1.
San Juan Bautista, Chile
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San Juan Bautista is the main town in the Juan Fernández Islands. Some sources say it was founded in 1877, while others give a date of 1750. It is located on Cumberland Bay on the center of the northeast coast of Robinson Crusoe Island, although the community maintains a rustic serenity dependent on the spiny lobster trade, residents employ a few vehicles, a satellite internet connection, and many television sets. As of the 2012 census, the town had a population of 800 in an area of 0.31 km2, there is a soccer pitch at the northern end of the village. The nearby school is called the Dresden School, after the German light cruiser SMS Dresden which was here during World War I. The names of other generally unpaved streets in the village include Larraín Alcalde, Ignacio Carrera Pinto, El Sándalo, Vicente González, Teniente Cortés, and La Pólvora. Overlooking San Juan Bautista are Las Cuevas de los Patriotas, where 42 Chilean creole independence activists lived during their exile by the Spanish authorities after the Battle of Rancagua in 1814, the exiles included prominent figures such as Juan Egaña and Manuel de Salas. As of early 2010, a pair of ships operated by the Chilean Navy arrive each month from mainland Chile, the number of passengers is limited, so arrangements must be made as much as a month in advance. The navy gives preference to locals, one-way trip time is 24 –36 hours or more depending on sea conditions. There is a short,885 m airstrip in the end of the Robinson Crusoe Island. Operations are mostly in twin-engine, seven-seat light planes, with very limited baggage capabilities, the flight time from the mainland of Chile is about 2 hours 30 minutes, plus a 1-hour 30 minute boat ferry to the village at the opposite side of the island. San Juan Bautista has a very mild Mediterranean climate, with rainfall intermediate between that of Valparaíso and Concepción, temperature is influenced by the cold Humboldt Current, which flows northward to the east of Robinson Crusoe Island, and the southeast trade winds. On February 27,2010, at least eight people lost their lives when a tsunami caused by the Chilean 8.8 earthquake hit the island, most of the buildings in the community were destroyed. The disaster could have been if not for a timely warning from a 12-year-old girl named Martina Maturana which saved many of her neighbors from harm. A map in this shows the streets of the town. The original version of article included text from the Wikipedia article Robinson Crusoe Island
2.
Robinson Crusoe Island
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Robinson Crusoe Island, formerly known as Más a Tierra, is the second largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, situated 670 km west of San Antonio, Chile, in the South Pacific Ocean. It is the populous of the inhabited islands in the archipelago. The island was home to the marooned sailor Alexander Selkirk from 1704 to 1709 and this was just one of several survival stories from the period that Defoe would have been aware of. To reflect the literary lore associated with the island and attract tourists, Robinson Crusoe Island has a mountainous and undulating terrain, formed by ancient lava flows which have built up from numerous volcanic episodes. The highest point on the island is 915 m above sea level at El Yunque, intense erosion has resulted in the formation of steep valleys and ridges. A narrow peninsula is formed in the part of the island called Cordón Escarpado. The island of Santa Clara is located just off the southwest coast, Robinson Crusoe Island lies to the west of the boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate, and rose from the ocean 3.8 –4.2 million years ago. A volcanic eruption on the island was reported in 1743 from El Yunque, on 20 February 1835, a day-long eruption began from a submarine vent 1.6 kilometres north of Punta Bacalao. The event was quite minor—only a Volcanic Explosivity Index 1 eruption—but it produced explosions and flames lit up the island. Robinson Crusoe has a climate, moderated by the cold Humboldt Current, which flows to the east of the island. Temperatures range from 3 °C to 34 °C, with a mean of 15.4 °C. Higher elevations are cooler, with occasional frosts. The Fernandezian Region is a region which includes the Juan Fernández Islands archipelago. It is in the Antarctic Floristic Kingdom, but often included within the Neotropical Kingdom. As World Biosphere Reserves since 1977, these islands have been considered of maximum scientific importance because of the plant families, genera. Out of 211 native plant species,132 are endemic, as well as more than 230 species of insects, Robinson Crusoe Island has one endemic plant family, Lactoridaceae. The Magellanic penguin is found there. The Juan Fernández firecrown is an endemic and critically endangered red hummingbird, the Masatierra petrel is named after the islands former name
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
5.
