRS, was a physicist and mathematician. Born in Ireland, Stokes spent all of his career at the University of Cambridge, in physics, Stokes made seminal contributions to fluid dynamics and to physical optics. In mathematics he formulated the first version of what is now known as Stokes theorem and he served as secretary, then president, of the Royal Society of London. George Stokes was the youngest son of the Reverend Gabriel Stokes, rector of Skreen, County Sligo, Ireland, where he was born and brought up in an evangelical Protestant family. In accordance with the statutes, he had to resign the fellowship when he married in 1857. He retained his place on the foundation until 1902, when on the day before his 83rd birthday and he did not hold this position for long, for he died at Cambridge on 1 February the following year, and was buried in the Mill Road cemetery. In 1849, Stokes was appointed to the Lucasian professorship of mathematics at Cambridge, on 1 June 1899, the jubilee of this appointment was celebrated there in a ceremony, which was attended by numerous delegates from European and American universities. Stokes, who was made a baronet in 1889, further served his university by representing it in parliament from 1887 to 1892 as one of the two members for the Cambridge University constituency. During a portion of this period he also was president of the Royal Society, since he was also Lucasian Professor at this time, Stokes was the first person to hold all three positions simultaneously, Newton held the same three, although not at the same time. Stokess original work began about 1840, and from that date onwards the great extent of his output was only less remarkable than the brilliance of its quality, the Royal Societys catalogue of scientific papers gives the titles of over a hundred memoirs by him published down to 1883. Some of these are brief notes, others are short controversial or corrective statements. His first published papers, which appeared in 1842 and 1843, were on the motion of incompressible fluids. His work on motion and viscosity led to his calculating the terminal velocity for a sphere falling in a viscous medium. This became known as Stokes law and he derived an expression for the frictional force exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers. His work is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a glass tube. A sphere of size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube, electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere, a series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation
19.
J. J. Thomson
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He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London and appointed to the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics at the Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in 1884. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of an element in 1913. His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry, Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. Seven of his students, including his son George Paget Thomson and his record is comparable only to that of the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Joseph John Thomson was born 18 December 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire and his mother, Emma Swindells, came from a local textile family. His father, Joseph James Thomson, ran a bookshop founded by a great-grandfather. He had a two years younger than he was, Frederick Vernon Thomson. J. J. Thomson was a devout Anglican and his early education was in small private schools where he demonstrated outstanding talent and interest in science. In 1870 he was admitted to Owens College at the young age of 14. His parents planned to enroll him as an engineer to Sharp-Stewart & Co, a locomotive manufacturer. He moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1876, in 1880 he obtained his BA in mathematics. He applied for and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1881, Thomson received his MA in 1883. Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1884, on 22 December 1884 Thomson was chosen to become Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. The appointment caused considerable surprise, given that such as Richard Glazebrook were older. Thomson was known for his work as a mathematician, where he was recognized as an exceptional talent. In 1890, Thomson married Rose Elisabeth Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB and they had one son, George Paget Thomson, and one daughter, Joan Paget Thomson. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1906, in recognition of the merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases. He was knighted in 1908 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1912, in 1914 he gave the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on The atomic theory
20.
