1.
San Salvador de Jujuy
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San Salvador de Jujuy, commonly known as Jujuy and locally often referred to as San Salvador, is the capital city of Jujuy Province in northwest Argentina. Also, it is the seat of the Doctor Manuel Belgrano Department and it lies near the southern end of the Humahuaca Canyon where wooded hills meet the lowlands. Its population at the 2001 census was 237,751 inhabitants, if its suburbs are included, this figure rises to around 300,000. The current mayor is Raúl Jorge, the city lies on National Route 9 that connects La Quiaca 289 km with Salta 120 km, and it is 1,525 km from Buenos Aires. Tourist destinations not far from the city are Tilcara 84 km, Humahuaca 126 km, Jujuy is located near the Andes, at the junction of the Xibi Xibi River and the Río Grande de Jujuy,1,238 meters above sea level. The weather is humid during the summer and dry and cold during the winter, temperatures vary widely between day and night. The city is the government, financial and cultural centre. The city has a city centre including the Cabildo, the Cathedral. The Gobernador Horacio Guzmán International Airport at coordinates 24°24′00″S 65°05′00″W, is 33 km southeast of the city and has flights to Buenos Aires. After previous attempts in 1565 and 1592, the current city was founded as San Salvador de Velazco en el Valle de Jujuy on April 19,1593, by Francisco de Argañarás y Murguía. The settlement initially developed as a site on the mule trade route between San Miguel de Tucumán and the silver mines in Potosí, Bolivia. Reaching its peak importance during the period, San Salvador de Jujuy declined to the status of a remote provincial capital after the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816. The town became the capital of Jujuy Province when the latter separated from Salta Province in 1834, the 1863 Jujuy earthquake leveled the town, and it recovered slowly in the following decades. Jujuy began to grow following the arrival of the Northern Central Railway in 1900 and its first institution of higher learning, the Economic Sciences Institute, was established in 1959, and was incorporated into the new National University of Jujuy in 1973. The city was the location of a number of Argentine films, including Veronico Cruz, the citys impoverished Lower Azopardo neighborhood would later give rise to Milagro Salas Indigenist Tupac Amaru Neighborhood Association. Jujuy has a very pleasant humid subtropical climate, mainly because of the altitude, summers bring warm days at 28 °C and nights at 16 °C with frequent thunderstorms. During heat waves, temperatures can sometimes reach 35 °C but these are not frequent and nights always bring significant cooling, during the winter, temperatures can reach −7 °C and snow, although rare, may fall on occasion. Precipitation is about 800 mm, which falls in the form of thunderstorms during the warmest months, the highest temperature recorded was 42.0 °C on December 11,2010 while the lowest temperature recorded was −6.9 °C on August 14,1978
2.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
3.
Chilean War of Independence
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Traditionally, the beginning of the war is dated as September 18,1810. A declaration of independence was issued by Chile on February 12,1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the more aroused Spanish American wars of independence, Independence did not have unanimous support among Chileans, who were divided between independentists and royalists. What started as a movement among elites against the colonial power. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages, the Patria Vieja, 1810–1814, the Reconquista, 1814–1817, and the Patria Nueva, 1817–1823. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, their replacement by Joseph Bonaparte, in the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died in February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion, since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plan was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina, brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had some independence agitation but minimal. In 1809, Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption that managed to destroy remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build, in June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonapartes forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council, among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado. Inspired by the May Revolution in Argentina, the movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was an old man already and moreover a criollo as opposed to a peninsular. Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court took a loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue, the date was set for September 18,1810 at 11 AM
4.