Regions of Chile
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Chile is divided into 15 regions, which are the countrys first-level administrative division. Each region is headed by an intendant, appointed by the President, regions are divided into provinces, each headed by a governor, appointed by the President. There are 54 provinces, in total, Provinces are further divided into communes, which are governed by municipalities. Each region is given a Roman numeral, followed by a name, when the regional structure was created, Roman numerals were assigned in ascending order from north to south, with the northernmost region designated as I and the southernmost region as XII. With the creation of regions XIV in the south and XV in the north in 2007, the administrative divisions of Chile were created in 1974 and limited to 13 regions. Previously, Chile was divided into 25 provinces, which were divided into departments. The new territorial organization was implemented in phases with some initial pilot regions beginning to operate in 1974, the Santiago Metropolitan Region began to operate in April 1980. Both regions became operative in October 2007, communes of Chile ISO 3166-2, CL Provinces of Chile
6.
Provinces of Chile
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A province is the second largest administrative division in Chile with 54 in total. The largest administrative division in Chile is that of a region with 15 in total, each provincial government is headed by a governor appointed by the president. The governor exercises their powers in accordance with instructions from the regional intendant, the governor is advised by the Provincial Economic and Social Council. The only exception is the Santiago Province, which makes no provision for provincial government in its regulations, the countrys provinces are further divided into 346 communes which are administered by an alcalde and municipal council. Communes of Chile Regions of Chile Decreto Ley 2.868 Provinces of Chile
7.
Capital (political)
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
8.
Municipality
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It is to be distinguished from the county, which may encompass rural territory and/or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality, a municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis, a municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, or a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The power of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to the state, municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax, property tax, and corporate income tax, but may also receive substantial funding from the state. Similar terms include Spanish ayuntamiento, also called municipalidad, Polish gmina, Dutch/Flemish Gemeente, in Australia, the term local government area is used in place of the generic municipality. Here, the LGA Structure covers only incorporated areas of Australia, incorporated areas are legally designated parts of states and territories over which incorporated local governing bodies have responsibility. In Canada, municipalities are local governments established through provincial and territorial legislation, the Province of Ontario has different tiers of municipalities, including lower, upper, and single tiers. Types of upper tier municipalities in Ontario include counties and regional municipalities, nova Scotia also has regional municipalities, which include cities, counties, districts, or towns as municipal units. In India, a Nagar Palika or Municipality is a local body that administers a city of population 100,000 or more. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it directly with the state government. Generally, smaller cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Nagar Palikas are also a form of local self-government entrusted with duties and responsibilities. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, since local government reorganisation, the unit in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is known as a district, and in Scotland as a council area. A district may be awarded borough or city status, or can retain its district title, in Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 parishes into which it is subdivided. This is the highest level of government in this jurisdiction. In the United States, municipality is usually understood as a city, town, village, or other local government unit, in the Peoples Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing. In Taiwan, a municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei. In Portuguese language usage, there are two words to distinguish the territory and the administrative organ, when referring to the territory, the word concelho is used, when referring to the organ of State, the word município is used
9.
Municipal council
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A municipal council is the local government of a municipality. Specifically the term may refer to the institutions of various countries that may be translated by this term, in English, it may refer to what are also called city councils and town councils. The one exception is the city of Paris, where the city police is in the hands of the central state, not in the hands of the mayor of Paris. This uniformity of status is a legacy of the French Revolution. Lists of communes of France Commune List of fifteen largest French metropolitan areas by population See Nagar Palika for municipalities of India, the Municipal Council in Moldova is the governing body in five municipalities, Chişinău, Bălţi, Tiraspol and Bendery. The Municipal Council serves as a body with some powers of general policy determination. It is composed of a determined number of counsellors elected every four years, representing political parties. Once elected, counsellors may form fractions inside of the Municipal Council, there are two fractions in the Municipal Council, PCRM fraction and Meleag fraction. The Mayor of the municipality is elected for four years, in Bălţi, Vasile Panciuc is the incumbent from 2001 and was re-elected twice, in 2003 during the anticipated elections, and in 2007. In Chişinău, the last mayor elections had to be repeated three times, because of the low rate of participation, as a result, Dorin Chirtoacă, won the last mayor elections in Chişinău. The municipal council is the highest governing body of the municipality in Norway, the municipal council sets the scope of municipal activity, takes major decisions, and delegates responsibility. The council is led by a mayor and is divided into an executive board and it is not uncommon for some members of the council to sit in the county councils too, but very rare that they also hold legislative or Government office, without leave of absence. The municipal council dates back to 1837 with the creation of the Formannskabsdistrikt, in cities the council is often called a city council. In the Republic of China, a municipal council represents a special municipality, members of the councils are elected through municipal elections held every 4-5 years. Councils for the municipalities in Taiwan are Taipei City Council, New Taipei City Council, Taichung City Council, Tainan City Council, Kaohsiung City Council
10.
