1.
Marquess
–
A marquess is a nobleman of hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The term is used to translate equivalent Asian styles, as in imperial China. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling of the aristocratic title of this rank is marquess. In Scotland the French spelling is sometimes used. In Great Britain and Ireland, the ranks below a duke. A woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness /ˌmɑːrʃəˈnɛs/ in Great Britain, the dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate. The theoretical distinction between a marquess and other titles has, since the Middle Ages, faded into obscurity. In times past, the distinction between a count and a marquess was that the land of a marquess, called a march, was on the border of the country, while a land, called a county. As a result of this, a marquess was trusted to defend and fortify against potentially hostile neighbours and was more important. The title is ranked below that of a duke, which was restricted to the royal family. In the German lands, a Margrave was a ruler of an immediate Imperial territory, German rulers did not confer the title of marquis, holders of marquisates in Central Europe were largely associated with the Italian and Spanish crowns. The word entered the English language from the Old French marchis in the late 13th or early 14th century, the French word was derived from marche, itself descended from the Middle Latin marca, from which the modern English words march and mark also descend. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling for an English aristocrat of this rank is marquess. The word marquess is unusual in English, ending in -ess but referring to a male, a woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness in Great Britain and Ireland, or a marquise /mɑːrˈkiːz/ elsewhere in Europe. The dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate, the honorific prefix The Most Honourable is a form of address that precedes the name of a marquess or marchioness in the United Kingdom. The rank of marquess was a late introduction to the British peerage, no marcher lords had the rank of marquess. The following list may still be incomplete, feminine forms follow after a slash, many languages have two words, one for the modern marquess and one for the original margrave. Even where neither title was used domestically, such duplication to describe foreign titles can exist
Marquess
–
A 17th-century engraving of a marquis in the robe worn during his creation ceremony.
Marquess
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
2.
Governor of Puerto Rico
–
The governor of Puerto Rico is the head of government of Puerto Rico and, by its nature, constitutes the executive branch of the government of the island. He is also the commander-in-chief of the military forces, the Puerto Rico National Guard. Since 1948, the governor has been elected by the people of Puerto Rico, prior to that, the governor was appointed either by the King of Spain or the President of the United States. Article IV of the Constitution of Puerto Rico vests the executive power on the governor, law No.104 of 1956 empowers him with the faculty to delegate functions. These two faculties in conjunction allow the governor to delegate most of his functions while continuing to be the maximum officer, most of the governors functions are delegated to the Chief of Staff, who is charged with managing and overseeing all the executive departments and almost all executive agencies. The budget is delegated to the Director of the Office of Management, historically, however, governors tend to be heavily involved in the day-to-day operations of the government in both internal and external affairs. It is believed that the rank was apparently established through democratic means. His importance in the tribe was determined by the size of his rather than his warlord skills. Agüeybaná I is the most-well known cacique as he was the one governing all others when the Spaniards arrived in 1493 although many others existed during his period, as well as before and after him. Juan Ponce de León was appointed as the first Governor of Puerto Rico in 1508, in 1579, after several others had already served as governor, Juan Ponce de León II became the first person born in Puerto Rico to assume, temporarily, the governorship of Puerto Rico. He served until, who assumed the governorship of the island that same year, in 1914 Howard Lewis Kern from Charles City, Iowa was appointed by Woodrow Wilson to be the attorney general. The acting governor fell ill and Kern served as the acting governor off and on from 1914 to 1916, during that time Governor Kern focused on cleaning up the riff-raff, educating women and children, providing public health and welfare. Kern was partner in starting the International Telephone and Telegraph Company from the failing Puerto Rican Radio and his wife, Edna Francis and their first daughter, Myrna Quail resided in the governors mansion across the street from Fortaleza. Their second daughter, Virginia was born in Newark after their return to the north, ref. cited-Whos Who in America and the San Juan Islander Newspaper 1916-1924. It is believed that Juan Bernardo Huyke may have served as an interim or acting governor in the absence of Kern, who resigned in 1924. Emmet Montgomery Reily and Horace Mann Towner also served in the appointment of governorship, in 1946, President Harry Truman appointed Jesús T. Piñero to the governors seat. Piñero remained in office until 1948, when Puerto Ricans were allowed to choose their governor for the first time in history, in 1948, Luis Muñoz Marín became the first Puerto Rican elected Governor of Puerto Rico. The governor is head of the government of Puerto Rico and he has the power to veto any number of projects that the Puerto Rican Legislature wishes to pass
Governor of Puerto Rico
–
La Fortaleza is the oldest Governor's Mansion in continuous use in the Western Hemisphere
Governor of Puerto Rico
–
Flag of the Governor
3.