Jagadish Chandra Bose
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IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science. Bose is considered the father of Bengali science fiction, and also invented the crescograph, a crater on the moon has been named in his honour. Born in Munshiganj, Bengal Presidency during the British Raj, Bose graduated from St. Xaviers College and he then went to the University of London to study medicine, but could not pursue studies in medicine because of health problems. Instead, he conducted his research with the Nobel Laureate Lord Rayleigh at Cambridge and he then joined the Presidency College of the University of Calcutta as a professor of physics. There, despite discrimination and a lack of funding and equipment. He made remarkable progress in his research of remote wireless signalling and was the first to use semiconductor junctions to detect radio signals. However, instead of trying to gain benefit from this invention. Bose subsequently made a number of pioneering discoveries in plant physiology and he used his own invention, the crescograph, to measure plant response to various stimuli, and thereby scientifically proved parallelism between animal and plant tissues. Although Bose filed for a patent for one of his inventions because of peer pressure and his books include Response in the Living and Non-Living and The Nervous Mechanism of Plants. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose was born in Munshiganj, Bengal Presidency and his father, Bhagawan Chandra Bose, was a leading member of the Brahmo Samaj and worked as a deputy magistrate and assistant commissioner in Faridpur, Bardhaman and other places. Boses education started in a school, because his father believed that one must know ones own mother tongue before beginning English. Speaking at the Bikrampur Conference in 1915, Bose said, At that time, in the vernacular school, to which I was sent, the son of the Muslim attendant of my father sat on my right side, and the son of a fisherman sat on my left. I listened spellbound to their stories of birds, animals and aquatic creatures, perhaps these stories created in my mind a keen interest in investigating the workings of Nature. When I returned home from school accompanied by my school fellows, although she was an orthodox old-fashioned lady, she never considered herself guilty of impiety by treating these ‘untouchables’ as her own children. It was because of my friendship with them that I could never feel that there were ‘creatures’ who might be labelled low-caste. I never realised that there existed a problem common to the two communities, Hindus and Muslims, Bose joined the Hare School in 1869 and then St. Xaviers School at Kolkata. In 1875, he passed the Entrance Examination of the University of Calcutta and was admitted to St. Xaviers College, at St. Xaviers, Bose came in contact with Jesuit Father Eugene Lafont, who played a significant role in developing his interest in natural sciences. He received a BA from the University of Calcutta in 1879, Bose wanted to go to England to compete for the Indian Civil Service
21.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
22.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
23.
William Ramsay
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After the two men identified argon, Ramsay investigated other atmospheric gases. His work in isolating argon, helium, neon, krypton and xenon led to the development of a new section of the periodic table, Ramsay was born in Glasgow on 2 October 1852, the son of civil engineer William Ramsay and Catherine, née Robertson. He was a nephew of the geologist Sir Andrew Ramsay, Ramsay went back to Glasgow as Andersons assistant at the Anderson College. He was appointed as Professor of Chemistry at the University College of Bristol in 1879, in the same year he became the Principal of University College, Bristol, and somehow managed to combine that with active research both in organic chemistry and on gases. In 1887 he succeeded Alexander Williamson as the chair of Chemistry at University College London and it was here at UCL that his most celebrated discoveries were made. As early as 1885–1890 he published notable papers on the oxides of nitrogen. On the evening of 19 April 1894 Ramsay attended a lecture given by Lord Rayleigh, Rayleigh had noticed a discrepancy between the density of nitrogen made by chemical synthesis and nitrogen isolated from the air by removal of the other known components. After a short conversation he and Ramsay decided to follow this up, by August, Ramsay could write to Rayleigh to announce that he had isolated a heavy component of air, previously unknown, which did not appear to have any obvious chemical reactivity. He named the gas, which is inert, with the Greek word for lazy, in the following years, working with Morris Travers, he discovered neon, krypton, and xenon. He also isolated helium which had observed in the spectrum of the sun but had not been found on earth. In 1910 he also made and characterized radon, in 1904 Ramsay received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Ramsays high standing in scientific circles led to him being an adviser in the setting up the Indian Institute of Science and he suggested Bangalore as the most appropriate location for the institute. The corporation bought property along the English coast to implement the process, but the company quickly faded from public view. Ramsay was the president of the British Association in 1911–1912, Ramsay was married to Margaret Johnstone Marshall and had a daughter, Catherine Elizabeth and a son, William George, who died at 40. Ramsay lived in Hazlemere, Buckinghamshire until his death and he died in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, on 23 July 1916 from nasal cancer at the age of 63 and was buried in Hazlemere Parish church. A blue plaque at number 12 Arundel Gardens, Notting Hill, commemorates his life, the Sir William Ramsay School in Hazlemere, and the Ramsay grease, are named after him. Clan Ramsay Secondary sources Morris Travers, the Life of Sir William Ramsay. Argon and the Non-Inert Pair, Rayleigh and Ramsay, argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere
24.
