1.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
2.
Microphone
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A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice. The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres. In 1665, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end. German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current. Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of 1876 – the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution. These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US. Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid-1877, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries. Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of 1886 and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in 1910. In 1916, E. C. Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in 1923, the first practical moving coil microphone was built. The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. J. Round, was the standard for BBC studios in London and this was improved in 1930 by Alan Blumlein and Herbert Holman who released the HB1A and was the best standard of the day. Also in 1923, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F. Olson. Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control. With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in 1963. During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in 1999 with the DM-1001. The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers
3.
Camera
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Thumb|A2016 Nikon D810 A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies, the camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means dark chamber and is the Latin name of the device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura, the functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. A camera may work with the light of the spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is a device which creates a single image of an object or scene. All cameras use the basic design, light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera, a display, often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved, the forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi, Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham s wrote very influential essays about experiments with light through an opening in a darkened room. The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents, before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood, to create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images werent permanent, however, as Wedgwood didnt employ a fixing mechanism and he ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. The first permanent photograph of an image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816, the photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window
4.
News
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News is information about current events. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Humans exhibit a nearly universal desire to learn and share news, technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. The genre of news as we know it today is closely associated with the newspaper, the English word news developed in the 14th century as a special use of the plural form of new. In Middle English, the equivalent word was newes, like the French nouvelles, jessica Garretson Finch is credited with coining the phrase current events while teaching at Barnard College in the 1890s. As its name implies, “news” typically connotes the presentation of new information, the newness of news gives it an uncertain quality which distinguishes it from the more careful investigations of history or other scholarly disciplines. News conspicuously describes the world in the present or immediate past, to make the news, an ongoing process must have some “peg”, an event in time which anchors it to the present moment. Relatedly, news often addresses aspects of reality which seem unusual, deviant, hence the famous dictum that “Dog Bites Man” is not news, but “Man Bites Dog” is. Another corollary of the newness of news is that, as new technology enable new media to disseminate news more quickly, according to some theoretical and understandings, news is whatever the news industry sells. Journalism, broadly understood along the lines, is the act or occupation of collecting and providing news. From a commercial perspective, news is simply one input, along with paper necessary to prepare a product for distribution. A news agency supplies this resource “wholesale” and publishers enhance it for retail, most purveyors of news value impartiality, neutrality, and objectivity, despite the inherent difficulty of reporting without political bias. Perception of these values has changed greatly over time as sensationalized tabloid journalism has risen in popularity, News is also sometimes said to portray the truth, but this relationship is elusive and qualified. Paradoxically, another property commonly attributed to news is sensationalism, the focus on. Thus news is not unrelated to gossip, the human practice of sharing information about other humans of mutual interest. A common sensational topic is violence, hence another news dictum, “if it bleeds, newsworthiness is defined as a subject having sufficient relevance to the public or a special audience to warrant press attention or coverage. In some countries and at points in history, what news media. Many news values seem to be common across cultures, people seem to be interested in news to the extent which it has a big impact, describes conflicts, happens nearby, involves well-known people, and deviates from the norms of everyday happenings
5.
Information
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In other words, it is the answer to a question of some kind. It is thus related to data and knowledge, as data represents values attributed to parameters, as it regards data, the informations existence is not necessarily coupled to an observer, while in the case of knowledge, the information requires a cognitive observer. At its most fundamental, information is any propagation of cause, Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation. It can also be encrypted for safe storage and communication, the uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence and is inversely proportional to that. The more uncertain an event, the information is required to resolve uncertainty of that event. The bit is a unit of information, but other units such as the nat may be used. Example, information in one fair coin flip, log2 =1 bit, the concept that information is the message has different meanings in different contexts. The English word was derived from the Latin stem of the nominative. Inform itself comes from the Latin verb informare, which means to give form, eidos can also be associated with thought, proposition, or even concept. The ancient Greek word for information is πληροφορία, which transliterates from πλήρης fully and it literally means fully bears or conveys fully. In modern Greek language the word Πληροφορία is still in use and has the same meaning as the word information in English. In addition to its meaning, the word Πληροφορία as a symbol has deep roots in Aristotles semiotic triangle. In this regard it can be interpreted to communicate information to the one decoding that specific type of sign, from the stance of information theory, information is taken as an ordered sequence of symbols from an alphabet, say an input alphabet χ, and an output alphabet ϒ. Information processing consists of a function that maps any input sequence from χ into an output sequence from ϒ. The mapping may be probabilistic or deterministic and it may have memory or be memoryless. Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism or system, inputs are of two kinds, some inputs are important to the function of the organism or system by themselves. In his book Sensory Ecology Dusenbery called these causal inputs, other inputs are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time. Some information is important because of association with information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input
6.
Journalism
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Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the news of the day and that informs society to at least some degree. The word applies to the occupation, the methods of gathering information, journalistic media include, print, television, radio, Internet, and, in the past, newsreels. Concepts of the role for journalism varies between countries. In some nations, the media is controlled by a government intervention. In others, the media is independent from the government. In the United States, journalism is protected by the freedom of the clause in the First Amendment. The role and status of journalism, along with that of the media, has undergone changes over the last two decades with the advent of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet. Notably, in the American media landscape, newsrooms have reduced their staff and coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, for instance, between 2007 and 2012, CNN edited its story packages into nearly half of their original time length. This compactness in coverage has been linked to broad audience attrition, in the United States, journalism is produced by media organizations or by individuals. Bloggers are often, but not always, journalists, the Federal Trade Commission requires that bloggers who receive free promotional gifts, then write about products, must disclose that they received the products for free. This is to eliminate conflicts of interest and protect consumers, fake news is news that is not truthful or is produced by unreliable media organizations. Fake news is spread on social media. Readers can determine fake news by evaluating whether the news has been published by a news organization. In the US, a news organization is an incorporated entity, has an editorial board. All of these organizations have codes of ethics that members abide by, many news organizations have their own codes of ethics that guide journalists professional publications. The New York Times code of standards and ethics is considered particularly rigorous, when they write stories, journalists are concerned with issues of objectivity and bias. Some types of stories are intended to represent the authors own opinion, in a physical newspaper, information is organized into sections and it is easy to see which stories are supposed to be opinion and which are supposed to be neutral. Online, many of these distinctions break down, readers should pay careful attention to headings and other design elements to ensure that they understand the journalists intent
7.