Crown of Castile
–
The title of King of Castile remained in use by the Habsburg rulers during the 16th and 17th centuries. Charles I was King of Aragon, Majorca, Valencia, and Sicily, in the early 18th century, Philip of Bourbon won the War of the Spanish Succession and imposed unification policies over the Crown of Aragon, supporters of their enemies. This unified the Crown of Aragon and the Crown of Castile into the kingdom of Spain, even though the Nueva Planta decrees did not formally abolish the Crown of Castile, the country of was called Spain by both contemporaries and historians. King of Castile also remains part of the title of Felipe VI of Spain. The Kingdom of León arose out of the Kingdom of Asturias, the Kingdom of Castile appeared initially as a county of the Kingdom of León. From the second half of the 10th century to the first half of the 11th century it changed hands between León and the Kingdom of Navarre, in the 11th century it became a kingdom in its own right. The two kingdoms had been united twice previously, From 1037 until 1065 under Ferdinand I of León, upon his death his kingdoms passed to his sons, León to Alfonso VI, Castile to Sancho II, and Galicia to García. From 1072 until 1157 under Alfonso VI, Urraca, and Alfonso VII, from 1111 until 1126 Galicia was separate from the union under Alfonso VII. In 1157 the kingdoms were divided between Alfonsos sons, with Ferdinand II receiving León and Sancho III Castile, from then on the two kingdoms were united under the name of the Kingdom of León and Castile, or simply as the Crown of Castile. Ferdinand III later conquered the Guadalquivir Valley, while his son Alfonso X conquered the Kingdom of Murcia from Al-Andalus, the heir to the throne has been titled Prince of Asturias since the 14th century. Almost immediately after the union of the two kingdoms under Ferdinand III, the parliaments of Castile and León were united. It was divided into three estates, which corresponded with the nobility, the church and the cities, and included representation from Castile, León, Galicia, Toledo, Navarre, under Alfonso X, most sessions of the Cortes of both kingdoms were held jointly. The Cortes of 1258 in Valladolid comprised representatives of Castile, Extremadura and León, subsequent Cortes were celebrated separately, for example in 1301 that of Castile in Burgos and that of León in Zamora, but the representatives demanded that the parliaments be reunited from then on. These laws continued to be in force until 1889, when a new Spanish civil code, in the 13th century there were many languages spoken in the Kingdoms of León and Castile among them Castilian, Leonese, Basque and Galician-Portuguese. But, as the century progressed, Castilian gained increasing prominence as the language of culture, henceforth all public documents were written in Castilian, likewise all translations of Arabic legal and government documents were made into Castilian instead of Latin. In 1492, under the Catholic Monarchs, the first edition of the Grammar of the Castilian Language by Antonio de Nebrija was published, Castilian was eventually carried to the Americas in the 16th century by the conquistadors. Because of Castilians importance in the land ruled by the Spanish Crown, on the death of Alfonso XI a dynastic conflict started between his sons, the Infantes Peter and Henry, Count of Trastámara, which became entangled in the Hundred Years War. Alfonso XI had married Maria of Portugal with whom he had his heir, however, the King also had many illegitimate children with Eleanor of Guzman, among them the above-mentioned Henry, who disputed Peters right to the throne once the latter became king
Crown of Castile
–
The Recapture of Granada (F. Padilla)
Crown of Castile
–
Royal Standard
Crown of Castile
–
Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus)
Crown of Castile
–
"The Comuneros Padilla, Bravo and Maldonado in the Patíbulo ", by
Antonio Gisbert, 1860.