Surface wave
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In physics, a surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the interface between differing media. A common example is gravity waves along the surface of liquids, gravity waves can also occur within liquids, at the interface between two fluids with different densities. Elastic surface waves can travel along the surface of solids, such as Rayleigh or Love waves, in radio transmission, a ground wave is a guided wave that propagates close to the surface of the Earth. In seismology, several types of waves are encountered. Surface waves, in this sense, are commonly known as either Love waves or Rayleigh waves. A seismic wave is a wave travels through the Earth. Love waves have transverse motion, whereas Rayleigh waves have both longitudinal and transverse motion, seismic waves are studied by seismologists and measured by a seismograph or seismometer. Surface waves span a wide range, and the period of waves that are most damaging is usually 10 seconds or longer. Surface waves can travel around the many times from the largest earthquakes. Surface waves are caused when P waves and S waves come to the surface, the term surface wave can describe waves over an ocean, even when they are approximated by Airy functions and are more properly called creeping waves. Examples are the waves at the surface of water and air, another example is internal waves, which can be transmitted along the interface of two water masses of different densities. In theory of hearing physiology, the wave of Von Bekesy. His theory pretended to explain features of the auditory sensation owing to these passive mechanical phenomena. But Jozef Zwislocki and later David Kemp, showed that that was unrealistic, ground wave refers to the propagation of radio waves parallel to and adjacent to the surface of the Earth, following the curvature of the Earth. This radiative ground wave is known as the Norton surface wave, other types of surface wave are the non-radiative Zenneck surface wave or Zenneck-Sommerfeld surface wave, the trapped surface wave and the gliding wave. See also Dyakonov surface waves propagating at the interface of transparent materials with different symmetry, lower frequency radio space waves, below 3 MHz, travel efficiently as ground waves. In ITU nomenclature, this includes, medium frequency, low frequency, very low frequency, ultra low frequency, super low frequency, ground propagation works because lower-frequency waves are more strongly diffracted around obstacles due to their long wavelengths, allowing them to follow the Earths curvature. The Earth has one refractive index and the atmosphere has another, ground waves propagate in vertical polarization, with their magnetic field horizontal and electric field vertical
25.
Rayleigh wave
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Rayleigh waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel along the surface of solids. They can be produced in materials in many ways, such as by an impact or by piezo-electric transduction. They are part of the waves that are produced on the Earth by earthquakes. When guided in layers they are referred to as Lamb waves, Rayleigh–Lamb waves, Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that travel near the surface of solids. Rayleigh waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions that decrease exponentially in amplitude as distance from the surface increases, there is a phase difference between these component motions. The existence of Rayleigh waves was predicted in 1885 by Lord Rayleigh, at the surface and at shallow depths this motion is retrograde, that is the in-plane motion of a particle is counterclockwise when the wave travels from left to right. At greater depths the particle motion becomes prograde, in addition, the motion amplitude decays and the eccentricity changes as the depth into the material increases. The depth of significant displacement in the solid is equal to the acoustic wavelength. Rayleigh waves have a slightly less than shear waves by a factor dependent on the elastic constants of the material. The typical speed of Rayleigh waves in metals is of the order of 2–5 km/s, for linear elastic materials with positive Poisson ratio, the Rayleigh wave speed can be approximated as c R / c S =0.862 +1.14 ν1 + ν. Since Rayleigh waves are confined near the surface, their in-plane amplitude when generated by a point source decays only as 1 / r, Surface waves therefore decay more slowly with distance than do bulk waves, which spread out in three dimensions from a point source. This slow decay is one reason why they are of particular interest to seismologists, Rayleigh waves can circle the globe multiple times after a large earthquake, since this equation has no inherent scale, the boundary value problem giving rise to Rayleigh waves are dispersionless. An interesting special case is the Poisson solid, for which λ = μ, the elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material. This means that the velocity of a Rayleigh wave in practice becomes dependent on the wavelength, Waves affected by dispersion have a different wave train shape. Rayleigh waves on ideal, homogeneous and flat elastic solids show no dispersion, however, if a solid or structure has a density or sound velocity that varies with depth, Rayleigh waves become dispersive. One example is Rayleigh waves on the Earths surface, those waves with a higher frequency travel more slowly than those with a lower frequency and this occurs because a Rayleigh wave of lower frequency has a relatively long wavelength. The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves, since the speed of waves in the Earth increases with increasing depth, the longer wavelength waves can travel faster than the shorter wavelength waves. Rayleigh waves thus often appear spread out on seismograms recorded at distant earthquake recording stations and it is also possible to observe Rayleigh wave dispersion in thin films or multi-layered structures
26.