Humanist Party (Chile)
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The Humanist Party is a progressive left-wing political party in Chile, founded in 1984. At the last legislative elections, December 16,2001, the party won 1. 1% of the vote, the party is a member of the Humanist International. For the 2005 presidential elections, the Humanist Party was a member of the coalition Juntos Podemos Más and their presidential candidate Tomás Hirsch won 5. 37% of the vote in a 4-way race between Michelle Bachelet, Sebastián Piñera, and Joaquín Lavín in the 2005 elections. He polled 4th place and therefore did not make the runoff, on 12 March 2013 they selected economist and university professor Marcel Claude as their candidate for the 2013 presidential election. The following is a list of the candidates supported by the Humanist Party. 1988 plebiscite, No 1989, Patricio Aylwin 1993, Cristián Reitze 1999, Tomás Hirsch 2005, Tomás Hirsch 2009, Marco Enríquez-Ominami 2013, Marcel Claude Official web site
11.
Rural area
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In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
12.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
13.
Currency
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A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
14.
Chilean peso
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The peso is the currency of Chile. The current peso has circulated since 1975, with a previous version circulating between 1817 and 1960. Its symbol is defined as a letter S with either one or two vertical bars superimposed prefixing the amount, $ or, the symbol, available in most modern text systems, is almost always used. Both of these symbols are used by many currencies, most notably the US dollar, the ISO4217 code for the present peso is CLP. It is officially subdivided into 100 centavos, although there are no current centavo-denominated coins, the exchange rate was around CLP$600 to 1 U. S. dollar at the end of 2014, by August 2015 it fell to 694 per 1 US dollar. The first Chilean peso was introduced in 1817, at a value of 8 Spanish colonial reales, until 1851, the peso was subdivided into 8 reales, with the escudo worth 2 pesos. Also in 1851, the peso was set equal 5 French francs on the sild,22.5 grams pure silver, however, gold coins were issued to a different standard to that of France, with 1 peso =1.37 grams gold. In 1885, a standard was adopted, pegging the peso to the British pound at a rate of 13⅓ pesos =1 pound. This was reduced in 1926 to 40 pesos =1 pound, from 1925, coins and banknotes were issued denominated in cóndores, worth 10 pesos. The gold standard was suspended in 1932 and the pesos value fell further, the escudo replaced the peso on 1 January 1960 at a rate 1 escudo =1000 pesos. Between 1817 and 1851, silver coins were issued in denominations of ¼, ½,1 and 2 reales and 1 peso, in 1835, copper ½ and 1 centavo coins were issued. A full decimal coinage was introduced between 1851 and 1853, consisting of copper ½ and 1 centavo, silver ½ and 1 décimo,20 and 50 centavos, and 1 peso, and gold 5 and 10 pesos. In 1860, gold 1 peso coins were introduced, followed by cupro-nickel ½,1 and 2 centavos between 1870 and 1871, copper coins for these denominations were reintroduced between 1878 and 1883, with copper 2½ centavos added in 1886. A new gold coinage was introduced in 1895, reflecting the lower gold standard, in 1896, the ½ and 1 décimo were replaced by 5 and 10 centavo coins. In 1907, a short-lived, silver 40 centavo coin was introduced following cessation of production of the 50 centavo coin, in 1919, the last of the copper coins were issued. The following year, cu pro-nickel replaced silver in the 5,10 and 20 centavo coins, a final gold coinage was introduced in 1926, in denominations of 20,50 and 100 pesos. In 1927, silver 2 and 5 peso coins were issued, cu pro-nickel 1 peso coins were introduced in 1933, replacing the last of the silver coins. In 1942, copper 20 and 50 centavos and 1 peso coins were introduced, the last coins of the first peso were issued between 1954 and 1959
15.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
16.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
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Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
18.