4.
Havana
–
Havana is the capital city, largest city, province, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet, the sluggish Almendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay. King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City in 1592, walls as well as forts were built to protect the old city. The sinking of the U. S. battleship Maine in Havanas harbor in 1898 was the cause of the Spanish–American War. Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one, Old Havana, Vedado and the suburban districts. The city is the center of the Cuban government, and home to various ministries, headquarters of businesses, the current mayor is Marta Hernández of the Communist Party of Cuba. In 2009, the city/province had the third highest income in the country, the city attracts over a million tourists annually, the Official Census for Havana reports that in 2010 the city was visited by 1,176,627 international tourists, a 20% increase from 2005. Old Havana was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982, the city is also noted for its history, culture, architecture and monuments. As typical of Cuba, Havana also features a tropical climate, in May 2015, Havana was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, La Paz, Durban, Beirut, and Kuala Lumpur. Most native settlements became the site of Spanish colonial cities retaining their original Taíno names, an alternate theory is that Habana is derived from the Middle Dutch word havene, referring to a harbour, etymologically related to the English word haven. All attempts to found a city on Cubas south coast failed, however, an early map of Cuba drawn in 1514 places the town at the mouth of this river. The town that became Havana finally originated adjacent to what was then called Puerto de Carenas, the quality of this natural bay, which now hosts Havanas harbor, warranted this change of location. Pánfilo de Narváez gave Havana – the sixth town founded by the Spanish on Cuba – its name, the name combines San Cristóbal, patron saint of Havana. Shortly after the founding of Cubas first cities, the served as little more than a base for the Conquista of other lands. Havana began as a port, and suffered regular attacks by buccaneers, pirates. The first attack and resultant burning of the city was by the French corsair Jacques de Sores in 1555, ships from all over the New World carried products first to Havana, in order to be taken by the fleet to Spain. The thousands of ships gathered in the bay also fueled Havanas agriculture and manufacture, since they had to be supplied with food, water. On December 20,1592, King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City, later on, the city would be officially designated as Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies by the Spanish Crown
Havana
–
Clockwise from top left:
El Capitolio,
Museum of the Revolution, view of
Malecón, lighthouse at
El Morro,
Havana Cathedral,
Plaza Vieja and the
Great Theatre of Havana
Havana
–
Coat of arms
Havana
–
17th century depiction of Havana
Havana
–
French pirate
Jacques de Sores looting and burning Havana in 1555
5.
Captaincy General of Cuba
–
The restructuring of the Captaincy General in 1764 was the first example of the Bourbon Reforms in America. The changes included adding the provinces of Florida and Louisiana and granting more autonomy for these provinces and this later change was carried out by the Count of Floridablanca under Charles III to strengthen the Spanish position vis-a-vis the British in the Caribbean. A new governor-captain general based in Havana oversaw the administration of the new district, the local governors of the larger Captaincy General had previously been overseen in political and military matters by the president of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo. This audiencia retained oversight of judicial affairs until the establishment of new audiencias in Puerto Príncipe, since the 16th century the island of Cuba had been under the control of the governor-captain general of Santo Domingo, who was at the same time, president of the audiencia there. He oversaw the governor and the Santo Domingo Audiencia heard appeals from the island. This legal move removed Velázquez and the settlers from under the authority of Colón and it was a precedent that would come back to haunt Velázquez during Hernán Cortéss conquest of Mexico. Other cities were founded under Velázquez, Bayamo in 1513, Santísima Trinidad, Sancti Spíritus and San Cristóbal de La Habana in 1514, Puerto Príncipe. After the conquest of Mexico, Cuba experienced an exodus of settlers, the Church played an important role in the Spanish settlement of the Americas. Furthermore, since governors, as representatives of the King, oversaw church administration due to the right of patronage. The first diocese was established in 1518 in Baracoa and was suffragan to the Diocese of Seville. The seat of the Diocese was transferred to Santiago de Cuba in 1522, in 1520 Pope Leo X established the short-lived Diocese of Santiago de la Florida. In 1546 the Diocese of Santo Domingo was elevated to an Archdiocese, in 1607 Philip III created the Captaincy General of Cuba as part of larger plans to defend the Caribbean against foreign threats. The first captain general was Pedro Valdés, around the same time other captaincies general were established in Puerto Rico and Central America. Cuba was divided into two governorships with capitals in Havana and Santiago de Cuba, the governor of Havana was Captain General of the island. In 1650 Cuba received an influx of refugees when the British conquered Jamaica. In 1756 the construction of ships for the Royal Navy began with the establishment of an Intendancy of the Navy was established in Havana, which functioned as a royal shipyard. The British conquest of the island in 1762 during the Seven Years War proved to be a point in the history of Cuba. The British captured Havana after a siege and controlled the western part of the island for a year
Captaincy General of Cuba
Captaincy General of Cuba
–
Flag
Captaincy General of Cuba
–
A Spanish frigate towing a British ship to Havana. Oil on canvas, c. 1770.
