1.
Paterson, New Jersey
–
Paterson is the largest city in and the county seat of Passaic County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, its population was 146,199, Paterson has the second-highest density of any U. S. city with over 100,000 people, behind only New York City. For 2015, the Census Bureaus Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 147,754, Paterson is known as the Silk City for its dominant role in silk production during the latter half of the 19th century. The city has evolved into a major destination for Hispanic emigrants as well as for immigrants from the Arab. It has the second-largest Muslim population in the United States by percentage, the area of Paterson was inhabited by the Algonquian-speaking Native American Acquackanonk tribe of the Lenape, referred to as the Delaware Indians. The land was known as the Lenapehoking, the Dutch claimed the land as New Netherlands, then the British as the Province of New Jersey. Paterson, which was founded by the society, became the cradle of the revolution in America. Paterson was named for William Paterson, statesman, signer of the Constitution, architect, engineer and city planner Pierre Charles LEnfant, who had earlier developed the initial plans for Washington, D. C. was the first planner for the S. U. M. His plan proposed to harness the power of the Great Falls through a channel in the rock, eventually Colts system developed some problems and a scheme resembling LEnfants original plan was used after 1846. Paterson was originally formed as a township from portions of Acquackanonk Township on April 11,1831, Paterson became part of newly created Passaic County on February 7,1837. It was incorporated as a city on April 14,1851, the city was reincorporated on March 14,1861. In the latter half of the 19th century silk production became the dominant industry and formed the basis of Patersons most prosperous period, in 1835 Samuel Colt began producing firearms in Paterson, although within a few years he moved his business to Hartford, Connecticut. Later in the 19th century Paterson was the site of experiments with submarines by Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland. Two of Hollands early models — one found at the bottom of the Passaic River — are on display in the Paterson Museum, housed in the former Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works near the Passaic Falls. The city was a mecca for immigrant laborers who worked in its factories and it was defeated by the employers, with workers forced to return under pre-strike conditions. Factory workers labored long hours for low wages under dangerous conditions, the factories then moved to the South, where there were no labor unions, and still later moved overseas. In 1919 Paterson was one of eight locations bombed by self-identified anarchists, in 1932 Paterson opened Hinchliffe Stadium, a 10, 000-seat stadium named in honor of John V. Hinchliffe, the citys mayor at the time. Hinchliffe Stadium originally served as the site for school and professional athletic events
Paterson, New Jersey
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Paterson, New Jersey
Paterson, New Jersey
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View of Paterson circa 1880
Paterson, New Jersey
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Hooverville for unemployed on the outskirts of Paterson, 1937
Paterson, New Jersey
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City Hall
2.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
Pittsburgh
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Clockwise:
Cathedral of Learning at the
University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh skyline;
Carnegie Mellon University;
PNC Park;
Duquesne Incline
Pittsburgh
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This article is about the Pennsylvania city. For other uses, see
Pittsburgh (disambiguation).
Pittsburgh
–
Monongahela River scene, 1857
Pittsburgh
–
Downtown facade memorializing Pittsburgh's
industrial heritage with an image of legendary steelworker
Joe Magarac
3.
Pennsylvania
–
Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
Pennsylvania
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World's End State Park, Sullivan County
Pennsylvania
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Flag
Pennsylvania
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Autumn in North Branch Township,
Wyoming County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
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Penn's Treaty with the Indians, by
Edward Hicks
4.
United States Naval Academy
–
The United States Naval Academy is a four-year coeducational federal service academy in Annapolis, Maryland, United States. The entire campus is a National Historic Landmark and home to historic sites, buildings. It replaced Philadelphia Naval Asylum, in Philadelphia, that served as the first United States Naval Academy from 1838 to 1845 when the Naval Academy formed in Annapolis. Candidates for admission generally must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a Member of Congress, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as midshipmen. Tuition for midshipmen is fully funded by the Navy in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,200 plebes enter the Academy each summer for the rigorous Plebe Summer, but only about 1,000 midshipmen graduate. The United States Naval Academy has some of the highest paid graduates in the according to starting salary. Midshipmen are required to adhere to the academys Honor Concept, the United States Naval Academys campus is located in Annapolis, Maryland, at the confluence of the Severn River and the Chesapeake Bay. In its 2016 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as the No.1 public liberal arts college and tied for the 9th best overall liberal arts college in the U. S. In the category of High School Counselor Rankings of National Liberal Arts Colleges, Military Academy and the U. S. Air Force Academy, and is tied for the No.5 spot for Best Undergraduate Engineering program at schools where doctorates not offered. In 2016, Forbes ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as No.24 overall in its report Americas Top Colleges, nominations may be made by members of and delegates to Congress, the President or Vice-President, the Secretary of the Navy or certain other sources. Candidates must also pass a fitness test and a thorough medical exam as part of the application process. In the 21st century, there have been about 1,200 students in each new class of plebes, the U. S. government pays for tuition, room, and board. Midshipmen receive monthly pay of $1,017.00, as of 2015, from this amount, pay is automatically deducted for the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, services, and other miscellaneous expenses. Midshipmen only receive a portion of their pay in cash while the rest is released during firstie year. Midshipmen fourth-class to midshipmen second-class receive monthly stipends of $100, $200, $300, Midshipmen first-class receive the difference between pay and outstanding expenses. Students at the academy are addressed as Midshipman, an official military rank. The same term comprises both males and females, upon graduation, most naval academy midshipmen are commissioned as ensigns in the Navy or second lieutenants in the Marine Corps and serve a minimum of five years after their commissioning. If they are selected to serve as a pilot, they will serve 8–11 years minimum from their date of winging, Foreign midshipmen are commissioned into the armed forces of their native countries
United States Naval Academy
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Rotunda steps leading to Memorial Hall
United States Naval Academy
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United States Naval Academy
United States Naval Academy
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United States Naval Academy in Annapolis MD
United States Naval Academy
–
U.S. Naval Academy in 1853
5.
Annapolis
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Annapolis is the capital of the U. S. state of Maryland, as well as the county seat of Anne Arundel County. Its population was measured at 38,394 by the 2010 census, the city served as the seat of the Continental Congress in 1783–84 and was the site of the 1786 Annapolis Convention and the Annapolis Peace Conference, held in 2007. Annapolis is the home of St. Johns College as well as the United States Naval Academy, a settlement in the Province of Maryland named Providence was founded on the north shore of the Severn River in 1649 by Puritan exiles from Virginia led by Governor William Stone. The settlers later moved to a harbor on the south shore. The settlement on the shore was initially named Town at Proctors, then Town at the Severn. In 1654, after the Third English Civil War, Parliamentary forces assumed control of Maryland, per orders from Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore, Stone returned the following spring at the head of a Cavalier force. On March 25,1655, in what is known as the Battle of the Severn, Stone was defeated, taken prisoner, Fendall governed Maryland during the latter half of the Commonwealth. In 1660, he was replaced by Phillip Calvert as fifth/sixth Governor of Maryland), Annapolis was incorporated as a city in 1708. Water trades such as oyster-packing, boatbuilding and sailmaking became the chief industries. Annapolis is home to a number of recreational boats that have largely replaced the seafood industry in the city. Dr. Alexander Hamilton was a Scottish-born doctor and writer who lived and worked in Annapolis, Annapolis became the temporary capital of the United States after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. For the 1783 Congress, the Governor of Maryland commissioned John Shaw, the flag is slightly different from other designs of the time. The blue field extends over the height of the hoist. Shaw created two versions of the flag, one started with a red stripe and another that started with a white one. In 1786, delegates from all states of the Union were invited to meet in Annapolis to consider measures for the regulation of commerce. Delegates from only five states—New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, New Jersey, the Philadelphia convention drafted and approved the Constitution of the United States, which is still in force. During this period, a prisoner of war camp, Camp Parole, was set up in Annapolis. As the war continued, the camp expanded to a location just west of the city
Annapolis
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Annapolis, Maryland.