Sports journalism
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Sports journalism is a form of writing that reports on sporting topics and competitions. Sports journalism is an element of many news media organizations. com, Foxsports. com. Major League Baseball gave print journalists a special role in its games and they were named official scorers and kept statistics that were considered part of the official record of the league. Active sportswriters were removed from this role in 1980, Sports stories occasionally transcend the games themselves and take on socio-political significance, Jackie Robinson breaking the color barrier in baseball is an example of this. Sportswriters regularly face more deadline pressure than other reporters because sporting events tend to occur late in the day, yet they are expected to use the same tools as news journalists, and to uphold the same professional and ethical standards. They must take care not to show bias for any team, andrew Warwick has suggested that The Boat Race provided the first mass spectator event for journalistic coverage. The Race, a rowing event between the University of Cambridge and University of Oxford, has been held annually from 1856. Cricket, possibly because of its place in society, has regularly attracted the most elegant of writers. The Manchester Guardian, in the first half of the 20th century, Cardus was later knighted for his services to journalism. One of his successors, John Arlott, who became a favorite because of his radio commentaries on the BBC, was also known for his poetry. The first London Olympic Games in 1908 attracted such public interest that many newspapers assigned their very best-known writers to the event. The Daily Mail even had Sir Arthur Conan Doyle at the White City Stadium to cover the finish of the Marathon, the rise of the radio made sports journalism more focused on the live coverage of the sporting events. The Tour de France was born, and sports journalisms role in its foundation is still reflected today in the leading rider wearing a yellow jersey - the color of the paper on which LAuto was published. Some such ghosted columns, however, did little to further the reputation of sports journalism and these agencies included Pardons, or the Cricket Reporting Agency, which routinely provided the editors of the Wisden cricket almanac, and Hayters. Sportswriting in Britain has attracted some of the finest journalistic talents, mcIlvanney and Wooldridge, who died in March 2007, aged 75, both enjoyed careers that saw them frequently work in television. Glanville wrote several books, including novels, as well as scripting the memorable official film to the 1966 World Cup staged in England, one of the reasons cited was that the BBC had been too critical of the performances of the England football team. Increasingly, sports journalists have turned to writing, producing popular books on a range of sporting topics, including biographies, history. Dan Topolski was the first recipient of the William Hill Sports Book of the Year award in 1989, most countries have their own national association of sports journalists
8.
Research
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It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field, to test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of research are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development of methods. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences, there are several forms of research, scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577, Research has been defined in a number of different ways. Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell and it consists of three steps, pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary and this material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the research is to produce new knowledge. Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to, in analytical work, there are typically some new mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals, graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation. Scientific research is a way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature, scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic, Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the correct answer to a question. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, an example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, Artistic research, also seen as practice-based research, can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge
9.
Source (journalism)
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In journalism, a source is a person, publication, or other record or document that gives timely information. Outside journalism, sources are known as news sources. According to Shoemaker and McQuail, there are a multitude of factors that tend to condition the acceptance of sources as bona fide by investigative journalists, reporters are expected to develop and cultivate sources, especially if they regularly cover a specific topic, known as a beat. Beat reporters must, however, be cautious of becoming too close to their sources, reporters often, but not always, give greater leeway to sources with little experience. For example, sometimes a person will say they dont want to talk, journalists are also encouraged to be skeptical without being cynical as per the saying If your mother says she loves you, check it out. Popularized by the City News Bureau of Chicago, as a rule of thumb, but especially when reporting on controversy, reporters are expected to use multiple sources. Even if they cannot report certain information directly, journalists can use off the information to uncover related facts. This is especially useful in investigative journalism, information about a surprise event or breaking news, whether on or off the record, is known as a tip-off. Information that leads to the uncovering of more interesting information is called a lead, the identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news organizations lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality. Legal staff may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, the use of anonymous sources has always been controversial. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are the way to obtain certain information. News organizations may impose safeguards, such as requiring that information from an anonymous source be corroborated by a second source before it can be printed, nonetheless, prominent reports based on anonymous sources have sometimes proven to be incorrect. For instance, much of the O. J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later deemed inaccurate. Newsweek retracted a story about a Quran being flushed down a toilet that led to riots in the Middle East, the Los Angeles Times retracted an article that implicated Sean Diddy Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur. The original article was based on documents and several unnamed sources, when reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted that one of the sources was named. After the embarrassment, an organization will often clamp down on the guidelines for using unnamed sources. One study found that large newspapers use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically between 2003 and 2004, the Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group found use of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004. As long as the interview is not confidential, the reporter may report the information given by the source and this often shows up in broadcasts as John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said or simply a spokesperson said
10.
Newsroom
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Some journalism organizations refer to the newsroom as the city room. The concept of newsroom may also now be employed by public relations practitioners, as representatives of companies and organizations. These stories are submitted to editors, who sit together at one large desk. Once finished, editors write a headline for the story and begin to lay it out on a newspaper or magazine page, editors also review photographs, maps, charts or other graphics to be used with a story. At many newspapers, copy editors who review stories for publication work together at what is called a copy desk, supervised by a copy desk chief, assignment editors, including the city editor, who supervise reporters work, may or may not work with the copy desk. Most daily newspapers follow the a. m. cycle, in almost all newspaper newsrooms, editors customarily meet daily with the chief editor to discuss which stories will be placed on the front page, section front pages, and other pages. This is commonly called a meeting because the main topic of the meeting is the budgeting or allocation of space in the next issue. Newsrooms often have an assignment desk where staffers monitor emergency scanners, answer telephone calls, faxes and e-mails from the public, the assignment desk is also responsible for assigning reporters to stories or deciding what is covered and what isnt. In many newsrooms, the assignment desk is raised a step or two above the rest of the newsroom, allowing staffers who work at the desk to see everyone in the newsroom. In some newsrooms, a system called the Maestro Concept has been applied to improve time management of the newsroom. This maestro system is a method to improve the presentation of stories to busy readers in today’s media, teamwork and collaboration bring a story to life from an initial idea by integrating reporting with photographs, design and information graphics. Broadcast newsrooms are very similar to newspaper newsrooms, the two major differences are that these newsrooms include small rooms to edit video or audio and that they also exist next to the radio or television studio. The modern American newsroom has gone through changes in the last 50 years, with computers replacing typewriters. More ethnic minority groups as well as women are working as reporters and editors, however, some things havent changed, many reporters still use paper reporters notebooks and the telephone to gather information, although the computer has become another essential tool for reporting. The newsroom of a Canadian television station is the location of the CBC Television comedy The Newsroom and it is also shown on some public television stations in the United States. The 2004 film Anchorman, The Legend of Ron Burgundy, is set around a newsroom, the American television drama series The Newsroom is set in the newsroom of a cable news channel. Drop the Dead Donkey a newsroom sit com from the UK
11.
Editing
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Editing is the process of selecting and preparing written, visual, audible, and film media used to convey information. The editing process can involve correction, condensation, organization, and many other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and complete work. The editing process begins with the authors idea for the work itself. As such, editing can involve creative skills, human relations, there are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to the editorial staff. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product for its final release, the smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The top editor at many publications may be known as the chief editor, a frequent and highly regarded contributor to a magazine may acquire the title of editor-at-large or contributing editor. Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help to manage sections, such as business, sports, in U. S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor. Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an editor or a commissioning editor in a publishing house. Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibilities of a sponsoring editor, copy editors correct spelling, grammar and align writings to house style. Changes to the industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors. At newspapers and wire services, copy editors write headlines and work on substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion, at U. K. and Australian newspapers, the term is sub-editor. They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer and these editors may have the title of layout or design editor or makeup editor. However, another editor is sometimes involved in the creation of research articles. Called the authors editor, this works with authors to get a manuscript fit for purpose before it is submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. K, technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. Large companies dedicate experienced writers to the editing function
12.