Natural convection
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In natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less dense and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it and this cooler fluid is then heated and the process continues, forming a convection current, this process transfers heat energy from the bottom of the convection cell to top. The driving force for natural convection is buoyancy, a result of differences in fluid density, because of this, the presence of a proper acceleration such as arises from resistance to gravity, or an equivalent force, is essential for natural convection. Natural convection has attracted a deal of attention from researchers because of its presence both in nature and engineering applications. In nature, convection cells formed from air raising above sunlight-warmed land or water are a feature of all weather systems. Convection is also seen in the plume of hot air from fire, oceanic currents. A very common application of natural convection is free air cooling without the aid of fans. The onset of natural convection is determined by the Rayleigh number, Convection will be less likely and/or less rapid with more rapid diffusion and/or a more viscous fluid. For thermal convection due to heating from below, as described in the pot above. The general diffusivity, D, is redefined as a thermal diffusivity, D = α Inserting these substitutions produces a Rayleigh number that can be used to predict thermal convection. Ra = ρ0 g β Δ T L3 α μ The tendency of a particular naturally convective system towards turbulence relies on the Grashof number. G r = g β Δ T L3 ν2 In very sticky, viscous fluids, fluid movement is restricted, and natural convection will be non-turbulent. Following the treatment of the subsection, the typical fluid velocity is of the order of g Δ ρ L2 / μ. Therefore, Grashof number can be thought of as Reynolds number with the velocity of natural convection replacing the velocity in Reynolds numbers formula. However In practice, when referring to the Reynolds number, it is understood that one is considering forced convection, the Grashof number can be formulated for natural convection occurring due to a concentration gradient, sometimes termed thermo-solutal convection. In this case, a concentration of hot fluid diffuses into a cold fluid, in much the same way that ink poured into a container of water diffuses to dye the entire space. Then, G r = g β Δ C L3 ν2 Natural convection is highly dependent on the geometry of the hot surface, in this system heat is transferred from a vertical plate to a fluid moving parallel to it by natural convection. This will occur in any system wherein the density of the fluid varies with position
27.