Annapolis
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The"Old Treasury Building" was built in 1735 and is the oldest standing building in Annapolis
Annapolis
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View of Annapolis from the State House dome, 1911
Annapolis
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USPS Annapolis Main post office
6.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
Maryland
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Western Maryland: known for its heavily forested mountains. A panoramic view of
Deep Creek Lake and the surrounding
Appalachian Mountains in
Garrett County.
Maryland
–
Flag
Maryland
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Dramatic example of Maryland's
fall line, a change in rock type and elevation that creates waterfalls in many areas along the Southwest to Northeast geological boundary that crosses the state.
Great Falls, cliffs and rapids.
Maryland
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Typical freshwater river above the tidal zone. The
Patapsco River includes the famous
Thomas Viaduct and is part of the
Patapsco Valley State Park. Later, the river forms the
Inner Harbor as it empties into the
Chesapeake Bay.
7.
Naval Postgraduate School
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The Naval Postgraduate School is a graduate school operated by the United States Navy. Located in Monterey, California, it grants masters degrees, engineers degrees, established in 1909, the school also offers research fellowship opportunities at the postdoctoral level through the National Academies National Research Council research associateship program. Most of the faculty are civilians, NPS concentrates on technical areas that are of interest to the navy whereas staff colleges and war colleges focus on staff functions, civil-military affairs, tactics and strategy. NPS offers graduate programs through four graduate schools and twelve departments, the different schools and departments offer various PhD and M. S. Masters of Arts Program The M. A. program is offered at no cost to local, tribal, state. To accommodate participants time constraints, NPS requires students to be in only two weeks every quarter. Students complete the remainder of their coursework via the web, the degree is fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges and is awarded by the Naval Postgraduate School. The degree program requires 18 months of enrollment and coursework. It involves a significant commitment on the part of the participants, the courses are organized in quarters rather than semesters. Each quarter requires only two weeks in residence at the NPS campus, located in Monterey, California or at the National Capital Region campus located in West Virginia, the remainder of the coursework is completed via network-based learning. Participants and their agency must be cognizant of this commitment and should view it as an investment in enhancing the individual´s, the thesis is a qualitative or quantitative research project on a topic beneficial to the participant´s sponsoring agency and jurisdiction. It may, for example, have a strategic planning focus, the thesis project should be of significant benefit to the participant´s jurisdiction. On 9 June 1909, Secretary of the Navy George von L. Meyer signed General Order No,27, establishing a school of marine engineering at Annapolis, Maryland. On 31 October 1912, Meyer signed Navy General Order No,233, which renamed the school the Postgraduate Department of the United States Naval Academy. The order established courses of study in ordnance and gunnery, electrical engineering, radio telegraphy, naval construction, in 1945, Congress passed legislation to make the school a fully accredited, degree-granting graduate institution. Two years later, Congress adopted legislation authorizing the purchase of an independent campus for the school, a postwar review team, which had examined 25 sites nationwide, had recommended the old Hotel Del Monte in Monterey as a new home for the Postgraduate School. During WWII, the Navy had leased the facilities, first for a training school. Negotiations with the Del Monte Properties Company led to the purchase of the hotel and 627 acres of surrounding land for $2.13 million, the Postgraduate School moved to Monterey in December 1951
Naval Postgraduate School
–
Herrmann Hall
Naval Postgraduate School
–
Naval Postgraduate School
8.
The Catholic University of America
–
The Catholic University of America is a private university located in Washington, D. C. in the United States. It is a university of the Catholic Church in the United States. Established in 1887 as a graduate and research center following approval by Pope Leo XIII on Easter Sunday, the university began offering undergraduate education in 1904. In addition, it was ranked in the top 10 of the best Catholic colleges in the country and it was described as one of the 25 most underrated colleges in the United States. CUAs programs emphasize the arts, professional education, and personal development. The school stays closely connected with the Catholic Church and Catholic organizations, the American Cardinals Dinner is put on by the residential U. S. cardinals each year to raise scholarship funds for CUA. The university has a history of working with the Knights of Columbus. The university has been visited three times by sitting popes, Pope John Paul II visited on October 7,1979. On April 16,2008, Pope Benedict XVI gave an address at the campus about Catholic education and academic freedom. Pope Francis visited on September 23,2015 during his trip to the United States, at the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1866, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops first discussed the need for a national Catholic university. At the Third Plenary Council on January 26,1885, bishops chose the name The Catholic University of America for the institution. In 1882 Bishop John Lancaster Spalding went to Rome to obtain Pope Leo XIIIs support for the university, on April 10,1887 Pope Leo XIII sent James Cardinal Gibbons a letter granting permission to establish the university. By developing new leaders and new knowledge, the university was intended to strengthen, the founders wished to emphasize the Churchs special role in United States. They believed that scientific and humanistic research, informed by faith and they wanted to develop a national institution that would promote the faith in a context of religious freedom, spiritual pluralism, and intellectual rigor. The university was incorporated in 1887 on 66 acres of land next to the Old Soldiers Home. President Grover Cleveland was in attendance for the laying of the cornerstone of Divinity Hall, now known as Caldwell Hall, on May 24,1888, as were members of Congress, at the end of the second term, lectures on canon law were added. The first students were graduated in 1889, in 1876 with the opening of the Johns Hopkins University, American universities began dedicating themselves to graduate study and research in the Prussian model. CUA was the channel through which the modern university movement entered the American Catholic community
The Catholic University of America
–
Flag of The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C.
The Catholic University of America
–
Seal of The Catholic University of America
The Catholic University of America
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Pope
Leo XIII (1810-1903) granted the charter to the Catholic University of America
The Catholic University of America
–
Bishop
John Joseph Keane (1839-1918) was appointed as the university's first rector
9.