Alejandro Selkirk Island
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It is situated 180 km west of Robinson Crusoe Island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. The island measures 11 km north–south and 6 km east–west, and has an area of 49.5 km2. It is densely wooded and very mountainous and is marked by ridges and numerous deep ravines lead to a steep, the coastal cliffs are up to 1,000 m high. The south, west and north sides of the island have sandy strips of beach which extend 161 m offshore in places. The highest peak, Cerro de Los Innocentes, rises to 1,650 m in the southwest part of Alejandro Selkirk Island, where there is also a prominent rock with a hole through it. Landing is possible near the center of the east shore at Quebrada Sánchez, and at the foot of Quebrada Las Casas 33°45′S 80°43′W), anchorage can be taken about 0.3 mi east-northeast of Quebrada Sánchez, in depths of 40.2 m to 49.4 m. The ravine is recognized by a patch on a hill near it. Anchorage can also be taken, in depths of 31.1 m to 50 m, with sand bottom, dating of rocks on the island show that it is the youngest of the Juan Fernández Islands at an age of 1 –2 million years old. Due to its age, the island shows little evidence of erosion. According to some reports, now disputed, about 59 km southwest of the island is the submerged Sefton Reef, almost reaching sea level. Podesta Island, once reported to lay farther to the west, is a phantom island, Alejandro Selkirk has a subtropical climate, moderated by the cold Humboldt Current and the southeast trade winds. Temperatures range from 3 °C to 34 °C, with a mean of 15.4 °C. Average annual precipitation is 1,081 mm, varying from 318 mm to 1,698 mm year to year, rainfall is higher in the winter months, and varies with elevation and exposure, elevations above 500 m experience almost daily rainfall. A census of 1797 estimated a population 2 –3 million fur seals, the species was hunted to near extinction by the 19th century and was thought to be extinct for 100 years until 200 were found on the island in 1965. Since then, the population has grown steadily at 15% to 20% every year, the Masafuera rayadito is endemic to Alejandro Selkirk and one of the rarest South American birds with only 140 individuals left. The Alejandro Selkirk firecrown Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi an endemic subspecies of the Juan Fernández firecrown became extinct in 1908 by feral goats, the flora on the island is in the Fernandezian Region Floristic Region, in the Antarctic Floristic Kingdom, but often also included within the Neotropical Kingdom. Endemic plant families include Lactoridaceae, with endemic plant genera also found, throughout much of its history, the island has been uninhabited. There was formerly a settlement along the middle of the east coast
19.
Santa Clara Island
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Santa Clara Island is a tiny, uninhabited island in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of Robinson Crusoe Island in a group of islands known as the Juan Fernández Islands. The island is of volcanic origin and is approximately 1 km long and 0.6 km wide, the island group is politically part of the South American country Chile, and is administratively assigned to the Region of Valparaíso. Santa Clara is the smallest island of the Juan Fernandez Islands and has an area of about 2.2 km2 and it is surrounded on the south side by a reef. This volcanic islet is related to a group of three islands, located 1.5 km southwest of Robinson Crusoe Island, it has a mainly flat surface, with a maximum altitude of 376 m at Johow Hill.8 million years. Santa Clara includes volcanic rocks and several beaches, including some white sand beaches. Coming from the north, the island of Santa Clara has the appearance of a cliff or escarpment, waters surrounding the island have a rocky bottom, with strong currents. Access by boat to the island is dangerous, especially in stormy weather, being low-lying in elevation, Santa Clara catches relatively little rainfall. The amount of rainfall also depends on the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, temperatures range throughout the year from 3 °C to 34 °C, with an annual mean of 15.4 °C. Santa Clara is generally desolate and barren, but in its eastern slope there are trees, and in the northwest tip a periodical stream of water runs along the gorge. The low vegetation has been eroded in the past by herds of goats up on the rocks, the native flora is characterized by low fire tolerance and poor adaptation to herbivore resistance. Feral rabbits are the greatest threat because they exert devastating effects on the island’s habitats, the majority of the original vegetation on the island has been replaced by shrubs and grasses. The vegetation is a mosaic of matorral, barren rock, various size trees. Nearly all of Santa Clara is abundant in the introduced Rubus ulmifolius, Aristotelia chilensis, Ugni molinae, some have the potential to be serious pests, having fleshy fruits that are bird dispersed, in addition to weeds such as Danthonia collina, Stipa laevissima and Piptochaetium bicolor. There are no permanent sources of water on the island. Vertebrates inhabiting the islet include birds, some endangered, which make their nests on or visit the island, the uninhabited island is part of a municipality in the Region of Valparaíso, from which Easter Island is also administered. The main economic activities are fishing of the lobster, Jasus frontalis. The entire archipelago has been part of a nature reserve called the Archipiélago de Juan Fernández National Park since 1977
20.