Harrow School
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Harrow School /ˈhæroʊ/ is an independent boarding school for boys in Harrow, London, England. There is some evidence that there has been a school on the site since 1243, Harrow is one of the original nine public schools that were regulated by the Public Schools Act 1868. For the academic year 2016/17, Harrow charges boarders up to £12,450 per term, being the fourth most expensive boarding school in the Headmasters, the school has an enrolment of 805 boys spread across twelve boarding houses, all of whom board full-time. It remains one of four all-boys, full-boarding schools in Britain, harrows uniform includes straw hats, morning suits, top hats and canes. The school in its current form was founded in February 1572 under a Royal Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I to John Lyon, a wealthy local farmer. In the original charter, six governors were named, including two members of the Gerard family of Flambards, and two members of the Page family of Wembley and Sudbury Court. It was only after the death of Lyons wife in 1608 that the construction of the first school building began and it was completed in 1615 and remains to this day, however it is now much larger. Lyon died in 1592, leaving his assets to two causes, the lesser was the School, and by far the greater beneficiary was the maintenance of a road to London,10 miles away. The school owned and maintained road for many years following Lyons death. At first the subject taught was Latin, and the only sport was archery. Both subjects were compulsory, archery was dropped in 1771, although most boys were taught for free, their tuition paid for by Lyons endowment, there were a number of fee-paying foreigners. It was their presence that amplified the need for boarding facilities, by 1701 for every local there were two foreign pupils, these generated funds for the School as fees increased. It is now known as The John Lyon School and is a prominent independent school and it maintains close links with Harrow. The majority of the boarding houses were constructed in Victorian times. The 20th century saw the innovation of a dining hall. Presently there are about 800 boys boarding at Harrow, according to a 2009 article, the school has expanded overseas, opening additional schools in Beijing, China, Shanghai, China, Bangkok, Thailand, and New Territories, Hong Kong. Boys at Harrow have two uniforms, the photograph was placed on the front cover of the News Chronicle the next morning under the tagline Every picture tells a story. The picture was reproduced in other national publications and became
28.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
29.
Senior Wrangler (University of Cambridge)
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The Senior Wrangler is the top mathematics undergraduate at Cambridge University in England, a position which has been described as the greatest intellectual achievement attainable in Britain. Specifically, it is the person who achieves the highest overall mark among the Wranglers – the students at Cambridge who gain first-class degrees in mathematics, the Cambridge undergraduate mathematics course, or Mathematical Tripos, is famously difficult. Many Senior Wranglers have become world-leading figures in mathematics, physics, Senior Wranglers were once fêted with torchlit processions and took pride of place in the Universitys graduation ceremony. Years in Cambridge were often remembered by who had been Senior Wrangler that year, the annual ceremony in which the Senior Wrangler becomes known was first held in the 18th century. Standing on the balcony of the Universitys Senate House, the examiner reads out the results for mathematics. The examiner no longer announces the students exact rankings, but they identify the Senior Wrangler. The difficulty of the examinations is illustrated by the identities of some of those who have performed well and those who have achieved second place, known as Second Wranglers, include Alfred Marshall, James Clerk Maxwell, J. J. Thomson, Lord Kelvin, and William Clifford. Between 1748 and 1909, the University publicly announced the ranking, the examination was considered to be by far the most important in Britain and the Empire. The prestige of being a high Wrangler was great, the respect accorded to the Senior Wrangler was immense, andrew Warwick, author of Masters of Theory, describes the term Senior Wrangler as synonymous with academic supremacy. Since 1910, successful students in the examinations have been told their rankings privately, in recent years, the custom of discretion regarding ranking has progressively vanished, and all Senior Wranglers since 2010 have announced their identity publicly. The youngest person to be Senior Wrangler is probably Arran Fernandez, the previous youngest was probably James Wilkinson in 1939, aged 19 years and 9 months. The youngest up to 1909 were Alfred Flux in 1887, aged 20 years and 2 months and Peter Tait in 1852, two individuals have placed first without becoming known as Senior Wrangler. One was the student Philippa Fawcett in 1890, at that time, although the University allowed women to take the examinations, it did not allow them to be members of the University, nor to receive degrees. Having gained the highest mark, Fawcett was declared to have finished above the Senior Wrangler, the other was the mathematics professor George Pólya. H. Hardy asked Pólya to sit the examinations himself, unofficially, during his stay in England in 1924–5, Pólya did so, and to Hardys surprise, received the highest mark, an achievement which, had he been a student, would have made him the Senior Wrangler. Senior Wranglers Walk is a path in Cambridge, the walk to, the route was shorter than other walks, such as Wranglers Walk and the Grantchester Grind, undertaken by undergraduates whose aspirations were lower. Senior Wrangler sauce is a Cambridge term for brandy butter, a type of sauce made from brandy, butter. Senior Wrangler is also the name of a card game, alternatively known as Mathematics and Double Calculation
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James Maitland Balfour
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James Maitland Balfour, of Whittinghame, East Lothian, was a Scottish land-owner and businessman. He made a fortune in the 19th-century railway boom, and inherited a significant portion of his fathers great wealth and he was a Conservative Member of Parliament in the 1840s, and was the father of Prime Minister Arthur Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour. Balfour was the son of James Balfour and his wife Lady Eleanor, daughter of James Maitland and he was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. Balfour inherited his fathers neo-classical mansion Whittingehame House and his Highland estate at Strathconan, as well as a house in Grosvenor Square, London. He also inherited his fathers business skills, and became a director of the North British Railway at the height of the railway mania, Balfour married Lady Blanche Mary Harriet Gascoyne-Cecil, daughter of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, on 15 August 1843. His wife Lady Frances Balfour was a leading suffragist, Balfour died of tuberculosis on 23 February 1856 in Funchal, Madeira, aged 36. Lady Blanche Balfour died in 1872, media related to James Maitland Balfour at Wikimedia Commons The Peerage
31.