Columnist
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A columnist is someone who writes for publication in a series, creating an article that usually offers commentary and opinions. Columns appear in newspapers, magazines and other publications, including blogs and they take the form of a short essay by a specific writer who offers a personal point of view. In some instances, a column has been written by a composite or a team, appearing under a pseudonym, some columnists appear on a daily or weekly basis and later reprint the same material in book collections. In some cases, such as Winchell and Parsons, their programs were quite similar in format to their newspaper columns. Rona Barrett began as a Hollywood gossip columnist in 1957, duplicating her print tactics on television by the mid-1960s, FPA and McIntyre both collected their columns into a series of books, as did other columnists. McIntyres book, The Big Town, New York Day by Day was a bestseller, fPAs The Melancholy Lute collected selections from three decades of his columns. When Smiths column, The Totem Pole, was syndicated by United Features, he told Time, a typewriter can be a pretty formidable contraption when you sit down in front of it and say, All right, now Im going to be funny. The writing of French humor columnist Alain Rémond has been collected in books, the Miami Herald promoted humor columnist Dave Barry with this description, Dave Barry has been at The Miami Herald since 1983. A Pulitzer Prize winner for commentary, he writes about issues ranging from the economy to exploding toilets. Barry has collected his columns into a series of successful books and he stopped writing his nationally syndicated weekly column in 2005, and The Miami Herald now offers on its website a lengthy selection of past columns by Barry. It has had the advantage of high-powered promotion and it is still riding on the crest of the first big wave its own splash sent out. But Mr. Davis did think that in a decade or two the newspapers might be promoting their columns along with their comic strips, the World had started the ball rolling with billboard advertising of Heywood Brouns It Seems to Me. The McNaught Syndicate was sitting pretty with O. O. McIntyre, Will Rogers, the New York Herald Tribune offered Don Marquis and Franklin P. Adams rhymed satirically in The Conning Tower for the New York World Syndicate. A Line o Type Or Two, Bert Leston Taylors verse column in the Chicago Tribune, was now being done by Richard Henry Little. Other offerings, humorous sketches by Damon Runyon, O. Henry stories, editorials by Arthur Brisbane, Ring Lardner letter, Rippling Rhymes, by Walt Mason, in at least one situation, a column expanded to become an entire successful magazine. When Cyrus Curtis founded the Tribune and Farmer in 1879, it was a weekly with an annual subscription rate of 50 cents. With 25,000 subscribers by the end of its first year, it was such a success that Curtis sold Tribune and Farmer to put his energy into the new publication, which became the Ladies Home Journal. Advice columnist Critic Editorial opinion columnist Gossip columnist Humor columnist Food columnist Food columnists of note National Society of Newspaper Columnists
13.
Photojournalism
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Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now understood to refer only to still images. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a format that is not only informative. Timeliness The images have meaning in the context of a published record of events. Objectivity The situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the events they depict in both content and tone, narrative The images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to the viewer or reader on a cultural level. Like a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter, but he or she must often make decisions instantly and carry photographic equipment, the practice of illustrating news stories with photographs was made possible by printing and photography innovations that occurred in the mid 19th century. The illustrations were printed with the use of engravings, during the Crimean War, the ILN pioneered the birth of early photojournalism by printing pictures of the war that had been taken by Roger Fenton. Other photographers of the war included William Simpson and Carol Szathmari, similarly, the American Civil War photographs of Mathew Brady were engraved before publication in Harpers Weekly. Disaster, including wrecks and city fires, was also a popular subject for illustrated newspapers in the early days. The printing of images in newspapers remained an isolated occurrence in this period, Photos were used to enhance the text rather than to act as a medium of information in its own right. This began to change with the work of one of the pioneers of photojournalism, John Thomson, in collaboration with the radical journalist Adolphe Smith, he began publishing a monthly magazine, Street Life in London, from 1876 to 1877. The project documented in photographs and text, the lives of the people of London. On March 4,1880, The Daily Graphic published the first halftone reproduction of a news photograph, in March 1886, when General George Crook received word that the Apache leader Geronimo would negotiate surrender terms, photographer C. S. Fly took his equipment and attached himself to the military column, during the three days of negotiations, Fly took about 15 exposures on 8 by 10 inches glass negatives. His photos of Geronimo and the other free Apaches, taken on March 25 and 26, are the known photographs taken of American Indians while still at war with the United States. Fly coolly posed his subjects, asking them to move and turn their heads and faces, the popular publication Harpers Weekly published six of his images in their April 24,1886 issue
14.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
15.
Journalism ethics and standards
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Numerous guidelines exist regarding how journalists and the agencies they work for should do their jobs in an ethical manner. The principles of Journalistic codes of ethics are designed as guides through numerous difficulties, such as conflicts of interest, the codes and canons provide journalists a framework for self-monitoring and self-correction. The written codes and practical standards vary somewhat from country to country and organization to organization, the International Federation of Journalists launched a global Ethical Journalism Initiative in 2008 aimed at strengthening awareness of these issues within professional bodies. In 2013 the Ethical Journalism Network was founded by former IFJ General Secretary Aidan White and this coalition of international and regional media associations and journalism support groups campaigns for ethics, good governance and self-regulation across all platforms of media. One of the voices in the U. S. on the subject of Journalistic Standards. The Preamble to its Code of Ethics states. public enlightenment is the forerunner of justice, the duty of the journalist is to further those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues. Conscientious journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with thoroughness, Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalists credibility. The primary themes common to most codes of journalistic standards and ethics are the following, reporters are expected to be as accurate as possible given the time allotted to story preparation and the space available, and to seek reliable sources. Events with an eyewitness are reported with attribution. Events with two or more independent eyewitnesses may be reported as fact, controversial facts are reported with attribution. Independent fact-checking by another employee of the publisher is desirable, corrections are published when errors are discovered. Defendants at trial are treated only as having committed crimes, until conviction. Reporting the truth is almost never libel, which makes accuracy very important, private persons have privacy rights that must be balanced against the public interest in reporting information about them. Public figures have fewer rights in U. S. law. In Canada, there is no immunity, reports on public figures must be backed by facts. Publishers vigorously defend libel lawsuits filed against their reporters, usually covered by libel insurance and this principle of limitation means that some weight needs to be given to the negative consequences of full disclosure, creating a practical and ethical dilemma. The Society of Professional Journalists code of ethics offers the following advice, quoting directly, Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news coverage. Use special sensitivity when dealing with children and inexperienced sources or subjects, be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of those affected by tragedy or grief
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Objectivity (journalism)