Gravitational wave
–
Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate as waves at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source. The possibility of gravitational waves was discussed in 1893 by Oliver Heaviside using the analogy between the law in gravitation and electricity. In 1905 Henri Poincaré first proposed gravitational waves emanating from a body, Gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtons law of universal gravitation, since that law is predicated on the assumption that physical interactions propagate at infinite speed. On June 15,2016, a detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other observatories are under construction. In Einsteins theory of relativity, gravity is treated as a phenomenon resulting from the curvature of spacetime. This curvature is caused by the presence of mass, generally, the more mass that is contained within a given volume of space, the greater the curvature of spacetime will be at the boundary of its volume. As objects with mass move around in spacetime, the changes to reflect the changed locations of those objects. In certain circumstances, accelerating objects generate changes in this curvature and these propagating phenomena are known as gravitational waves. As a gravitational wave passes an observer, that observer will find spacetime distorted by the effects of strain, distances between objects increase and decrease rhythmically as the wave passes, at a frequency corresponding to that of the wave. This occurs despite such free objects never being subjected to an unbalanced force, the magnitude of this effect decreases proportional to the inverse distance from the source. Inspiraling binary neutron stars are predicted to be a source of gravitational waves as they coalesce. However, due to the distances to these sources, the effects when measured on Earth are predicted to be very small. Scientists have demonstrated the existence of these waves with ever more sensitive detectors, the most sensitive detector accomplished the task possessing a sensitivity measurement of about one part in 5×1022 provided by the LIGO and VIRGO observatories. A space based observatory, the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, is currently under development by ESA, Gravitational waves can penetrate regions of space that electromagnetic waves cannot. They are able to allow the observation of the merger of black holes, such systems cannot be observed with more traditional means such as optical telescopes or radio telescopes, and so gravitational-wave astronomy gives new insights into the working of the Universe. In particular, gravitational waves could be of interest to cosmologists as they offer a way of observing the very early Universe. This is not possible with conventional astronomy, since before recombination the Universe was opaque to electromagnetic radiation, precise measurements of gravitational waves will also allow scientists to test more thoroughly the general theory of relativity
Gravitational wave
–
Evidence of
gravitational waves in the
infant universe may have been uncovered by the
BICEP2 radio telescope. The microscopic examination of the
focal plane of the BICEP2 detector is shown here. In 2015, however, the BICEP2 findings were confirmed to be the result of
dust.
Gravitational wave
–
History of the
Universe - gravitational waves are hypothesized to arise from
cosmic inflation, a
faster-than-light expansion just after the
Big Bang (17 March 2014).
Gravitational wave
–
Ground-based
10.
Maser
–
A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification by stimulated emission. The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, Townes, Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work leading to the maser. Masers are used as the device in atomic clocks, and as extremely low-noise microwave amplifiers in radio telescopes. Modern masers can be designed to generate electromagnetic waves at not only microwave frequencies but also radio, for this reason Charles Townes suggested replacing microwave with the word molecular as the first word in the acronym maser. The laser works by the principle as the maser. The maser was the forerunner of the laser, inspiring theoretical work by Townes, when the coherent optical oscillator was first imagined in 1957, it was originally called the optical maser. This was ultimately changed to laser for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, Gordon Gould is credited with creating this acronym in 1957. Independently, Charles Hard Townes, James P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger built the first ammonia maser at Columbia University in 1953. This device used stimulated emission in a stream of energized ammonia molecules to produce amplification of microwaves at a frequency of about 24.0 gigahertz. Townes later worked with Arthur L. Schawlow to describe the principle of the maser, or laser. For their research in the field of stimulated emission, Townes, the maser is based on the principle of stimulated emission proposed by Albert Einstein in 1917. When atoms have been induced into an energy state, they can amplify radiation at a frequency particular to the element or molecule used as the masing medium. By putting such a medium in a resonant cavity, feedback is created that can produce coherent radiation. This development could lead to wide range of new applications for maser technology, including communications, Masers serve as high precision frequency references. These atomic frequency standards are one of the forms of atomic clocks. They are often used as low-noise microwave amplifiers in radio telescopes, as of 2012, the most important type of maser is the hydrogen maser which is currently used as an atomic frequency standard. Together with other kinds of clocks, these help make up the International Atomic Time standard. This is the time scale coordinated by the International Bureau of Weights
Maser
–
First prototype ammonia maser and inventor
Charles H. Townes. The ammonia nozzle is at left in the box, the four brass rods at center is the
quadrupole state selector, and the resonant cavity is at right. The 24 GHz microwaves exit through the vertical
waveguide Townes is adjusting. At bottom are the vacuum pumps.
11.
Laser
–
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser
Laser
–
United States Air Force laser experiment
Laser
–
Red (660 & 635 nm), green (532 & 520 nm) and blue-violet (445 & 405 nm) lasers
Laser
–
Laser beams in fog, reflected on a car windshield
Laser
12.
Virginia Trimble
–
Virginia Louise Trimble is an astronomer specializing in the structure and evolution of stars and galaxies, and the history of astronomy. She has published more than 600 works in Astrophysics, and dozens of works in the history of other sciences. Trimble grew up the child of a chemist father and a mother with a flair for language. While attending UCLA in 1962, she was the subject of a Life article titled Behind a Lovely Face, the following year, she was selected to promote The Twilight Zone television show as Miss Twilight Zone in a national publicity tour. She received her B. A. from UCLA in 1964, at the time, the California Institute of Technology did not admit women students except under exceptional circumstances, and she was only the second woman allowed access to the Palomar Observatory. In 1972, she met and 11 days later married University of Maryland, College Park Professor Joseph Weber, from then until his death in 2000, she spent half of each academic year as a visiting professor at the University of Maryland. She was vice president of the International Astronomical Unions Executive Committee from 1994-2000, existence and nature of dark matter in the universe. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, hansen, Carl J. Kwaler, Steven D. Trimble, Virginia. Stellar Interiors, Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution, the origin and abundances of the chemical elements. Motions and structure of the envelope of the Crab Nebula. Virginia Trimble, Thomas R. Williams, Katherine Bracher, Richard Jarrell, Jordan D. Marché, F. Jamil Ragep, eds
Virginia Trimble
–
v
13.