Decembrist revolution (Argentina)
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The Decembrist revolution was a military coup in the Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Juan Lavalle, returning with the troops fought in the Argentine-Brazilian War, made a coup on December 1,1828, deposed the governor Manuel Dorrego. Dorrego was captured and executed a time afterwards. The rancher Juan Manuel de Rosas organized militias that fought against Lavalle and removed him from power, however, as the coup had reignited the Argentine Civil Wars, Rosas was appointed governor of the Buenos Aires province to wage the war against the Unitarian League. José María Paz made from Córdoba a league of provinces, the conflict ended a short time after the unexpected capture of Paz, who mistook enemy troops for his own. The Argentine Civil Wars began during the Argentine War of Independence, the conflict was between the federals, who wanted to organize the country as a federation, and the Unitarians, who preferred a centralist government with capital in Buenos Aires. The last military conflict was the 1820 battle of Cepeda, since then a new constituent assembly was convened to write a new constitution, the provinces rejected the 1826 constitution because of its centralist tendencies, and the unitarian president Bernardino Rivadavia resigned. The provinces became a confederation once more, and federal Manuel Dorrego was appointed governor of Buenos Aires, both countries began the Argentine-Brazilian War for the control of the province. The peace treaty declared it an independent country, the nation of Uruguay. General Juan Lavalle was initially neither federalist nor unitarian, but after his return he began to be influenced by the unitarians, who tried to gain him for their side. The bulk of the army arrived to Buenos Aires on November 26, being in a bad shape, they lacked clothing and food, they had unpaid wages since months ago, and resented the peace treaty. There were rumors in the city that the army would revolt against the governor Dorrego, the leaders of the revolution met on December 1 to organize the coup, and Dorrego began to reconsider it. But according to the memoirs of Tomás de Iriarte, the minister Tomás Guido prevented the government from organizing a proper resistance, lavalle’s forces gathered in La Recoleta, and began to march at 3,30 in the morning, once he got the horses for the cavalry. The admiral William Brown supported the operation and prepared a siege of the Fort. Lacking any means of defense, Dorrego escaped to the countryside, a group of soldiers occupied the Buenos Aires Cabildo and another secured the police. It was unclear if the Fort would begin a resistance, but once the departure of Dorrego was known, the disputes between the revolutionaries began immediately, Lavalle had promised to be just the military leader of the operation, but now he intended to be appointed governor. The Hall of Representatives, the legislature of Buenos Aires, was closed, there was no active resistance in the city. Lacking leadership, several groups of federals left the city and sought the help of the rancher Juan Manuel de Rosas to organize the resistance against the coup
5.
Uruguayan Civil War
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The Uruguayan Civil War, also known in Spanish as the Guerra Grande, was a series of armed conflicts between the leaders of Uruguayan independence. While officially the war lasted from 1839 until 1851, it was a part of armed conflicts that started in 1832 and continued until the final military defeat of Blancos in 1904. As the population of Uruguay at that time was about 60,000 out of which 15,000 lived in Montevideo, in June 1832 Lavallejas supporters attempted to kill Rivera and on July 3 Montevideo garrison revolted, calling for Lavalleja to be made Commander-in-Chief. Rivera, with the help of Argentine Unitarians defeated Lavalleja on September 18,1832 at Tupambaé, there Lavalleja organized a new force with the support of Buenos Aires strongman Juan Manuel de Rosas and in March 1834 invaded Uruguay, just to be defeated by Rivera once again. On March 1,1835 Manuel Oribe, another of the Thirty-Three Orientals, was elected as the second President of Uruguay while Rivera remained as the commander of Army. Oribe pursued his own policies and in January 1836 removed Rivera from the command, on July 16,1836 Rivera rebelled against Oribe. To distinguish his soldiers, Oribe ordered them to wear a white armband, Rivera then ordered his supporters to wear blue, but as it quickly faded, they started using red armbands. Out of these military distinction marks quickly emerged the conservative Blancos, in order to support Oribe, Lavalleja organized an army in Argentina and moved against Rivera, who was helped by Argentine Unitarians led by General Juan Lavalle. On September 19,1836 Rivera was defeated at the Battle of Carpintería and fled to Brazil, where his troops joined the newly proclaimed Riograndense Republic. With the help of this republic Rivera invaded Uruguay in 1837 and on October 22 defeated Oribes forces at the Battle of Yucutujá, unable to deploy land troops, France looked for allied forces to fight Buenos Aires strongman Juan Manuel de Rosas on their behalf. For this purpose they supported Fructuoso Rivera and helped him to defeat Oribe, on October 24,1838 Oribe resigned and fled to Buenos Aires, and Rivera assumed power. Rosas did not recognize Rivera as a legitimate President, and sought to restore Oribe to power, Rivera and Juan Lavalle prepared troops to attack Buenos Aires. At his point, both British and French troops intervened, transforming the conflict into an international war, on December 6,1842, the Blancos under Manuel Oribe and the Colorados under Fructuoso Rivera fought the Battle of Arroyo Grande. Riveras forces were defeated, and Oribe proceeded to lay siege to Montevideo. However, Oribes siege of Montevideo lasted for nine years, the newly freed slaves, who formed a contingent 5,000 strong, and the community of foreign exiles were mostly responsible for the defense of the city. First, the British and French naval forces blockaded the port of Buenos Aires during December 1845. Then, the French and British fleets protected Montevideo from the sea, French, Spanish and Italian legionnaires, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, teamed up with the Colorados in defending the city. Also in 1846, the 73rd Regiment of Foot, sent by Britain, arrived in Montevideo, historians believe that the French and British forces intervened in the region to ensure free navigation along the Rio Parana and Rio Uruguay
6.