Marooning
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Marooning is the intentional act of abandoning someone in an uninhabited area, such as a desert island. The practice was a penalty for crewmen, or for captains at the hands of a crew in cases of mutiny, generally, a marooned man was set on a deserted island, often no more than a sand bar at low tide. He would be given food, a container of water. The outcome of marooning was usually fatal, but William Greenaway and some men loyal to him survived being marooned, the chief practitioners of marooning were 17th and 18th century pirates, to such a degree that they were frequently referred to as marooners. The pirate articles of captains Bartholomew Roberts and John Phillips specify marooning as a punishment for cheating ones fellow pirates or other offenses, in this context, to be marooned is euphemistically to be made governor of an island. During the late-18th century in the American South, marooning took on an additional meaning describing an extended camping-out picnic over a period of several days. As a result of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1714, Sombrero island passed into the hands of the British, captain Warwick Lake of Recruit marooned an impressed seaman, Robert Jeffrey, there on 13 December 1807. As it turned out, Jeffrey survived, a passing American vessel, the schooner Adams from Marblehead, Massachusetts, had rescued him. A court-martial later dismissed Lake from the Royal Navy, the most famous literary reference to marooning probably occurs in Robert Louis Stevensons Treasure Island in which Ben Gunn is left marooned on the island for three years. A famous real-life marooning, only partly for punishment, was leaving the sailor Alexander Selkirk on Juan Fernández Island off the coast of Chile, the Cinque Ports later sank with the loss of most of her crew. Selkirk was not rescued until four years later, by Woodes Rogers, selkirks travails provided the inspiration for Daniel Defoes novel Robinson Crusoe. Today, one of the islands on the Chilean coast is named Alejandro Selkirk Island, in 2012, Ed Stafford marooned himself on an uninhabited island off Fiji as an experiment for 60 days. He took with him no food, water, or survival equipment of any kind, what he did take were cameras to film the ordeal for Discovery Channel. Stafford completed the task and documents the psychological repercussions in his book Naked and Marooned
21.
Alexander Selkirk
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Alexander Selkirk was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent more than four years as a castaway after being marooned by his captain on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean. He survived that ordeal, but succumbed to illness a dozen years later while serving aboard HMS Weymouth off West Africa. Selkirk was a youth, and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on Cinque Ports, commanded by William Dampier, the ship called in for provisions at the Juan Fernández Islands, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there. When he was rescued by follow-on English privateer Woodes Rogers. His story of survival was widely publicised after their return to England, Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676. In his youth, he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition and he was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693 for his indecent conduct in church, but he did not appear, being gone to sea. He was back at Largo in 1701, when he came to the attention of church authorities for beating up his brothers. Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering, in 1703, he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean, setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September. Dampier was captain of St George, and Selkirk served on Cinque Ports, St Georges companion ship, by this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea. A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their party was ambushed. The easy capture of Asunción, a merchantman, revived the mens hopes of plunder. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar and flour, then set the ship free. In May 1704, Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own, Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel and probably wanted to make the needed repairs before going any farther. He declared that he would stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship. Glad to be rid of a troublemaker, Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, Selkirk regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board. Cinque Ports did indeed later founder off the coast of what is now Colombia, Stradling and some of his crew survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. The survivors were taken to Peru where they endured a harsh imprisonment, at first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Juan Fernández
22.