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Journalistic objectivity is a significant principle of journalistic professionalism. Journalistic objectivity can refer to fairness, disinterestedness, factuality, and nonpartisanship and that is, they do not provide separate feeds for conservative or liberal newspapers. Journalist Jonathan Fenby has explained the philosophy, to achieve such wide acceptability, demonstrably correct information is their stock in trade. Traditionally, they report at a level of responsibility, attributing their information to a spokesman. They avoid making judgments and steer clear of doubt and ambiguity, though their founders did not use the word, objectivity is the philosophical basis for their enterprises – or failing that, widely acceptable neutrality. Journalism needs to be objective, accurate and investigative in the way it presents information. This objectivity in journalism helps the audience to make up their own mind about a story, there is a necessity for reporters to present the honesty regarding the facts instead of always reporting information in an honest format. In addition, to maintain objectivity in journalism, journalists need to present the facts whether or not they like or agree with those facts, objective journalism needs to remain neutral and unbiased regardless of the writers opinion or personal beliefs. The modern notion of objectivity in journalism is largely due to the work of Walter Lippmann, Lippmann was the first to widely call for journalists to use the scientific method for gathering information. Lippmann called for journalistic objectivity after the excesses of Yellow journalism and he noted that the yellows at the time had served their purpose, but that the people needed to receive the actual news, and not a romanticized version of it. Journalistic objectivity requires that a journalist not be on side of an argument. The journalist must report only the facts and not an attitude toward the facts. Sociologist Michael Schudson argues that the belief in objectivity is a faith in facts, a distrust in values, and it does not refer to the prevailing ideology of newsgathering and reporting that emphasizes eyewitness accounts of events, corroboration of facts with multiple sources and balance of viewpoints. It also implies a role for journalists as a fourth estate. Media critics such as Edward S. News stories of the often described with detachment the hanging. Under the regimen of objectivity, news writers often attempted to balance these accounts by recounting the alleged transgressions of the victims that provoked the lynch mobs to fury, mindich argues that this may have had the effect of normalizing the practice of lynching. Historical factors have also shaped objectivity in journalism, as acknowledged and addressed in peace journalism and these are particularly relevant with regard to the large proportion of journalism about conflict. As noted below, with the growth of media, especially from the nineteenth century
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Media bias
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Media bias is the bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events and stories that are reported and how they are covered. The term media bias implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, the direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed. Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, government influence, including overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries, for example North Korea and Burma. There are a number of national and international groups that report on bias in the media. The most commonly discussed forms of bias occur when the support or attack a particular political party, candidate. DAlessio and Allen list three forms of bias as the most widely studied, Coverage bias, when actors or issues are more or less visible in the news. Gatekeeping bias, when stories are selected or deselected, sometimes on ideological grounds and it is sometimes also referred to as agenda bias, when the focus is on political actors and whether they are covered based on their preferred policy issues. Statement bias, when coverage is slanted towards or against particular actors or issues. Other common forms of political and non-political media bias include, Advertising bias, concision bias, a tendency to report views that can be summarized succinctly, crowding out more unconventional views that take time to explain. Corporate bias, when stories are selected or slanted to please corporate owners of media, mainstream bias, a tendency to report what everyone else is reporting, and to avoid stories that will offend anyone. Sensationalism, bias in favor of the exceptional over the ordinary, giving the impression that rare events, such as crashes, are more common than common events. Structural bias, when an actor or issue receives more or less favorable coverage as a result of newsworthiness and media routines, not as the result of ideological decisions. Other forms of bias include reporting that favors or attacks a particular race, religion, gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnic group, or even person. Media bias in the United States occurs when the media in the United States systematically emphasizes one particular point of view in a way that contravenes the standards of professional journalism. Claims of media bias in the United States include claims of bias, conservative bias, mainstream bias. To combat this, a variety of groups that attempt to find the facts behind both biased reporting and unfounded claims of bias have been founded. Research about media bias is now a subject of scholarship in a variety of disciplines. Media bias is studied at schools of journalism, university departments, in the United States, many of these studies focus on issues of a conservative/liberal balance in the media
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Advocacy journalism
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Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that intentionally and transparently adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose. Because it is intended to be factual, it is distinguished from propaganda and it is also distinct from instances of media bias and failures of objectivity in media outlets, since the bias is intended. Traditionally, advocacy and criticism are restricted to editorial and op-ed pages, news reports are intended to be objective and unbiased. In contrast, advocacy journalists have an opinion about the story they are writing and this may be evident in small ways, such as tone or facial expression, or large ways, such as the selection of facts and opinions presented. Some advocacy journalists reject that the ideal of objectivity is possible in practice, either generally. One writer for the alternative journalism collaborative, the Independent Media Center, writes the following in a call to action and these are antiquated principles no longer universally observed. We must absolutely not feel bound by them, if we are ever to create meaningful change, advocacy journalism will be the single most crucial element to enable the necessary organizing. It is therefore important that we learn how to be successful advocacy journalists. For many, this will require a different way of identifying and pursuing goals, explore arguments that challenge your perspective, and report embarrassing facts that support the opposition. Ask critical questions of people who agree with you, instead, articulate complex issues clearly and carefully. Make use of sources to establish facts. Sue Careless also criticized the media for unbalanced and politically biased coverage, for economic conflicts of interest. She said that alternative publications have advantages in independence, focus, and access, the Crisis, the official magazine of the NAACP, was founded in 1910. Muckrakers are often claimed as the ancestors of modern advocacy journalists, for example, Nellie Bly, Ida M. Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens, Upton Sinclair, George Seldes. French newspapers Libération, Charlie Hebdo, Le Canard Enchaîné and LHumanité all recuse what they consider pseudo-objective journalism for an explicitly political stance on events. They oppose Le Monde neutral style, which doesnt impede it, according to those critics, on the other side, a newspaper like Le Figaro clearly assumes its conservative stance and pool of readers. Advocacy journalists may reject the principle of objectivity in their work for different reasons. This is not necessarily a rejection of the existence of an objective reality and this may sound like a radical idea, but many mainstream journalists accept the philosophical idea that pure objectivity is impossible, but still seek to minimize bias in their work
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Science communication
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Science communication generally refers to public communication presenting science-related topics to non-experts. This often involves professional scientists, but has evolved into a professional field in its own right. It includes science exhibitions, journalism, policy or media production, Science communication can aim to generate support for scientific research or study, or to inform decision making, including political and ethical thinking. There is increasing emphasis on explaining methods rather than simply findings of science and this may be especially critical in addressing scientific misinformation, which spreads easily because it is not subject to the constraints of scientific method. Science communicators can use entertainment and persuasion including humour, storytelling, scientists can be trained in some of the techniques used by actors to improve their communication. Science communication can also simply describe communication between scientists, as well as between non-scientists, partly due to a market for professional training, science communication is also an academic discipline. Journals include Public Understanding of Science and Science Communication, researchers in this field are often linked to Science and Technology Studies, but may also come from history of science, mainstream media studies, psychology or sociology. Health communication is a related discipline, writing in 1987, Geoffery Thomas and John Durant advocated various reasons to increase public understanding of science, or scientific literacy. If the public enjoyed science more, they suggested there would presumably be more funding, progressive regulation, more trained engineers and scientists could allow a nation to be more competitive economically. Science can simply have aesthetic appeal, living in an increasingly technological society, background scientific knowledge can help to negotiate it. The science of happiness is an example of a field whose research can have direct, governments and societies might also benefit from more scientific literacy, since an informed electorate promotes a more democratic society. Moreover, science can inform decision making. Bernard Cohen points out potential pitfalls in improving scientific literacy and he explains first that we must avoid scientific idolatry. In other words, science education must allow the public to science without worshiping it. Ultimately scientists are humans, and neither perfectly altruistic, nor perfectly competent, Science communicators must also appreciate the distinction between understanding science and possessing a transferable skill of scientific thinking. Indeed, even trained scientists do not always manage to transfer the skill to other areas of their life, Cohen is critical of what has been called Scientism – the claim that science is the best or only way to solve all problems. He also criticizes the teaching of information and doubts that much of it will ever be of any use. Much of scientific knowledge, particularly if it is not the subject of debate and policy revision