Gravity Research Foundation
–
The Gravity Research Foundation is an organization established in 1948 by businessman Roger Babson to find ways to implement gravitational shielding. It holds an annual contest rewarding essays by researchers on gravity-related topics. The contest, which awards prizes of up to $4,000, has won by at least four people who later won the Nobel Prize in physics. The foundation held conferences and conducted operations in New Boston, New Hampshire through the late 1960s and it is mentioned on stone monuments, donated by Babson, at more than a dozen American universities. Babson even put up a sign declaring New Boston to be the safest town in North America if World War III came, in an essay called Gravity - Our Enemy Number One, Babson indicated that his wish to overcome gravity dated from the childhood drowning of his sister. She was unable to fight gravity, which came up and seized her like a dragon and brought her to the bottom, the foundation held occasional conferences that drew such people as Clarence Birdseye of frozen-food fame and Igor Sikorsky, inventor of the helicopter. Sometimes, attendees sat in chairs with their feet higher than their heads, most of the foundations work, however, involved sponsoring essays by researchers on gravity-related topics. It had only a couple of employees in New Boston, the physical Gravity Research Foundation disappeared some time after Babsons death in 1967. Its only remnant in New Boston is a slab in a traffic island that celebrates the foundations active research for antigravity. The building that held the foundations meetings has long held a restaurant, as of 2016, it is still administered out of Wellesley, Massachusetts by George Rideout, Jr. son of the foundations original director. The essay award lives on, offering prizes of up to $4,000, over time, the foundation shed its crankish air, turning its attention from trying to block gravity to trying to understand it. Other notable award winners include Jacob Bekenstein, Sidney Coleman, Bryce DeWitt, Julian Schwinger, Dennis Sciama, Gerard t Hooft, Robert Wald, John Archibald Wheeler, in the 1960s, Babson gave grants to a number of colleges that were accompanied by stone monuments. Colleges that received monuments include, Bethune-Cookman College in Daytona Beach, Florida Colby College in Waterville, the eccentric Babson was intrigued by the notion of anti-gravity and inclined to further scientific research in this area. The Colleges used these funds to help construct Rosenberg Hall in 1994, two trees that shade the stone are said to be direct descendants of Newton’s famous apple tree. The stone at Colby College was once in front of the Keyes Building on the academic quadrangle but was moved to a more obscure location near the Schair-Swenson-Watson Alumni Center. Students would often knock it over in a testament to gravitys power. At Tufts, the monument is the site of a ceremony for students who receive Ph. D. s in cosmology. Louis Witten Official website Article about Gravity Research Foundation on the New Boston town Website Babson, Roger W. Chapter XXXV - Playing with Gravity, New York, Harper & Brothers Publishers Page over to Chapter XXXV for Roger W. Babsons description of the Gravity Research Foundation
Gravity Research Foundation
–
Monument to Babson in center of New Boston, N.H.
Gravity Research Foundation
–
The Gravity Research Foundation monument at
Gordon College
Gravity Research Foundation
–
The Gravity Research Foundation monument at
Tufts University
Gravity Research Foundation
–
The Gravity Research Foundation monument outside Shrader Hall at
Eastern Nazarene College
14.
Fulbright Scholarship
–
The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. It is one of the most prestigious scholarships in the world, the Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education and it operates in over 160 countries around the world. The U. S. Department of States Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an appropriation from the U. S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from governments, foundations, corporations. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers, in countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the U. S. Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began, fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes, eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes. In 1945, Senator J. William Fulbright proposed a bill to use the proceeds from selling surplus U. S. government war property to international exchange between the U. S. and other countries. The bill devised a plan to forgo the debts foreign countries amassed during the war and it was through the belief that this program would be an essential vehicle to promote peace and mutual understanding between individuals, institutions and future leaders wherever they may be. If we do not want to die together in war, we must learn to live together in peace. On August 1,1946, President Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law, since it began, the program has operated on a bi-national basis, each country active in the Fulbright Program has entered into an agreement with the U. S. government. The first countries to sign agreements were Cuba in 1947 and Burma, the Philippines, Educational exchange can turn nations into people, contributing as no other form of communication can to the humanizing of international relations. The Fulbright Program works two ways, U. S. citizens may receive funding to go to a foreign country, citizens may come to the U. S. Fulbright grants are offered in almost all academic disciplines except clinical medical research involving patient contact. Fulbright grantees fields of study span the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, natural and physical sciences. Student Program offers fellowships for U. S. graduating seniors, graduate students, young professionals and artists to research, study, the Fulbright Foreign Student Program enables graduate students, young professionals and artists from abroad to conduct research and study in the United States. Some scholarships are renewed after the year of study. This program is currently on hiatus, the Fulbright-mtvU Fellowships award up to four U. S. students the opportunity to study the power of music as a cultural force abroad. Fellows conduct research for one year on projects of their own design about a chosen musical aspect
Fulbright Scholarship
–
James William Fulbright
Fulbright Scholarship
–
2008 conference booth
15.
Sigma Xi
–
Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society is a non-profit honor society which was founded in 1886 at Cornell University by a junior faculty member and a handful of graduate students. Members elect others on the basis of their achievements or potential. Despite the name, Sigma Xi is neither a fraternity nor a sorority, today the Society comprises nearly 100,000 scientists and engineers who were elected to membership based on their research achievements and potential. The Society is based in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, the Greek letters Sigma and Xi form the acronym of the Societys motto, Σπουδῶν Ξυνῶνες or Spoudon Xynones, which translates as Companions in Zealous Research. The word Honor was added to the name of the Society at the 2016 Annual Meeting, like all “Greek letter” societies, whether professional or social, it is an acronym for the motto of the organization, Σπουδων Ξυνωνες, which translates as companions in Zealous Research. For many years, we were referred to as “Society of the Sigma Xi. ”In the early century, some in the leadership wanted “Sigma Xi” to be dropped altogether in favor of some formulation such as “Scientific Research Society of America. ”In a strange quirk of history, both names survived because the organization split in the 1940s into an academic honor society and an honor society for applied research. RESA was an entity, wholly owned by Sigma Xi. In an even stranger development, Sigma Xi and RESA merged back together in 1974 and eventually began calling itself Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. More than 200 winners of the Nobel Prize have been Sigma Xi members, including Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Linus Pauling, Francis Crick, vision, To be the global honor society of science and engineering. List of Sigma Xi members Official website American Scientist Sigma Xis Year of Water H2008 Blog
Sigma Xi
–
Sigma Xi
16.
Physics
–
Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
Physics
–
Further information:
Outline of physics
Physics
–
Ancient
Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
ceiling of Senemut's tomb from the
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Physics
–
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose
laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Physics
–
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the
photoelectric effect and the
theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
17.
University of Maryland College Park
–
Founded in 1856, the university is the flagship institution of the University System of Maryland. It is a member of the Association of American Universities and competes in athletics as a member of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Marylands proximity to the nations capital has resulted in research partnerships with the Federal government. The operating budget of the University of Maryland during the 2009 fiscal year was projected to be approximately $1.531 billion, for the same fiscal year, the University of Maryland received a total of $518 million in research funding, surpassing its 2008 mark by $118 million. As of December 12,2012, the universitys Great Expectations campaign had exceeded $1 billion in private donations, on March 6,1856, the forerunner of todays University of Maryland was chartered as the Maryland Agricultural College. Two years later, Charles Benedict Calvert, a future U. S. Congressman, Calvert founded the school later that year. On October 5,1859, the first 34 students entered the Maryland Agricultural College, the school became a land grant college in February 1864. During the Civil War, Confederate soldiers under Brigadier General Bradley Tyler Johnson moved past the college on July 12,1864 as part of Jubal Earlys raid on Washington, D. C. By the end of the war, financial problems forced the administrators to sell off 200 acres of land, for the next two years the campus was used as a boys preparatory school. Following the Civil War, in February 1866 the Maryland legislature assumed half ownership of the school, the college thus became in part a state institution. By October 1867, the school reopened with 11 students, in the next six years, enrollment grew and the schools debt was paid off. In 1873, Samuel Jones, a former Confederate Major General, twenty years later, the federally funded Agricultural Experiment Station was established there. Morrill Hall was built the following year, on November 29,1912, a fire destroyed the barracks where the students were housed, all the schools records, and most of the academic buildings, leaving only Morrill Hall untouched. There were no injuries or fatalities, and all but two returned to the university and insisted on classes continuing. Students were housed by families in neighboring towns until housing could be rebuilt, a large brick and concrete compass inlaid in the ground designates the former center of campus as it existed in 1912. The state took control of the school in 1916, and the institution was renamed Maryland State College and that year, the first female students enrolled at the school. On April 9,1920, the became part of the existing University of Maryland, replacing St. Johns College. In the same year, the school on the College Park campus awarded its first PhD degrees. In 1925 the university was accredited by the Association of American Universities, by the time the first black students enrolled at the university in 1951, enrollment had grown to nearly 10,000 students—4,000 of whom were women
University of Maryland College Park
–
Charles Calvert, founder
University of Maryland College Park
–
Seal of the University of Maryland
University of Maryland College Park
–
Morrill Hall, built in 1898, is the oldest academic building on campus.