Argentine Civil Wars
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The Argentine Civil Wars were a series of internecine wars that took place in Argentina from 1814 to 1880. These conflicts were separate from the Argentine War of Independence, though they first arose during this period. The main antagonists were, on a level, Buenos Aires Province and the other provinces of modern Argentina. Regionalism had long marked the relationship among the provinces of what today is Argentina. In addition, Rosas was granted the sum of public power, the Argentine Confederation thus functioned, albeit amid ongoing conflicts, until the 1852 Battle of Caseros, when Rosas was deposed and exiled. The secessionist state rejected the 1853 Constitution of Argentina, and promulgated its own the following year, the most contentious issue remained the Buenos Aires Customs, which remained under the control of the city government and was the chief source of public revenue. Nations with which the Confederation maintained foreign relations, moreover, kept all embassies in Buenos Aires, the election of the intransigent Valentín Alsina further exacerbated disputes, which culminated in the Battle of Cepeda. Buenos Aires forces, led by General Bartolomé Mitre, were defeated by those led by the President of Argentina, Mitre ultimately abrogated the Pact of San José, leading to renewed civil war. These hostilities culminated in the 1861 Battle of Pavón, and to victory on the part of Mitre, President Santiago Derqui, who had been backed by Urquiza, resigned on November 4,1861. Mitre, who despite victory reaffirmed his commitment to the 1860 constitutional amendments, was elected the republics first president in 1862 and he was defeated, however, and only President Avellanedas commutation spared his life. The 1880 election of the leader of Conquest of the Desert, General Julio Roca, university of North Carolina Press,1937. Buenos Aires, Editorial Peña Lillo,1971
7.
Montevideo
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Montevideo is the capital and largest city of Uruguay. According to the 2011 census, the city proper has a population of 1,319,108 in an area of 201 square kilometres. The southernmost capital city in the Americas, Montevideo is situated in the southern coast of the country, the city was established in 1724 by a Spanish soldier, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala, as a strategic move amidst the Spanish-Portuguese dispute over the platine region. It was also under brief British rule in 1807, Montevideo hosted all the matches during the first FIFA World Cup. Montevideo is the seat of the headquarters of Mercosur and ALADI, Latin America’s leading trade blocs. Montevideo has consistently rated as having the highest quality of life of any city in Latin America. As of 2010, Montevideo was the 19th largest city economy in the continent, in 2015, it has a GDP of $40.5 billion, and a per capita of $24,400. It is classified as a Beta World City, ranking seventh in Latin America, by 2014, is also regarded as the tenth most gay-friendly city in the world, first in Latin America. It is the hub of commerce and higher education in Uruguay as well as its chief port, the city is also the financial and cultural hub of a larger metropolitan area, with a population of around 2 million. There are several explanations about the word Montevideo, all agree that Monte refers to the Cerro de Montevideo, the hill situated across the Bay of Montevideo, but there is disagreement about the etymological origin of the video part. Monte vide eu is the most widespread belief but is rejected by the majority of experts, who consider it unlikely because it involves a mix of dialects. This is the oldest Spanish document that mentions the promontory with a similar to the one that designates the city. With the passing of time, these words were unified to Montevideo, no conclusive evidence has been found to confirm this academic hypothesis nor can it be asserted with certainty which were the other five mounts observable before the Cerro. Ovidio was the bishop of the Portuguese city of Braga, where he was always revered. Between 1680 and 1683, Portugal founded the city of Colonia do Sacramento in the region across the bay from Buenos Aires and this city met with no resistance from the Spanish until 1723, when they began to place fortifications on the elevations around Montevideo Bay. On 22 November 1723, Field Marshal Manuel de Freitas da Fonseca of Portugal built the Montevieu fort, a Spanish expedition was sent from Buenos Aires, organized by the Spanish governor of that city, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. There was also one significant early Italian resident by the name of Jorge Burgues, a census of the citys inhabitants was performed in 1724 and then a plan was drawn delineating the city and designating it as San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo, later shortened to Montevideo. The census counted fifty families of Galician and Canary Islands origin, more than 1000 indigenous, mostly Guaraní, in 1776, Spain made Montevideo its main naval base for the South Atlantic, with authority over the Argentine coast, Fernando Po, and the Falklands
8.