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Intellectual
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Socially, intellectuals constitute the intelligentsia, a status class organised either by ideology, or by nationality. Man of Letters The English term Man of Letters derives from the French term belletrist, the term Man of Letters distinguished the literate man from the illiterate man, in a time when literacy was a rare form of cultural capital. In late 19th century, the term became common usage to denote the defenders of the falsely accused artillery officer Alfred Dreyfus. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose the intelligentsia, who were the class of white-collar workers. As such, politically radical thinkers already had participated in the French Revolution, Robert Darnton said that they were not societal outsiders, but respectable, domesticated, moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities being synonymous with intellectualism. Habermas Structural Transformation of Public Sphere made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private, such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination, and also were skilled calligraphers, and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that, Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one and it was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea, the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie, composed of scholar-bureaucrats who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. The Italian Communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci developed Karl Marx’s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere and that, because all knowledge is existentially-based, the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests. That intellectuals occur in social class and throughout the right wing, the centre. That, as a class, the intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class of their society. Therefore, the leadership of intellectuals is required for effecting and realizing social change, because, in the formal codification of Leninism, the Hungarian Marxist philosopher, György Lukács identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers, the How. and the Why. of the social, economic, and political status quo—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the discourse of society. In Representations of the Intellectual, Edward Saïd said that the … true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society. An intellectual usually is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy and that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights, and ideas, and should be heard as social critics of politics and power. In journalism, the term usually connotes a university academic of the humanities—especially a philosopher—who addresses important social and political matters of the day
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Walter Lippmann
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Lippmann was also a notable author for the Council on Foreign Relations, until he had an affair with the editor Hamilton Fish Armstrongs wife, which led to a falling out between the two men. Lippmann also played a role in Woodrow Wilsons post World War I board of inquiry. His views regarding the role of journalism in a democracy were contrasted with the writings of John Dewey in what has been retrospectively named the Lippmann-Dewey debate. Lippmann won two Pulitzer Prizes, one for his newspaper column Today and Tomorrow and one for his 1961 interview of Nikita Khruschev. He has also highly praised with titles ranging anywhere from most influential journalist of the 20th century. Michael Schudson writes that James W. Carey considered Walter Lippmanns book Public Opinion as the book of modern journalism. Walter Lippmann was born in New York City, to Jacob and Daisy Baum Lippmann, at some time, Lippmann became a member, alongside Sinclair Lewis, of the New York Socialist Party. In 1913, Lippmann, Herbert Croly, and Walter Weyl became the editors of The New Republic magazine. Walter Lippmann was one of the foremost hawks among the New Republic intellectuals and he had pushed Croly into backing Woodrow Wilson and then collaborated with Edward M. House in pushing Wilson into entering World War I. Soon, Lippmann, an enthusiast for conscription, had to confront the fact that he himself, only 27 years old and in fine health, was eminently eligible for the draft. Felix Frankfurter, progressive Harvard Law Professor and an associate of the New Republic editorial staff, had just been selected as a special assistant to Secretary of War Baker. Lippmann felt that his own inestimable services could be better used planning the postwar world than battling in the trenches, and so he wrote to Frankfurter asking for a job in Bakers office. What I want to do, he pleaded, is to all my time to studying and speculating on the approaches to peace. Do you think you can get me an exemption on such grounds and he then rushed to reassure Frankfurter that there was nothing personal in the request. Frankfurter having paved the way, Lippmann wrote to Secretary Baker and he assured Baker that he was only applying for a job and draft exemption on the pleading of others and in stern submission to the national interest. As Lippmann put it in a demonstration of cant, I have consulted all the people whose advice I value. During the war, Lippmann was commissioned a captain in the Army on June 28,1918 and he was assigned to the staff of House in October and attached to the American Commission to negotiate peace in December. He returned to the United States in February 1919 and was immediately discharged, through his connection to House, he became an adviser to Wilson and assisted in the drafting of Wilsons Fourteen Points speech
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David Brooks (cultural commentator)
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David Brooks is an American conservative political and cultural commentator who writes for The New York Times. He is currently a columnist for The New York Times and commentator on PBS NewsHour, Brooks was born in Toronto, Ontario—his father was working on his PhD in Canada at the time—and spent his early years in the middle-income Stuyvesant Town housing development in Lower Manhattan. His father taught English literature at New York University, while his mother studied nineteenth-century British history at Columbia, although his family was Jewish, Brooks himself is not religiously observant. As a young child, Brooks attended the Grace Church School, when he was 12, his family moved to the Philadelphia Main Line, the affluent suburbs of Philadelphia. He graduated from Radnor High School in 1979, in 1983, Brooks graduated from the University of Chicago with a degree in history. His senior thesis was on popular science writer Robert Ardrey, as an undergraduate, Brooks frequently contributed reviews and satirical pieces to campus publications. The evenings are reserved for extended bouts of name-dropping, to his piece, Brooks appended the note, “Some would say I’m envious of Mr. Buckley. But if truth be known, I just want a job and have a way of asking. When Buckley arrived to give his talk, he asked whether Brooks was in the lecture audience, upon graduation, Brooks became a police reporter for the City News Bureau of Chicago, a wire service owned jointly by the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun Times. Brooks was an outsider in more ways than his relative inexperience, national Review was a Catholic magazine, and Brooks is not Catholic. Sam Tanenhaus later reported in The New Republic that Buckley might have eventually named Brooks his successor if it hadn’t been for his being Jewish, “If true, it would be upsetting, ” Brooks says. After his internship with Buckley ended, Brooks spent some time at the conservative Hoover Institution at Stanford University and he also filled in for five months as a movie critic. From 1990–94, The Wall Street Journal posted Brooks as an op-ed columnist to Brussels, whence he covered Russia, the Middle East, South Africa, on his return, Brooks joined the neo-conservative Weekly Standard when it was launched in 1994–95. In 1996, he edited an anthology, Backward and Upward, in 2000, Brooks published a book of cultural commentary titled Bobos in Paradise, The New Upper Class and How They Got There to considerable acclaim. The book, a paean to consumerism, argued that the new managerial or new upper class represents a marriage between the idealism of the 1960s and the self-interest of the 1980s. According to a 2010 article in New York Magazine written by Christopher Beam, New York Times editorial-page editor Gail Collins called Brooks in 2003, Collins was looking for a conservative to replace outgoing columnist William Safire, but one who understood how liberals think. “I was looking for the kind of conservative writer that wouldn’t make our readers shriek and throw the paper out the window, Brooks started writing in September 2003. “The first six months were miserable, ” Brooks says
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Fareed Zakaria