Daniel Defoe
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Daniel Defoe, born Daniel Foe, was an English trader, writer, journalist, pamphleteer, and spy, most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe. He was also a pioneer of economic journalism, Daniel Foe was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding De to his name, and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux and his birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659–1662, with 1660 considered the most likely. His father James Foe was a tallow chandler and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and his mother Annie had died by the time he was about ten. Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fishers boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, during this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the Church of England. Defoe entered the world of business as a merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate, in 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley, the daughter of a London merchant, receiving a dowry of £3,700 – a huge amount by the standards of the day. With his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, in 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1688, and Defoe became one of Williams close allies, some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe, who had established himself as a merchant. In 1692, Defoe was arrested for debts of £700, though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000 and his laments were loud and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest. Following his release, he travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto. By 1695, he was back in England, now using the name Defoe and serving as a commissioner of the glass duty. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex, Defoes first notable publication was An Essay upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to an army during disarmament. His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman, defended the king against the perceived xenophobia of his enemies, satirising the English claim to racial purity. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legions Memorial to the Speaker of the House of Commons, later his employer Robert Harley and it demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, in it, he ruthlessly satirised both the High church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called occasional conformity, such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney
23.
Robinson Crusoe
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Robinson Crusoe /ˌrɒbɪnsən ˈkruːsoʊ/ is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. The first edition credited the works protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading readers to believe he was a real person. Despite its simple style, Robinson Crusoe was well received in the literary world and is often credited as marking the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. It is generally seen as a contender for the first English novel, Crusoe sets sail from the Queens Dock in Hull on a sea voyage in August 1651, against the wishes of his parents, who want him to pursue a career, possibly in law. After a tumultuous journey where his ship is wrecked in a storm and this journey, too, ends in disaster, as the ship is taken over by Salé pirates and Crusoe is enslaved by a Moor. Two years later, he escapes in a boat with a boy named Xury, the ship is en route to Brazil. Crusoe sells Xury to the captain, with the captains help, Crusoe procures a plantation. He observes the latitude as 9 degrees and 22 minutes north and he sees penguins and seals on his island. As for his arrival there, only he and three animals, the dog and two cats, survive the shipwreck. Overcoming his despair, he fetches arms, tools and other supplies from the ship before it breaks apart and he builds a fenced-in habitat near a cave which he excavates. By making marks in a cross, he creates a calendar. By using tools salvaged from the ship, and some he makes himself from ironwood, he hunts, grows barley and rice, dries grapes to make raisins, learns to make pottery and he also adopts a small parrot. He reads the Bible and becomes religious, thanking God for his fate in which nothing is missing, more years pass and Crusoe discovers native cannibals, who occasionally visit the island to kill and eat prisoners. At first he plans to them for committing an abomination but later realizes he has no right to do so. He dreams of obtaining one or two servants by freeing prisoners, when a prisoner escapes, Crusoe helps him, naming his new companion Friday after the day of the week he appeared. Crusoe then teaches him English and converts him to Christianity, after more natives arrive to partake in a cannibal feast, Crusoe and Friday kill most of the natives and save two prisoners. One is Fridays father and the other is a Spaniard, who informs Crusoe about other Spaniards shipwrecked on the mainland. A plan is devised wherein the Spaniard would return to the mainland with Fridays father and bring back the others, build a ship, before the Spaniards return, an English ship appears, mutineers have commandeered the vessel and intend to maroon their captain on the island
24.
Archipelago
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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi-, in Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands. It is now used to refer to any group or, sometimes. Archipelagos may be isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago, archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia. Island arc List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos List of islands Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Archipelago
25.
Easter Island
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Easter Island is a Chilean island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle. Easter Island is famous for its 887 extant monumental statues, called moai, in 1995, UNESCO named Easter Island a World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park. However, human activity, the introduction of the Polynesian rat, by the time of European arrival in 1722, the islands population had dropped to 2, 000–3,000 from an estimated high of approximately 15,000 just a century earlier. European diseases and Peruvian slave raiding in the 1860s further reduced the Rapa Nui population, Easter Island is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world. Easter Island is a territory of Chile that was annexed in 1888. Administratively, it belongs to the Valparaíso Region, and, more specifically, according to the 2012 Chilean census, the island has about 5,800 residents, of whom some 60 percent are descendants of the aboriginal Rapa Nui. Easter Island is considered part of Insular Chile, the islands official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means Easter Island. However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the name of Easter Island. William Churchill inquired about the phrase and was told there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes of the island. The phrase appears to have used in the same sense as the designation of Lands End at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, according to Barthel, oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka The little piece of land of Hau Maka. However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning end and one navel, and the phrase can also mean the Navel of the World. This was apparently its actual meaning, French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the actual translation the Navel of the World, another name, Mata ki te rangi, means Eyes looking to the sky. Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense, however it is common to refer to members of the community as Rapa Nui. Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200, rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui is now considered to have settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 CE. Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement, according to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands or the Marquesas Islands,3,200 km away
26.