University of Maryland College Park
–
The campus during the 1912 fire.
18.
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
–
The IAS is perhaps best known as the academic home of Albert Einstein, John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel, after their immigration to the United States. Although it is close to and collaborates with Princeton University, Rutgers University, Flexners guiding principle in founding the Institute was the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. There are no programs or experimental facilities at the Institute. Research is never contracted or directed, it is left to each individual researcher to pursue their own goals and it is supported entirely by endowments, grants, and gifts, and is one of the eight American mathematics institutes funded by the National Science Foundation. It is the model for the eight members of the consortium Some Institutes for Advanced Study. The institute consists of four schools–Historical Studies, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, in 2016, the Institute has been in the news for a faculty housing project proposal. While the Institute owns the property on which it wants to build these houses, historians and archaeological evidence confirm the site witnessed Gen. George Washingtons arrival and charge on horseback across the battlefield during the January 3,1777 Battle of Princeton. The Institute was founded in 1930 by Abraham Flexner, together with philanthropists Louis Bamberger, Flexner is generally regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of American medicine and played a major role in the reform of medical education. This led to an interest in education generally and as early as 1890 he had founded a school which had no formal curriculum, exams. It was a success at preparing students for prestigious colleges. The Bamberger siblings wanted to use the proceeds from the sale of their department store in Newark, New Jersey, Flexner convinced them to put their money in the service of more abstract research. In 1932 Veblen resigned from Princeton and became the first professor in the new Institute for Advanced Study and he selected most of the original faculty and also helped the Institute acquire land in Princeton for both the original facility and future expansion. Flexner and Veblen set out to recruit the best mathematicians and physicists they could find, the rise of fascism and the associated anti-semitism forced many prominent mathematicians to flee Europe and some, such as Einstein and Hermann Weyl, found a home at the new institute. Weyl as a condition of accepting insisted that the Institute also appoint the thirty year old Austrian-Hungarian polymath John von Neumann, indeed, the IAS became the key lifeline for scholars fleeing Europe. Einstein was Flexners first coup and shortly after that he was followed by Veblens brilliant student James Alexander, Flexner was fortunate in the luminaries he directly recruited but also in the people that they brought along with them. Thus, by 1934 the fledgeling institute was led by six of the most prominent mathematicians in the world, in 1935 quantum physics pioneer Wolfgang Pauli became a faculty member. With the opening of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton replaced Göttingen as the center for mathematics in the twentieth century. Princeton Universitys science departments are less than two miles away and informal ties and collaboration between the two institutions occurred from the beginning and this helped start an incorrect impression that it was part of the University, one that has never been completely eradicated
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
–
The Fuld Hall
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
–
Institute for Advanced Study
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
–
Institute for Advanced Study Campus
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
–
Abraham Flexner
19.
Thesis
–
A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
Thesis
–
Doctoral ceremony at
Leiden University (7 July 1721).
Thesis
–
The cover of the thesis presented by
Claude Bernard to obtain his
Doctorate of Medicine (1843).
20.
Karl Herzfeld
–
Karl Ferdinand Herzfeld was an Austrian-American physicist. Herzfeld was born in Vienna during the reign of the Habsburgs over the Austro-Hungarian Empire and he came from a prominent, recently assimilated Jewish family. His father was a physician and ordinarius professor of obstetrics and gynecology at the University of Vienna and his mother, Camilla née Herzog, was the daughter of a newspaper publisher and sister of the organic chemist R. O. Herzog. He attended this school until 1910, when he began attending the University of Vienna to study physics, in 1912, he took courses at the University of Zurich and the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich. It was in Zurich he met Otto Stern, who was at the ETH, Herzfeld’s doctoral thesis applied statistical mechanics to a gas of free electrons as a model for a theory of metals. By the time he received his doctorate, he already had published six scientific papers, in one of them, he attempted to derive a model of the hydrogen atom. This paper was published in 1912, shortly before Niels Bohr submitted his first paper on the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, upon receipt of his doctorate, Herzfeld volunteered for service in the Austro-Hungarian Army. World War I broke out shortly thereafter and he served until 1918, Herzfeld’s thesis advisor Hasenöhrl was called to serve during World War I and was killed at the front. First, he was an assistant at the laboratory of Kasimir Fajans at Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich. However, once there, he found the challenge of theoretical physics more to his liking, from 1925, until he left LMU in 1926, he was extraordinarius professor of theoretical physics. During this time, Linus Pauling did postdoctoral studies with him, and he was the advisor for Walter Heitler. In 1925, Herzfeld published his book on theory and statistical mechanics. It was in 1926 that Herzfeld took a professorship at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. During 1930 and 1932, he was a lecturer at Cooper Union, while at Johns Hopkins, Herzfeld did considerable research with the chemist Francis O. Rice, who joined the University as an associate professor the same year Herzfeld arrived. Their 1928 paper considered the role of molecular vibrations in the transfer of energy between ultrasonic waves and gas molecules, goeppert-Mayer was a student of Born, and she joined the Johns Hopkins faculty in 1931. Goeppert-Mayer and Herzfeld published articles on states of aggregation and nuclear fusion reactions, Herzfeld coauthored articles with Franck on photosynthesis, one being after they had both left Johns Hopkins. John Archibald Wheeler, who became a prominent physicist, took his PhD under Herzfeld in 1933, in 1936, Herzfeld moved to The Catholic University of America in Washington, DC, where he remained until his death in 1978. He received emeritus status in 1969 and stayed active for the rest of his life, reasons for Herzfeld leaving Johns Hopkins were described in a letter to Arnold Sommerfeld
Karl Herzfeld
–
Regina and Karl, at Regina's graduation 1938
21.