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Fareed Rafiq Zakaria is an Indian-American journalist and author. He is the host of CNNs Fareed Zakaria GPS and writes a column for The Washington Post. He has been a columnist for Newsweek, editor of Newsweek International, and he is the author of five books, three of them international bestsellers, and the co-editor of one. Zakaria was born in India to a Konkani Muslim family and his father, Rafiq Zakaria, was a politician associated with the Indian National Congress and an Islamic theologian. His mother, Fatima Zakaria, was his fathers second wife and she was for a time the editor of the Sunday Times of India. Zakaria attended the Cathedral and John Connon School in Bombay, after directing a research project on American foreign policy at Harvard, Zakaria became the managing editor of Foreign Affairs in 1992, at the age of 28. Under his guidance, the magazine was redesigned and moved from a quarterly to a bimonthly schedule and he served as an Adjunct Professor at Columbia University, where he taught a seminar on international relations. In October 2000, he was named editor of Newsweek International, in August 2010 he moved to Time to serve as Editor-at-Large and columnist. He writes a column for the Washington Post and is a contributing editor for the Atlantic Media group. He has published on a variety of subjects for the New York Times, for a brief period, he was a wine columnist for the web magazine Slate. Zakaria is the author of From Wealth to Power, The Unusual Origins of Americas World Role, The Future of Freedom, The Post-American World and he co-edited The American Encounter, The United States and the Making of the Modern World with James F. Hoge, Jr. His last two books have both been New York Times bestsellers, and have translated into more than 25 languages. In 2011, an updated and expanded edition of The Post-American World was published, Zakaria was a news analyst with ABCs This Week with George Stephanopoulos where he was a member of the Sunday morning roundtable. He hosted the weekly TV news show, Foreign Exchange with Fareed Zakaria on PBS and his weekly show, Fareed Zakaria GPS premiered on CNN in June 2008. It airs twice weekly in the United States and four times weekly on CNN International and it recently celebrated its 8th anniversary on June 5,2016 as announced on the weekly foreign affairs show on CNN. In 2013 he became one of the producers for the HBO series Vice, Zakaria self-identifies as a centrist, though he has been described variously as a political liberal, a conservative, a moderate, or a radical centrist. George Stephanopoulos said of him in 2003, Hes so well versed in politics, I cant be sure whenever I turn to him where hes going to be coming from or what hes going to say. He supported Barack Obama during the 2008 Democratic primary campaign and also for president, in January 2009 Forbes referred to Zakaria as one of the 25 most influential liberals in the American media
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Naomi Klein
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Naomi Klein is a Canadian author, social activist, and filmmaker known for her political analyses and criticism of corporate globalization and of capitalism. This Changes Everything, Capitalism vs. the Climate was a New York Times non-fiction bestseller, in 2016 Klein was awarded the Sydney Peace Prize for her activism on climate justice. She is a member of the board of directors of the climate activist group 350. org, Naomi Klein was born in Montreal, Quebec, and brought up in a Jewish family with a history of peace activism. Her parents were self-described hippies who moved to Montreal from the U. S. in 1967 as war resisters to the Vietnam War and her mother, documentary film-maker Bonnie Sherr Klein, is best known for her anti-pornography film Not a Love Story. Her father, Michael Klein, is a physician and a member of Physicians for Social Responsibility and her brother, Seth Klein, is director of the British Columbia office of the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Her paternal grandparents were communists who began to turn against the Soviet Union after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and had abandoned communism by 1956. In 1942, her grandfather Phil Klein, an animator at Disney, was fired after the Disney animators strike, and went to work at a shipyard instead. Kleins father grew up surrounded by ideas of justice and racial equality, but found it difficult and frightening to be the child of Communists. Kleins husband, Avi Lewis, works as a TV journalist, the couples first child, son Toma, was born on June 13,2012. Klein spent much of her years in shopping malls, obsessed with designer labels. As a child and teenager, she found it very oppressive to have a very public feminist mother and she rejected politics and she has attributed her change in worldview to two events. One was when she was 17 and preparing for the University of Toronto, her mother had a stroke, Naomi, her father, and her brother took care of Bonnie through the period in hospital and at home, making educational sacrifices to do so. That year off prevented her from being such a brat, kleins writing career began with contributions to The Varsity, a student newspaper, where she served as editor-in-chief. After her third year at the University of Toronto, she dropped out of university to take a job at The Globe and Mail, in 2000, Klein published the book No Logo, which for many became a manifesto of the anti-corporate globalization movement. In it, she attacks brand-oriented consumer culture and the operations of large corporations and she also accuses several such corporations of unethically exploiting workers in the worlds poorest countries in pursuit of greater profits. In this book, Klein criticized Nike so severely that Nike published a point-by-point response, No Logo became an international bestseller, selling over one million copies in over 28 languages. Kleins Fences and Windows is a collection of her articles and speeches written on behalf of the anti-globalization movement. Klein and her husband, Avi Lewis made a film called The Take about factory workers in Argentina who took over a closed plant and resumed production
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Michael Pollan
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Michael Pollan is an American author, journalist, activist, and professor of journalism at the UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism. Pollan was born on Long Island, New York, into a Jewish family and he is the son of author and financial consultant Stephen Pollan and columnist Corky Pollan. Pollan received a B. A. in English from Bennington College in 1977, Pollan follows each of these processes—from a group of plants photosynthesizing calories through a series of intermediate stages, ultimately into a meal. On December 10,2006, The New York Times named The Omnivores Dilemma one of the five best nonfiction books of the year, on May 8,2007, the James Beard Foundation named The Omnivores Dilemma its 2007 winner for the best food writing. It was the book of focus for the University of Pennsylvanias Reading Project in 2007, Pollans discussion of the industrial food chain is in large part a critique of modern agribusiness. According to the book, agribusiness has lost touch with the cycles of farming, wherein livestock. He describes what he sees as the inefficiencies and other drawbacks of factory farming and gives his assessment of food production and what its like to hunt. He blames those who set the rules of what he calls a destructive and precarious agricultural system that has wrought havoc upon the diet, nutrition, Pollan finds hope in Joel Salatins Polyface Farm in Virginia, which he sees as a model of sustainability in commercial farming. Pollan appears in the documentary film King Corn and he uses case examples that fit the archetype of four basic human desires, demonstrating how each of these botanical species are selectively grown, bred, and genetically engineered. The apple reflects the desire for sweetness, the beauty, the marijuana intoxication. Pollan then unravels the narrative of his own experience with each of the plants, each section presents a unique element of human domestication, or the human bumblebee as Pollan calls it. Pollan holds that consumption of fat and dietary cholesterol does not lead to a rate of coronary disease. Pollan spends the rest of his book explicating his first three phrases, Eat food, in 2009, Food Rules, An Eaters Manual was published. This short work is a version of his previous efforts, intended to provide a simple framework for a healthy. It is divided into three sections, further explicating Pollans principles of Eat food, in Cooked, A Natural History of Transformation, published in 2013, Pollan explores the methods by which cooks mediate between nature and culture. The book is organized into four sections corresponding to the elements of Fire, Water, Air. Pollan has contributed to Greater Good, a psychology magazine published by the Greater Good Science Center at the University of California. His article Edible Ethics discusses the intersection of ethical eating and social psychology, in his 1998 book A Place of My Own, The Education of an Amateur Builder, Pollan methodically traced the design and construction of the out-building where he writes
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Thomas Friedman
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Thomas Loren Friedman is an American journalist, author, and three time Pulitzer Prize winner. Friedman currently writes a column for The New York Times. He has written extensively on foreign affairs, global trade, the Middle East, globalization, Friedman was born on July 20,1953 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Margaret Blanche and Harold Abe Friedman. Harold, who was Vice President of a bearing company, United Bearing, died of a heart attack in 1973. Margaret, who served in the United States Navy during World War II and studied Home Economics at the University of Wisconsin, was a homemaker, Margaret was also a Senior Life Master duplicate bridge player, and died in 2008. Friedman has two sisters, Shelly and Jane. From an early age, Friedman, whose father took him to the golf course for a round after work. He played a lot of sports, and became serious about tennis and he caddied at a local country club and in 1970 caddied for professional golfer Chi Chi Rodriguez when the US Open came to town. He attended Hebrew school five days a week until his Bar Mitzvah, then St. Louis Park High School and he became enamored with Israel after a visit there in December 1968, and he spent all three of his high school summers living on Kibbutz HaHotrim, near Haifa. He has characterized his high school years as one big celebration of Israels victory in the Six-Day War, Friedman studied at the University of Minnesota for two years, but later transferred to Brandeis University and graduated summa cum laude