Mendoza, Argentina
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Mendoza is the capital of the province of Mendoza in Argentina. It is located in the part of the province, in a region of foothills and high plains. As of the 2010 census, Mendoza had a population of 115,041 with a population of 1,055,679. Ruta Nacional 7, the road running between Buenos Aires and Santiago, runs through Mendoza. The city is a frequent stopover for climbers on their way to Aconcagua and for adventure travelers interested in mountaineering, hiking, horse riding, rafting, in the winter, skiers come to the city for easy access to the Andes. Two of the industries of the Mendoza area are olive oil production. The region around Greater Mendoza is the largest wine producing area in Latin America, on March 2,1561, Pedro del Castillo founded the city and named it Ciudad de Mendoza del Nuevo Valle de La Rioja after the governor of Chile, Don García Hurtado de Mendoza. Before the 1560s the area was populated by tribes known as the Huarpes and Puelches, the Huarpes devised a system of irrigation that was later developed by the Spanish. This allowed for an increase in population that might not have otherwise occurred, the system is still evident today in the wide trenches, which run along all city streets, watering the approximately 100,000 trees that line every street in Mendoza. It is estimated that fewer than 80 Spanish settlers lived in the area before 1600, but later prosperity increased due to the use of indigenous and slave labor, when nearby rivers were tapped as a source of irrigation in 1788 agricultural production increased. The extra revenues generated from this, and the ensuing additional trade with Buenos Aires and it was from Mendoza that San Martin, other Argentinian patriots and Chilean patriots organized the army with which they won the independence of Chile and Peru. Mendoza suffered an earthquake in 1861 that killed at least 5,000 people. The city was rebuilt, incorporating innovative urban designs that would tolerate such seismic activity. Mendoza was rebuilt with large squares and wider streets and sidewalks than any city in Argentina. Avenue Bartolomé Mitre and additional small squares are examples of that design, tourism, wine production, and more recently the exploitation of hard commodities such as oil and uranium ensure Mendozas status as a key regional center. Important suburbs such as Godoy Cruz, Guaymallén, Las Heras, Luján de Cuyo and Maipú have in recent decades far outpaced the city proper in population. Comprising half the population of 212,000 in 1947. Mendoza has several museums, including the Museo Cornelio Moyano, a history museum
9.
Libertadores
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Libertadores refers to the principal leaders of the Latin American wars of independence from Spain and Portugal. They are named that way in contrast with the Conquistadors, who were so far the only Spanish/Portuguese peoples recorded in the South American history and they were largely bourgeois criollos influenced by liberalism and in most cases with military training in the metropole. The flags of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador follow Francisco de Mirandas design of 1806, also, Bolivia was named after Bolivar, who in turn was president of Colombia, Bolivia and twice of Venezuela. San Martín served as President Protector of Peru, the names of libertadores are used all over South America to name anything from towns and places to institutions and sports clubs. Also, the most prestigious club football competition in South America is named the Copa Libertadores in their honour. List of national founders Father of the Nation Founding Fathers of the United States Statues of the Liberators Robert Harvey, Liberators, Latin Americas Struggle for Independence. The Emancipation of Peru, British Eyewitness Accounts,2014, Liberators and Heroes of South America. The Liberators, A Study of Independence Movements in Spanish America, new York, Frederick A. Praeger,1968. Sucre, Bolívar y San Martín Argentine Ministry of Economy Copa Libertadores
United Provinces of South America