Baron Rayleigh
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Baron Rayleigh, of Terling Place in the County of Essex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1821 for Lady Charlotte Strutt, wife of Colonel Joseph Strutt, Member of Parliament for Maldon, Joseph Strutt had earlier declined the offer of a peerage, and instead proposed that the honour be given to his wife. Lady Rayleigh was the daughter of James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster, and his wife Lady Emily Lennox and her elder brother was Charles FitzGerald, 1st Baron Lecale and her younger brother was Lord Edward FitzGerald. Lady Rayleighs grandson, the third Baron, was a noted physicist, the latters son, the fourth Baron, was also a well-known physicist. As of 2014 the title is held by the fourth Barons grandson, the sixth Baron, other notable members of the Strutt family include Strutt & Parker founder Edward Gerald Strutt, a son of the second Baron, and the formers grandson Sir Nigel Strutt. The family seat is Terling Place, near Terling, Essex, john Frederick Strutt Duke of Leinster Strutt Baronets Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David. New York, St Martins Press,1990
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Cavendish Professor of Physics
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The Cavendish Professorship is one of the senior faculty positions in physics at the University of Cambridge. It was founded on 9 February 1871 alongside the famous Cavendish Laboratory, william Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire endowed both the professorship and laboratory in honor of his relative, chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish. Before the middle of the century, science was largely pursued by individuals. In 1869, a formed by the Senate reported that creating a dedicated Laboratory. The first Cavendish Professor was the relatively obscure James Clerk Maxwell. However, it was advertised, so it was only to his students that he laid out his plans for physics at Cambridge. When Maxwell began the course a few days later with a lecture on heat, it was attended by academics in formal dress. Maxwell spent the three years supervising the construction of the dedicated Cavendish Laboratory, and published in 1873 A Treatise on Electricity. Maxwells health deteriorated a short time into his tenure, and he died in 1879, lord Rayleigh replaced Maxwell immediately upon his death, being universally agreed upon as the only successor. Raleigh spent £1500 updating the laboratory, and created a new course, revolutionising practical instruction. In his five years as Cavendish Professor, he published 50 papers, among the students attracted by this change was future Cavendish Professor Ernest Rutherford. Whilst Thomson was Cavendish Professor, he discovered the electron and the existence of isotopes, Rutherford returned to Cambridge in 1918, and spent the last 19 years of his life there. This was around the time of the change from classical to modern physics, Rutherford died suddenly in 1937, marking the end of an era for the Cavendish. Sir Lawrence Bragg became Cavendish Professor just before the outbreak of the Second World War, work on neutron physics performed at this time was translated into the Manhattan Project to build an atom bomb. In 1971 it was renamed from the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics to the Cavendish Professorship of Physics, until Brian Pippard became the Cavendish Professor in 1971, the holder was also the head of the Physics Department