Desventuradas Islands
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The Desventuradas Islands is a group of four small islands located 850 kilometres off the coast of Chile, northwest of Santiago in the Pacific Ocean. They are considered part of Insular Chile, the vegetation is a miniature mosaic of matorral, barren rock, various size trees, and shrubs mixed with ferns and perennial herbs. There are no permanent sources of water on the islands. Vertebrates inhabiting both islands are limited to birds, ten species of marine birds and one land bird species, some of them endangered, make their nests on or visit the islands. The islands were first sighted by Juan Fernández on 6 November 1574 while voyaging from Callao to Valparaíso, pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa wrote in 1579 that they are now called after St. Felix and St. Ambor. However, the name of the martyr Ambor became confused with that of the famous bishop Saint Ambrose. It is, probably, one of islands that Captain John Davis struck one night in 1686. He was able to continue his voyage but, erroneously reported the position of the incident, san Felix played a part in the Falklands War
27.
Landsat 7
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Landsat 7 is the seventh satellite of the Landsat program. Launched on April 15,1999, Landsat 7s primary goal is to refresh the global archive of photos, providing up-to-date. The Landsat Program is managed and operated by the USGS, the NASA World Wind project allows 3D images from Landsat 7 and other sources to be freely navigated and viewed from any angle. The satellites companion, Earth Observing-1, trails by one minute, Landsat 7 was built by Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company. Landsat 7 was designed to last for five years, and has the capacity to collect and it is in a polar, sun-synchronous orbit, meaning it scans across the entire earths surface. With an altitude of 705 kilometers +/-5 kilometers, it takes 232 orbits, or 16 days, the satellite weighs 1973 kg, is 4.04 m long, and 2.74 m in diameter. Unlike its predecessors, Landsat 7 has a solid state memory of 378 gigabits, the main instrument on board Landsat 7 is the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus. The SLC consists of a pair of mirrors that rotate about an axis in tandem with the motion of the main ETM+ scan mirror. The purpose of the SLC is to compensate for the motion of the spacecraft so that the resulting scans are aligned parallel to each other. Without the effects of the SLC, the instrument images the Earth in a fashion, resulting in some areas that are imaged twice. The net effect is that approximately 22% of the data in a Landsat 7 scene is missing when acquired without a functional SLC, following the SLC failure, an Anomaly Response Team was assembled, consisting of representatives from the USGS, NASA, and Hughes Santa Barbara Remote Sensing. The team assembled a list of possible scenarios, most of which pointed at a mechanical problem with the SLC itself. Since there is no backup SLC, a failure would indicate that the problem was permanent. However, the team was unable to rule out the possibility of an electrical failure, though such a possibility was deemed remote. This operation was successful, and on September 5,2003 and it was immediately apparent that the migration to the Side-B electrical harness had not fixed the problem with the SLC. Following this, the instrument was reconfigured again to use its primary electrical harness, the subsequent conclusion of the ART was that the SLC problem was mechanical and permanent in nature. Landsat 7 continues to acquire data in this mode, Data products are available with the missing data optionally filled in using other Landsat 7 data selected by the user. In 2013, Landsat 7 was joined by Landsat 8, the contract was part of the NASA Scientific Data Purchase which was administrated through NASAs John C. Stennis Space Center
28.