in 1975 with a degree in Mediterranean studies. Friedman later taught a class in economics at Brandeis in 2006, after graduating from Brandeis, he attended St Antonys College at the University of Oxford as a Marshall Scholar, earning an M. Phil. in Middle Eastern studies. Friedmans wife, Ann, is a graduate of Stanford University and she is the daughter of real estate developer Matthew Bucksbaum. They were married in London on Thanksgiving Day 1978 and live in Bethesda, the couple has two daughters, Orly and Natalie. Friedman joined the London bureau of United Press International after completing his masters degree and he was dispatched a year later to Beirut, where he lived from June 1979 to May 1981 while covering the Lebanon Civil War. He was hired by The New York Times as a reporter in 1981 and his coverage of the war, particularly the Sabra and Shatila massacre, won him the Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting. Alongside David K. Shipler he also won the George Polk Award for foreign reporting, in June 1984, Friedman was transferred to Jerusalem, where he served as the New York Times Jerusalem Bureau Chief until February 1988. That year he received a second Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting and he wrote a book, From Beirut to Jerusalem, describing his experiences in the Middle East, which won the 1989 U. S. National Book Award for Nonfiction. Friedman covered Secretary of State James Baker during the administration of President George H. W. Bush, following the election of Bill Clinton in 1992, Friedman became the White House correspondent for the New York Times
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Andrew Revkin
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Revkin is an American science and environmental journalist and author. In December,2016, he joined the staff of the independent investigative newsroom ProPublica as senior reporter for climate and he was a reporter for the New York Times from 1995 through 2009 and wrote the Dot Earth environmental blog for The Times Opinion Pages from 2010 through 2016. From 2010 to 2016 he was also the Senior Fellow for Environmental Understanding at Pace University, Andrew Revkin was born and raised in Rhode Island. He graduated from Brown University in 1978 with a degree in Biology and he later received a Masters in Journalism from the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. Early in his career he held senior editor and senior positions at Discover magazine and Science Digest. From 1995 through 2009, Revkin covered the environment for The New York Times, in 2010, he joined Pace Universitys Academy for Applied Environmental Studies as Senior Fellow for Environmental Understanding. Revkin has also written books on the once and future Arctic, the Amazon and he was interviewed by Seed magazine about his book The North Pole was Here, which was published in 2006. He stressed that the thing to convey in print as journalists. Revkin is among those credited with developing the idea that humans, through growing impacts on Earth’s climate and other systems, are creating a distinct geological epoch. He was a member of the Anthropocene Working Group from 2010 to 2016, the group is charged by a branch of the International Commission on Stratigraphy with gauging evidence that a formal change in the Geologic Time Scale is justified. The North Pole Was Here, Puzzles and Perils at the Top of the World, boston, Kingfisher,2006, ISBN9780753459935 Global Warming, Understanding the Forecast. New York, Abbeville Press,1992, ISBN 978-1558593107 The Burning Season, The Murder of Chico Mendes, Rock Star, starring Mark Wahlberg and Jennifer Aniston, was based on A Metal-Head Becomes a Metal-God. Heavy, a 1997 New York Times article by Revkin, the article described how a singer in a Judas Priest tribute band rose to replace his idol in the real band. Revkin is a multi-instrumentalist and songwriter who sometimes backed up Pete Seeger and, from 2003 to 2011, was part of Uncle Wade, a blues-roots band. His first album, A Very Fine Line, featuring guest contributions by Dar Williams, Mike Marshall,2015 American Geophysical Union, Robert C. Revkin - Biography at the NYTimes Revkin Videos - Revkins YouTube channel, video of Revkin accepting the John Chancellor Award Andrew Revkin on Charlie Rose 9 Billion People +1 Planet =. Andrew Revkins interview with Vaclav Smil at the Quantum to Cosmos festival at Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, New York Times review of The Burning Season. New York Times article that inspired Rock Star, national Public Radio interview with Revkin about the making of Rock Star
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Stereotype
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In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
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United States Department of Labor
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The department is headed by the U. S. Secretary of Labor. In carrying out this mission, the Department of Labor administers and enforces more than 180 federal laws and these mandates and the regulations that implement them cover many workplace activities for about 10 million employers and 125 million workers. The U. S. Congress first established a Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1884 with the Bureau of Labor Act, to information about labor. This bureau was under the Department of the Interior, the Bureau started collecting economic data in 1884, and published their first report in 1886. Later, the Bureau of Labor became an independent Department of Labor and it became a bureau again within the Department of Commerce and Labor, which was established February 15,1903. President William Howard Taft signed the March 4,1913, bill establishing the Department of Labor as a Cabinet-level Department, William B. Wilson was appointed as the first Secretary of Labor on March 5,1913 by President Wilson. Secretary Wilson chaired the first meeting of the International Labour Organization in October 1919, the Federal Employees Compensation Act, signed Sept.7,1916, provided benefits to workers who are injured or contract illnesses in the workplace. Frances Perkins, the first female member, was appointed to be Secretary of Labor by President Roosevelt on March 4,1933. Perkins served for 12 years, making her the longest serving Secretary of Labor, during the John F. Kennedy Administration, planning was undertaken to consolidate most of the departments offices, then scattered around more than 20 locations. Construction on the New Labor Building began in the mid‑1960s and finished in 1975 and it was named in honor of Perkins in 1980. President Lyndon Johnson asked Congress to consider the idea of reuniting Commerce and he argued that the two departments had similar goals and that they would have more efficient channels of communication in a single department. However, Congress never acted on it, in the 1970s, following the civil rights movement, the Labor Department under Secretary George P. Shultz made a concerted effort to promote racial diversity in unions. In 1978, the Department of Labor created the Philip Arnow Award, Department officials said the program was modern and fair and that it was part of ongoing contract negotiations with the local. In August 2010, the Partnership for Public Service ranked the Department of Labor 23rd out of 31 large agencies in its annual Best Places to Work in the Federal Government list. In December 2010, then-Department of Labor Secretary Hilda Solis was named the Chair of the U. S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, in July 2011, the Department was rocked by the resignation of Ray Jefferson, Assistant Secretary for VETS, in a contracting scandal. On March 4,2013, the Department began commemorating its centennial, tom Perez was appointed as Secretary of Labor on July 23,2013. According to remarks by Perez at his swearing-in ceremony, Boiled down to its essence, did not earn a satisfactory overall grade. Title 20 of the Code of Federal Regulations Equal Employment Opportunity Commission National Labor Relations Board Occupational Information Network Ticket to Work Lombardi, labors Voice in the Cabinet, A History of the Department of Labor from Its Origins to 1921
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War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
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Freedom of the press
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Freedom of the press or freedom of the media through various mediums, such as electronic media and published materials. Wherever such freedom exists mostly implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state, with respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public. Many governments are subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest. This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of research, publishing. The depth to which laws are entrenched in a countrys legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A. J. Liebling, Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author cannot reach a agreement with a publisher to produce the authors work. CPJ shares information on breaking cases with other press freedom organizations worldwide through the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, CPJ also tracks journalist deaths and detentions. CPJ staff applies strict criteria for each case, researchers independently investigate, so the concept of independence of the press is one closely linked with the concept of press freedom. Every year, Reporters Without Borders establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press, the survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups. RWB is careful to note that the only deals with press freedom. In 2016, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and New Zealand, followed by Costa Rica, Switzerland, Sweden, Ireland and Jamaica. The country with the least degree of freedom was Eritrea, followed by North Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, China, Vietnam. The problem with media in India, the worlds largest democracy, is enormous, India doesnt have a model for a democratic press. The report written by Ravi S Jha says Indian journalism, with its lack of freedom and self-regulation, cannot be trusted now—it is currently known for manipulation, levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 to 100. Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified as Free, Partly Free, in 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Libya, Eritrea at the bottom. According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the people live in countries where there is no press freedom