6.
Spaniards
–
Within Spain there are a number of nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the countrys complex history and diverse culture. There are several commonly spoken languages, most notably Basque. There are many populations outside Spain with ancestors who emigrated from Spain, the Roman Republic conquered Iberia during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. As a result of Roman colonization, the majority of languages, with the exception of Basque. The Germanic Vandals and Suebi, with part of the Iranian Alans under King Respendial conquered the peninsula in 409 AD. The Iberian Peninsula was conquered and brought under the rule of the Arab Umayyads in 711 and by the Berber North African dynasties the Almohads, in the early 16th century the Kingdom of Navarre was also conquered. In parallel, a wave of emigration began to the Americas began with over 16 million people emigrating to the Americas during the colonial period. In the post-colonial period, a further 3.5 million Spanish left for the Americas, particularly Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, as a result, Spanish-descendants in Latin America number in the hundreds of millions. Spain is home to one of the largest communities of Romani people, the Spanish Roma, which belong to the Iberian Kale subgroup, are a formerly-nomadic community, which spread across Western Asia, North Africa, and Europe, first reaching Spain in the 15th century. The population of Spain is became increasingly diverse due to recent immigration, the earliest modern humans inhabiting Spain are believed to have been Neolithic peoples who may have arrived in the Iberian Peninsula as early as 35, 000–40,000 years ago. In more recent times the Iberians are believed to have arrived or developed in the region between the 4th millennium BC and the 3rd millennium BC, initially settling along the Mediterranean coast, celts settled in Spain during the Iron Age. Some of those tribes in North-central Spain, which had contact with the Iberians, are called Celtiberians. In addition, a known as the Tartessians and later Turdetanians inhabited southwestern Spain. The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians successively founded trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast over a period of several centuries, the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians and Romans was fought mainly in what is now Spain and Portugal. The Roman Republic conquered Iberia during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC transformed most of the region into a series of Latin-speaking provinces, hispania emerged as an important part of the Roman Empire and produced notable historical figures such as Trajan, Hadrian, Seneca and Quintilian. The Germanic Vandals and Suebi, with part of the Iranian Alans under King Respendial, the Suebi became the first Germanic kingdom to convert officially to Roman Catholicism in 447 AD. under king Rechiar. After two centuries of domination by the Visigothic Kingdom, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by a Muslim force under Tariq Bin Ziyad in 711 and this army consisted mainly ethnic Berbers from the Ghomara tribe, which were reinforced by Arabs from Syria once the conquest was complete. Muslim Iberia became part of the Umayyad Caliphate and would be known as Al-Andalus, the Berbers of Al Andalus revolted as early as 740 AD, halting Arab expansion across the Pyrenees into France
Spaniards
–
Lady of Elche, a piece of
Iberian sculpture from the 4th century BC
Spaniards
–
1st row:
Isabella I of Castile
Spaniards
–
A young
Hispano-Roman nobleman from the 1st century BC
Spaniards
–
People of
Granada
7.