John Archibald Wheeler
–
John Archibald Wheeler was an American theoretical physicist. He was largely responsible for reviving interest in general relativity in the United States after World War II, Wheeler also worked with Niels Bohr in explaining the basic principles behind nuclear fission. Together with Gregory Breit, Wheeler developed the concept of Breit–Wheeler process, Wheeler earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld, and studied under Breit and Bohr on a National Research Council fellowship. In 1939 he teamed up with Bohr to write a series of using the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of fission. He returned to Princeton after the war ended, but returned to government service to help design, for most of his career, Wheeler was a professor at Princeton University, which he joined in 1938, remaining until his retirement in 1976. At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs, more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department, Wheeler was born in Jacksonville, Florida on July 9,1911 to librarians Joseph Lewis Wheeler and Mabel Archibald Wheeler. He was the oldest of four children, having two brothers, Joseph and Robert, and a younger sister, Mary. Joseph earned a Ph. D. from Brown University and a Master of Library Science from Columbia University, Robert earned a Ph. D. in geology from Harvard University and worked as a geologist for oil companies and at colleges. Mary studied library science at the University of Denver and became a librarian and they grew up in Youngstown, Ohio, but spent a year in 1921 to 1922 on a farm in Benson, Vermont, where Wheeler attended a one-room school. After they returned to Youngstown he attended Rayen High School, after graduating from the Baltimore City College high school in 1926, Wheeler entered Johns Hopkins University with a scholarship from the state of Maryland. He published his first scientific paper in 1930, as part of a job at the National Bureau of Standards. He earned his doctorate in 1933 and his dissertation research work, carried out under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld, was on the Theory of the Dispersion and Absorption of Helium. He received a National Research Council fellowship, which he used to study under Gregory Breit at New York University in 1933 and 1934, and then in Copenhagen under Niels Bohr in 1934 and 1935. In a 1934 paper, Breit and Wheeler introduced the Breit–Wheeler process, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill made Wheeler an associate professor in 1937, but he wanted to be able work more closely with the experts in particle physics. He turned down an offer in 1938 of a professorship at Johns Hopkins University in favor of an assistant professorship at Princeton University. Although it was a position, he felt that Princeton. He remained a member of the faculty there until 1976, werner Heisenberg subsequently developed the idea of the S-matrix in the 1940s. In doing so he was led to introduce a unitary characteristic S-matrix, Wheeler did not develop the S-matrix, but joined Edward Teller in examining Bohrs liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus
John Archibald Wheeler
–
John Archibald Wheeler (right) together with Eckehard W. Mielke (de) in front of lake in Holstein before the Hermann Weyl-Conference 1985 in Kiel, Germany
John Archibald Wheeler
–
Loading tubes of the Hanford
B Reactor
John Archibald Wheeler
–
The "Sausage" device of
Ivy Mike nuclear test on
Enewetak Atoll. The Sausage was the first true
hydrogen bomb ever tested.
John Archibald Wheeler
–
Illustration of a black hole and its surrounding disk
22.
Physicist
–
A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
Physicist
–
Albert Einstein, physicist who developed the theory of general relativity.
23.
Eastside High School (Paterson, New Jersey)
–
EHS, which serves grades students in ninth through twelfth grades, operates as part of the Paterson Public Schools. The school has been accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Secondary Schools since 1928.0 classroom teachers, for a student–teacher ratio of 11.3,1. School of Government and Public Administration - As of the 2014-15 school year, the high school had an enrollment of 685 students and 66.0 classroom teachers, for a student–teacher ratio of 10.4,1. School of Information Technology - As of the 2014-15 school year, Eastside High School opened on February 1,1926. The school mascot is the Ghost, the school was the 311th-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 316 schools statewide, in New Jersey Monthly magazines September 2008 cover story on the states Top Public High Schools. The school was ranked 309th in the magazines September 2006 issue, EHS is 55% Hispanic of various Latin American nationalities, 43% Black, 2% White. 37% of the school speaks Spanish in their homes while another 32% speaks another language that isnt English at home, there are also limited English proficiency students or LEPs who compose 12% of the school. Limited English Proficient students cannot speak, read, or write in English and are placed in bilingual classes, 45% of the students participate in the free or reduced price lunch program. The average class size is 39 students, excluding special education, the schools ratio of students to computers is 9 to 1, with the state average being 4 to 1. On the Language Arts section of the High School Proficiency Assessment, 51% scored proficient, on the Math section of the test, 39% scored proficient and 57% scored partial. The average SAT score is 736 out of 1600, the Advanced Placement Program participation is 2%. The average attendance rate is 87%, as of the 2004-05 school year, EHS had a suspension rate of 10%. 60% of Eastside High School seniors graduated, 71% of the school graduated via the SRA process and 10% graduated through the LEP SRA process. Roughly 38% of the seniors go on to four-year colleges. The faculty gets paid $46,500 a year while the average is $52,563. The administrators get paid $105,000, the average is $102,755. Since the school is in a special needs or one of the Abbott Districts, for the 2009-10 season, the school competed in the North Jersey Tri-County Conference, an interim conference established to facilitate the forthcoming realignment. Eastside plays an annual Thanksgiving Day football game against Kennedy High School, in 2011, Eastside won the 87th annual match-up between the two schools by a score of 17-12, ending the series at 40 wins,40 losses and 7 ties
Eastside High School (Paterson, New Jersey)
–
Eastside High School
24.
Cooper Union
–
Inspired in 1830 when Peter Cooper learned about the government-supported École Polytechnique in France, Cooper Union was established in 1859. The Cooper Union originally granted each admitted student a full-tuition scholarship, following its own financial crisis, the school decided to abandon this policy starting in the Fall of 2014, but each incoming student receives at least a half-tuition merit scholarship. The college is divided into three schools, the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture, the School of Art, and it offers undergraduate and masters degree programs exclusively in the fields of architecture, fine arts, and engineering. It is a member of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, until 2014 Cooper Union was one of the very few American institutions of higher learning to offer a full-tuition scholarship – valued at approximately $150,000 as of 2012 – to every admitted student. Cooper Union has historically been one of the most selective colleges in the United States, both the art and architecture schools have acceptance rates below 5%. Cooper Union received 2,536 applications for the 2014–2015 academic year, as a result of its record low acceptance ratio for the fall 2010 incoming class, Cooper Union was named by Newsweek as the #1 Most Desirable Small School and #7 Most Desirable School overall. The Cooper Union was founded in 1859 by American industrialist Peter Cooper, who was an inventor, successful entrepreneur. Cooper was a son who had less than a year of formal schooling, yet went on to become an industrialist. Cooper designed and built Americas first steam engine, and made a fortune with a glue factory. After achieving wealth, he turned his skills to successful ventures in real estate, insurance. Coopers dream was to give talented young people the one privilege he lacked and he also wished to make possible the development of talent that otherwise would have gone undiscovered. According to The New York Times in 1863, Those only are supposed to pay anything who are abundantly able, discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, or sex was expressly prohibited. Since the opening of this institute all who desire, and particularly those who work for their own support, can avail themselves, free of charge, of all the advantages the institution affords. The early institution also had a reading room open day and night, and a new four-year nighttime engineering college for men. A daytime engineering college was added in 1902 thanks to funds contributed by Andrew Carnegie Initial board members included Daniel F. Tiemann, Peter Coopers dream of providing an education equal to the best has since become reality. Since 1859, the Cooper Union has educated thousands of artists, architects, after 1864 there were a few attempts to merge Cooper Union and Columbia University, but these were never realized. The Cooper–Hewitt, National Design Museum, was founded in 1897 as part of Cooper Union by Sarah, Eleanor, Cooper Unions Foundation Building is an Italianate brownstone building designed by architect Fred A. Petersen, one of the founders of the American Institute of Architects. It was the first structure in New York City to feature rolled-iron I-beams for structural support, Petersen patented a fire-resistant hollow brick tile he used in the buildings construction
Cooper Union
–
The Cooper Union's Foundation Building, at
Cooper Square and
Astor Place
Cooper Union
–
The interior of the Great Hall c. 2005
Cooper Union
–
Photo of
Abraham Lincoln taken February 27, 1860 in
New York City by
Mathew Brady, the day of his famous
Cooper Union speech
Cooper Union
–
Renovated Great Hall entrance, with main hall partially visible through open doors
25.