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Organization
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An organization or organisation is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word organon, which means organ, a hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers, such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs. Organizations may also operate in secret and/or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, the study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages, juries are used in athletic contests, book awards. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury, in the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus among local notables. Committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions, condorcets jury theorem proved that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote. The problem is that if the member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice. Parliamentary procedure, such as Roberts Rules of Order, helps prevent committees from engaging in discussions without reaching decisions. Bad parts of the organization starve, everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired. Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one-sided view of what goes on in ecology and it is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in general compete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous. The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline talks about functioning as this type of organization in this article from The Guardian. This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies, one hierarchy is functional and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well-trained, and measured by a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is executive and tries to get projects completed using the experts, projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other schema. As an example, a company might have an individual with overall responsibility for products X and Y, therefore, subordinates responsible for quality control of project X will have two reporting lines. A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization, so one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle, a book that introduced hierarchiology, the broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization analysis. A number of different perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, From a functional perspective, from an institutional perspective, an organization is viewed as a purposeful structure within a social context
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Reporters Without Borders
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Reporters Without Borders, or Reporters Sans Frontières, is an international non-profit, non-governmental organization that promotes and defends freedom of information and freedom of the press. The organization, with an office in Paris, France, has consultant status at the United Nations. Reporters Without Borders was founded in 1985 by Robert Ménard, Rémy Loury, Jacques Molénat and Émilien Jubineau, in Montpellier and its head office is in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris. RWB also maintains offices in Berlin, Brussels, Geneva, Madrid, Rome, Stockholm, Tunis, Vienna, at first, the association worked to promote alternative journalism, but there were disagreements between the founders. Finally, only Ménard stayed and he changed the direction towards promoting freedom of the press. Ménard was RWBs first Secretary General, jean-François Julliard succeeded Ménard in 2008. Christophe Deloire succeeded Julliard in July 2012 when he became Director General, Reporters Without Borders primary means of direct action are appeals to government authorities through letters or petitions, as well as frequent press releases. Through its world-wide network of roughly 150 correspondents, RWB gathers information, if necessary, it will send a team of its own to assess working conditions for journalists in a specific country. It releases annual reports on countries as well as the Press Freedom Index, RWB also provides assistance for journalists and media who are either in danger or are having difficulty subsisting. 2013, received the Freedom of Speech Award from the International Association of Press Clubs,2012, received the Club Internacional de Prensa Award, in Madrid. 2009, shared the Roland Berger Human Dignity Award with Iranian human rights lawyer,2009, received the Médaille Charlemagne for European Media. 2008, received the Kahlil Gibran Award for Institutional Excellence from the Arab American Institute Foundation,2007, received the Asia Democracy and Human Rights Award from Taiwan Foundation for Democracy and the Dawit Isaak Prize from Swedish Publicists Association. 2006, received an International Emmy Award from the International Academy of Television Arts,2005, shared the European Parliaments Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought with Nigerian human rights lawyer Hauwa Ibrahim and Cubas Ladies in White movement. 1997, received the Journalism and Democracy Prize from the Parliament Assembly of the Organization for Security,1992, received the Lorenzo Natali Prize from the European Commission for defending human rights and democracy. Reporters Without Borders issues press releases, fact finding reports, and it publishes periodic mission reports on developments in individual countries or regions or on a specific topic. Each December it publishes an overview of events related to freedom of information. It maintains a web site accessible in six languages, RWB compiles and publishes an annual ranking of countries based upon the organizations assessment of their press freedom records. Small countries, such as Andorra, are excluded from this report, the survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press
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Murder
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A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation
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Crossfire
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A crossfire is a military term for the siting of weapons so that their arcs of fire overlap. This tactic came to prominence in World War I, siting weapons this way is an example of the application of the defensive principle of mutual support. The advantage of siting weapons that mutually support one another is that it is difficult for an attacker to find an approach to any one defensive position. Use of armour, air support, indirect fire support, however, when combined with land mines, snipers, barbed wire, and air cover, crossfire became a difficult tactic to counter in the early 20th century. The tactic of using overlapping arcs of fire came to prominence during World War I where it was a feature of trench warfare, machine guns were placed in groups, called machine-gun nests, and they protected the front of the trenches. Many lives were lost in futile attempts to charge across the no mans land where these crossfires were set up, the phrase has come to mean any injury, damage or harm caused to a third party due to the action of belligerents
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Combat
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Combat or fighting is a purposeful violent conflict meant to weaken, establish dominance over, or kill the opposition, or to drive the opposition away from a location where it is not wanted or needed. Combat violence can be unilateral, whereas fighting implies at least a defensive reaction, a large-scale fight is known as a battle. A verbal fight is known as an argument. Combat effectiveness, in the field, requires combat readiness. In military areas, the term is applied also to personnel, Combat may take place under a specific set of rules or be unregulated. Examples of rules include the Geneva Conventions, medieval chivalry, the Marquess of Queensberry rules, Combat in warfare involves two or more opposing military organizations, usually fighting for nations at war. Warfare falls under the laws of war, which govern its purposes and conduct, Combat may be armed or unarmed. Hand-to-hand combat is combat at close range, attacking the opponent with the body and/or with a melee weapon. “Combat Motivation in Today’s Soldiers, U. S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute. ”Armed Forces & Society, vol. “Combat Casualties and Race, What Can We Learn from the 2003-2004 Iraq Conflict. ”“Undermining Combat Readiness in the Russian Military, 1992-2005. ”Armed Forces & Society, Jul 2006, vol. Http, //afs. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/32/4/513 Ben-Shalom, Uzi, Lehrer, Zeev, and Ben-Ari, Eyal. “Cohesion during Military Operations, A Field Study on Combat Units in the Al-Aqsa Intifada. ”Http, //afs. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/32/1/63 Woodruff, Todd, Kelty, Ryan, Segal, Archie Cooper, David R.2006. “Propensity to Serve and Motivation to Enlist among American Combat Soldiers. ”Armed Forces & Society, Apr 2006, vol
37.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
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Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
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Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
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Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
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Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
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Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
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Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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