Nazca Plate
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The Nazca Plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru–Chile Trench, of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate is largely responsible for the Andean orogeny. The Nazca Plate is bounded on the west by the Pacific Plate and to the south by the Antarctic Plate through the East Pacific Rise and the Chile Rise respectively. The movement of the Nazca Plate over several hotspots has created some volcanic islands as well as east-west running seamount chains that subduct under South America, the oldest rocks of the plate are about 50 million years old. A triple junction, the Chile Triple Junction, occurs on the seafloor of the Pacific Ocean off Taitao, here three tectonic plates meet, the Nazca Plate, the South American Plate, and the Antarctic Plate. The eastern margin is a convergent boundary subduction zone under the South American Plate, the southern side is a divergent boundary with the Antarctic Plate, the Chile Rise, where seafloor spreading permits magma to rise. The western side is a divergent boundary with the Pacific Plate, the northern side is a divergent boundary with the Cocos Plate, the Galapagos Rise. The subduction of the Nazca plate under southern Chile has a history of producing massive earthquakes, including the largest ever recorded on earth, the moment magnitude 9.51960 Valdivia earthquake. A second triple junction occurs at the northwest corner of the plate where the Nazca, Cocos, yet another triple junction occurs at the southwest corner at the intersection of the Nazca, Pacific, and Antarctic Plates off the coast of southern Chile. At each of these triple junctions an anomalous microplate exists, the Galapagos Microplate at the northern junction, the Easter Island Microplate is a third microplate that is located just north of the Juan Fernandez Microplate and lies just west of Easter Island. The Carnegie Ridge is a 1, 350-km-long and up to 300-km-wide feature on the floor of the northern Nazca Plate that includes the Galápagos archipelago at its western end. It is being subducted under South America with the rest of the Nazca Plate, Darwin Gap is the area between the Nazca Plate and the coast of Chile, where Charles Darwin experienced the earthquake of 1835. It is expected that this area will be the epicenter of a quake in the near future. The absolute motion of the Nazca Plate has been calibrated at 3.7 cm/yr east motion, the subducting Nazca Plate, which exhibits unusual flat-slab subduction, is tearing as well as deforming as it is subducted. The subduction has formed, and continues to form, the volcanic Andes Mountain Range, deformation of the Nazca Plate even affects the geography of Bolivia, far to the east. Aside from the Juan Fernández Islands, this area has few other islands that are affected by the earthquakes that are a result of complicated movements at these junctions. The precursor of both the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate was the Farallon Plate, which split in late Oligocene, about 22.8 Mya, a date arrived at by interpreting magnetic anomalies. Subduction under the South American continent began about 140 Mya, although the formation of the parts of the Central Andes
29.
Radiometric dating
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Radiometric dating or radioactive dating is a technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope within the material to the abundance of its decay products, together with stratigraphic principles, radiometric dating methods are used in geochronology to establish the geological time scale. Among the best-known techniques are radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating and uranium-lead dating, by allowing the establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant source of information about the ages of fossils and the deduced rates of evolutionary change. Radiometric dating is used to date archaeological materials, including ancient artifacts. Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are accurate, all ordinary matter is made up of combinations of chemical elements, each with its own atomic number, indicating the number of protons in the atomic nucleus. Additionally, elements may exist in different isotopes, with each isotope of an element differing in the number of neutrons in the nucleus, a particular isotope of a particular element is called a nuclide. That is, at point in time, an atom of such a nuclide will undergo radioactive decay. This transformation may be accomplished in a number of different ways, including alpha decay, another possibility is spontaneous fission into two or more nuclides. After one half-life has elapsed, one half of the atoms of the nuclide in question will have decayed into a daughter nuclide or decay product, Isotopic systems that have been exploited for radiometric dating have half-lives ranging from only about 10 years to over 100 billion years. For most radioactive nuclides, the half-life depends solely on nuclear properties and is essentially a constant and it is not affected by external factors such as temperature, pressure, chemical environment, or presence of a magnetic or electric field. The only exceptions are nuclides that decay by the process of capture, such as beryllium-7, strontium-85. For all other nuclides, the proportion of the nuclide to its decay products changes in a predictable way as the original nuclide decays over time. This predictability allows the relative abundances of related nuclides to be used as a clock to measure the time from the incorporation of the original nuclides into a material to the present. The basic equation of radiometric dating requires that neither the parent nuclide nor the product can enter or leave the material after its formation. The possible confounding effects of contamination of parent and daughter isotopes have to be considered and it is therefore essential to have as much information as possible about the material being dated and to check for possible signs of alteration. Precision is enhanced if measurements are taken on multiple samples from different locations of the rock body and this can reduce the problem of contamination. In uranium-lead dating, the diagram is used which also decreases the problem of nuclide loss. Finally, correlation between different isotopic dating methods may be required to confirm the age of a sample, the procedures used to isolate and analyze the parent and daughter nuclides must be precise and accurate
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Chile
Valparaíso
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