Lieutenant commander
–
Lieutenant commander is a commissioned officer rank in many navies. The rank is superior to a lieutenant and subordinate to a commander, the corresponding rank in most armies and air forces is major, and in the Royal Air Force and other Commonwealth air forces is squadron leader. The NATO rank code is mostly OF-3, a lieutenant commander is a senior department officer or the executive officer on many warships and smaller shore installation, or the commanding officer of a smaller ship/installation. They are also senior department officers in naval aviation squadrons, most Commonwealth and other navies address lieutenant commanders by their full rank or the positions they occupy. The United States Navy, however, addresses officers by their rank or the higher grade of the rank. For example, oral communications in formal and informal situations, a Lieutenant is abbreviated as Lieutenant, Lieutenants were commonly put in command of smaller vessels not warranting a commander or captain. Such a lieutenant was called a lieutenant commanding or lieutenant commandant in the United States Navy, the USN settled on lieutenant commander in 1862 and made it a distinct rank. The RN followed suit in March 1914, the insignia worn by a Royal Navy lieutenant commander is two medium gold braid stripes with one thin gold stripe running in between, placed upon a navy blue/black background. The top stripe has the ubiquitous loop used in all RN officer rank insignia, the RAF follows this pattern with its equivalent rank of squadron leader. This distinction was abolished when the rank of lieutenant commander was introduced, throughout much of its existence, the British Royal Observer Corps maintained a rank of observer lieutenant commander. The ROC wore a Royal Air Force uniform and their rank insignia appeared similar to that of an RAF squadron leader except that the stripes were shown entirely in black, prior to the renaming, the rank had been known as observer lieutenant. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank is the naval rank equal to Major in the army or air force and is the first senior officer rank, Lieutenant Commanders are senior to Lieutenants and to army and air force Captains, and are junior to Commanders and Lieutenant Colonels. There are two insignia used by USN and USCG Lieutenant Commanders, in all dress uniforms, they wear sleeve braid or shoulder boards bearing a single gold quarter-inch stripe between two gold half-inch strips. Above or inboard of the stripes, they wear their speciality insignia and this rank is also used on in Pakistan Navy. The rank of lieutenant commander is used in the Irish Naval Service. The majority of commanders in the Irish Naval Service hold the rank of lieutenant commander, with a commander being a senior. The corresponding rank in the German Navy, Italian Navy, Argentine Navy, Brazilian Navy, French Navy, Spanish Navy and most other French and Spanish-speaking countries is corvette captain. The insignia of kapteeniluutnantti, the rank immediately below the former, is one thin stripe between two wider ones, which could cause confusion among the naval personnel of other nations
Lieutenant commander
–
Pakistani Lt. Commander's insignia.
Lieutenant commander
–
A
US Navy lieutenant commander's sleeve/shoulder insignia
Lieutenant commander
–
A French
capitaine de corvette maneuvering.
26.
USS Lexington (CV-2)
–
USS Lexington, nicknamed Lady Lex, was an early aircraft carrier built for the United States Navy. She was the ship of the Lexington class, her only sister ship. The ship entered service in 1928 and was assigned to the Pacific Fleet for her entire career, Lexington and Saratoga were used to develop and refine carrier tactics in a series of annual exercises before World War II. On more than one occasion these included successfully staged surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, the ships turbo-electric propulsion system allowed her to supplement the electrical supply of Tacoma, Washington, during a drought in late 1929 to early 1930. She also delivered medical personnel and relief supplies to Managua, Nicaragua, Lexington was at sea when the Pacific War began on 7 December 1941, ferrying fighter aircraft to Midway Island. Her mission was cancelled and she returned to Pearl Harbor a week later, after a few days, she was sent to create a diversion from the force en route to relieve the besieged Wake Island garrison by attacking Japanese installations in the Marshall Islands. The island was forced to surrender before the force got close enough. A planned attack on Wake Island in January 1942 had to be cancelled when a submarine sank the oiler required to supply the fuel for the return trip, Lexington was sent to the Coral Sea the following month to block any Japanese advances into the area. The ship was spotted by Japanese search aircraft while approaching Rabaul, New Britain, together with the carrier Yorktown, she successfully attacked Japanese shipping off the east coast of New Guinea in early March. Lexington was briefly refitted in Pearl Harbor at the end of the month, a few days later the Japanese began Operation Mo, the invasion of Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, and the two American carriers attempted to stop the invasion forces. They sank the aircraft carrier Shōhō on 7 May during the Battle of the Coral Sea. Aircraft from Lexington and Yorktown succeeded in badly damaging Shōkaku, Lexington was the fourth US Navy ship named after the 1775 Battle of Lexington, the first battle of the Revolutionary War. After the war the ship was redesigned, partially as a result of British experience. Given the hull number of CC-1, Lexington was laid down on 8 January 1921 by Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, before the Washington Naval Conference concluded, the ships construction was suspended in February 1922, when she was 24.2 percent complete. She was re-designated and re-authorized as a carrier on 1 July 1922. Her displacement was reduced by a total of 4,000 long tons, the main armor belt was retained, but was reduced in height to save weight. The general line of the hull remained unaltered, as did the torpedo system, because they had already been built. The ship had a length of 888 feet, a beam of 106 feet
USS Lexington (CV-2)
–
Aerial view of Lexington on 14 October 1941
USS Lexington (CV-2)
–
Lexington beginning the transit from her builder at
Quincy to
Boston Navy Yard in January 1928
USS Lexington (CV-2)
–
Lexington firing her eight-inch guns, 1928
USS Lexington (CV-2)
–
Lexington (top) at
Puget Sound Navy Yard, alongside
Saratoga and
Langley in 1929
27.
Pearl Harbor
–
Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law
Pearl Harbor
–
Aerial view of Pearl Harbor,
Ford Island in center. The
Arizona memorial is the small white dot on the left side above Ford Island
Pearl Harbor
–
Pearl Harbor in the 1880s.
Pearl Harbor
–
Astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor from October 2009
28.
Battle of the Coral Sea
–
The battle was the first action in which aircraft carriers engaged each other, as well as the first in which neither sides ships sighted or fired directly upon the other. Fletcher, to oppose the Japanese offensive, on 3–4 May, Japanese forces successfully invaded and occupied Tulagi, although several of their supporting warships were surprised and sunk or damaged by aircraft from the US fleet carrier Yorktown. Now aware of the presence of US carriers in the area, beginning on 7 May, the carrier forces from the two sides exchanged airstrikes over two consecutive days. The first day, the US sank the Japanese light carrier Shōhō, while the Japanese sank a US destroyer, the next day, the Japanese fleet carrier Shōkaku was heavily damaged, the US fleet carrier Lexington was critically damaged, and the Yorktown was damaged. With both sides having suffered losses in aircraft and carriers damaged or sunk, the two fleets disengaged and retired from the battle area. Because of the loss of air cover, Inoue recalled the Port Moresby invasion fleet. Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, the battle marked the first time since the start of the war that a major Japanese advance had been checked by the Allies. The severe losses in carriers at Midway prevented the Japanese from reattempting to invade Port Moresby from the ocean, on 7 December 1941, using aircraft carriers, Japan attacked the U. S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the attack destroyed or crippled most of the U. S. Pacific Fleets battleships and brought the United States into the war, in launching this war, Japanese leaders sought to neutralize the American fleet, seize territory rich in natural resources, and obtain strategic military bases to defend their far-flung empire. At the same time that they were attacking Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked Malaya, causing Britain, Australia, Japan planned to use these conquered territories to establish a perimeter defense for its empire from which it expected to employ attritional tactics to defeat or exhaust any Allied counterattacks. The Imperial Japanese Army, however, rejected the recommendation, stating that it did not have the forces or shipping capacity available to such an operation. Inoue believed the capture and control of these locations would provide greater security, in April 1942, the army and navy developed a plan that was titled Operation MO. The plan called for Port Moresby to be invaded from the ocean, upon the completion of MO, the navy planned to initiate Operation RY, using ships released from MO, to seize Nauru and Ocean Island for their phosphate deposits on 15 May. Further operations against Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia were to be planned once MO, Inoue was especially worried about Allied bombers stationed at air bases in Townsville and Cooktown, Australia, beyond the range of his own bombers located at Rabaul and Lae. By March 1942, the U. S. was able to decipher up to 15% of the IJNs Ro or Naval Codebook D code which was used by the IJN for approximately half of its communications. By the end of April the Americans were reading up to 85% of the signals broadcast in the Ro code, in March 1942, the U. S. first noticed mention of the MO operation in intercepted messages. On 5 April, the Americans intercepted an IJN message directing a carrier and other warships to proceed to Inoues area of operations
Battle of the Coral Sea
–
United States Navy aircraft carrier
Lexington explodes on 8 May 1942, several hours after being damaged by a Japanese carrier air attack.
Battle of the Coral Sea
Battle of the Coral Sea
–
Japanese advances in the Southwest Pacific from December 1941 to April 1942
Battle of the Coral Sea
–
Shigeyoshi Inoue, commander of the 4th Fleet of the Imperial Japan Navy
29.
Incandescent
–
Incandescence is the emission of electromagnetic radiation from a hot body as a result of its temperature. The term derives from the Latin verb incandescere, to glow white, incandescence is a special case of thermal radiation. Incandescence usually refers specifically to visible light, while thermal radiation refers also to infrared or any electromagnetic radiation. For a detailed discussion of the intensity and spectrum of incandescence, see the article and this limit is called the Draper point. The incandescence does not vanish below that temperature, but it is too weak in the spectrum to be perceivable. At higher temperatures, the substance becomes brighter and its changes from red towards white. Incandescence is exploited in incandescent light bulbs, in which a filament is heated to a temperature at which a fraction of the falls in the visible spectrum. The majority of the radiation however, is emitted in the part of the spectrum. If the filament could be hotter, efficiency would increase, however. More efficient light sources, such as fluorescent lamps and LEDs, sunlight is the incandescence of the white hot surface of the sun. The word incandescent is also used figuratively to describe a person who is so angry that they are imagined to glow or burn red hot or white hot, red heat List of light sources Figurative use, Rangers 1 Unirea-Urziceni 4 etc
Incandescent
–
Hot metal work glows with visible light. This
thermal radiation also extends into the
infrared, invisible to the human eye and the camera the image was taken with, but an
infrared camera could show it (See
Thermography).
Incandescent
–
The incandescent metal embers of the
spark used to light this
Bunsen burner emit light ranging in color from white to orange to red or to blue. This change correlates with their temperature as they cool in the air. The flame itself is not incandescent, as its
blue color comes from the quantized transitions that result from the oxidation of CH radicals.
30.
Submarine chaser
–
A submarine chaser is a small and fast naval vessel that is specifically intended for anti-submarine warfare. Although similar vessels were designed and used by nations, this designation was most famously used by ships built by the US. Many of the US World War I sub-chasers found their way to friendly powers by way of Lend-Lease in World War II, U. S. Navy submarine chasers were designed specifically to destroy German submarines in World War I, and Japanese and German submarines in World War II. The small 110-foot SC-1-class submarine chasers of the used in World War I carried the hull designator SC. Their main weapon was the depth charge and they also carried machine guns and anti-aircraft guns. The similar-sized SC-497-class was built for World War II, also in World War II, larger 173-foot PC-461-class submarine chasers used the PC hull classification symbol. In early 1915, the British Admiralty selected the US Elco company for the production of 50 Motor Launches for anti-submarine work and this order was eventually increased by a further 530. The whole order was completed by November 1916, and the vessels entered Royal Navy service, the vessels were 80 feet in length and capable of 20 knots. They were armed with a 3-pounder gun, towed paravanes to attack submarines and, later, additional motor launches of the Fairmile A and B and other classes were built for World War II. The British sub chasers were operated around the coast in defence, however, they were uncomfortable, wet and not suited to British sea conditions. Although used during the First World War, they were sold when the war ended, by the end of World War II, submarine chasers had sunk around 67 German U-boats. In the Pacific Theatre, submarine chasers were used for landings, courier. Eight British Fairmile B Motor Launches were transferred from Canada to the US in World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy had around 250 submarine chasers in World War II, principally about 200 of the No. 1-class auxiliary submarine chasers. Some of these survived to serve in the Japan Maritime Self Defense Force after the war, during Project Hula, the United States secretly transferred 32 U. S. The transfer of 24 more was canceled when transfers halted on 5 September 1945, between 1954 and 1960 all 32 transferred submarine chasers were scrapped by the Soviet Union or destroyed off its coast by mutual agreement between the two countries. They were mostly withdrawn after World War II and replaced with corvettes, frigates, a few are still in service with Third World navies. The only remaining submarine chaser with intact World War II armament is the Royal Norwegian Navys HNoMS Hitra, in the Netherlands, there is still afloat PC1610 - a post World War II submarine chaser. The Le Fougueux was built in 1953 from US World War II drawings, gardiner, Robert and Chesneau, Roger, Conways all the worlds fighting ships 1922-1946, Conway Maritime Press,1980
Submarine chaser
–
USS PC-815, a US subchaser that served in World War II
. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102.