Explorer
–
Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources. Exploration occurs in all animal species, including humans. In human history, its most dramatic rise was during the Age of Discovery when European explorers sailed and charted much of the rest of the world for a variety of reasons. Since then, major explorations after the Age of Discovery have occurred for reasons mostly aimed at information discovery, in scientific research, exploration is one of three purposes of empirical research. The term is used metaphorically. For example, an individual may speak of exploring the Internet, sexuality, the Phoenicians traded throughout the Mediterranean Sea and Asia Minor though many of their routes are still unknown today. The presence of tin in some Phoenician artifacts suggests that they may have traveled to Britain, according to Virgils Aeneid and other ancient sources, the legendary Queen Dido was a Phoenician from Tyre who sailed to North Africa and founded the city of Carthage. Hanno the Navigator, a Carthaginean navigator explored the Western Coast of Africa, the Greek explorer from Marseille, Pytheas was the first to circumnavigate Great Britain, explore Germany, and reach Thule. Africa Exploration The Romans organized expeditions to cross the Sahara desert with five different routes, through the western Sahara, toward the Niger river, through the Tibesti mountains, toward Lake Chad and actual Nigeria through the Nile river, toward actual Uganda. Though the western coast of Africa, toward the Canary Islands, through the Red Sea, toward actual Somalia and perhaps Tanzania. All these expeditions were supported by legionaries and had mainly a commercial purpose, only the one done by emperor Nero seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of Ethiopia or Nubia, in 62 AD two legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river. One of the reasons of the explorations was to get gold using the camel to transport it. The explorations near the African western and eastern coasts were supported by Roman ships, Romans organized several explorations also in Northern Europe, and as far as Asia up to China. 30 BC-640 AD With the acquisition of Ptolemaic Egypt, The Romans begin trading with India, the Empire now has a direct connection to the Spice trade Egypt had established beginning in 118 BC.100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese relations begin. Ptolemy writes of the Golden Chersonese and the port of Kattigara, now identified as Óc Eo in northern Vietnam, then part of Jiaozhou. The Chinese historical texts describe Roman embassies, from a land they called Daqin, 2nd century Roman traders reach Siam, Cambodia, Sumatra, and Java. 161 An embassy from Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius or his successor Marcus Aurelius reaches Chinese Emperor Huan of Han at Luoyang, when Zhang returned to China in 125 BC, he reported on his visits to Dayuan, Kangju, and Daxia. Zhang described Dayuan and Daxia as agricultural and urban countries like China, from about 800 Ad to 1040 AD, the Vikings explored Europe and much of the Western Northern Hemisphere via rivers and oceans
Explorer
–
Explorer
Kazimierz Nowak
Explorer
–
1982 expedition in
Pamir Mountains to
Tartu Ülikool 350 and
J. F. Parrot.
8.
Conquistador
–
Conquistadors /kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz/ is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and they colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa, human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa. The spread of diseases, including smallpox, flu and typhus. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports, by the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one-fifth of Spains total budget. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms and their units would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans and they not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards, Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian, many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592, german-born Nikolaus Federmann, Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The origin of people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband, women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada, Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children, European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, Kings army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers
Conquistador
–
Conquistadors and their native
Tlaxcalan allies enter Tenochtitlan
Conquistador
–
The surrender of
Granada in 1492. The last
Moorish sultan of Granada,
Muhammad XII, before
Ferdinand and Isabella.
Conquistador
–
Christopher Columbus 's first landing in the Americas in 1492
Conquistador
–
Hernando De Soto and Spanish Conquistadores seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.
9.
Monarchy of Spain
–
The Monarchy of Spain, constitutionally referred to as the Crown, is a constitutional institution and historic office of Spain. It used to be called the Hispanic Monarchy. The monarchy comprises the monarch, his or her family. The Spanish monarchy is represented by King Felipe VI, his wife Queen Letizia, and their daughters Leonor, Princess of Asturias, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 reestablished a constitutional monarchy as the form of government for Spain. The 1978 constitution affirmed the role of the King of Spain as the personification and embodiment of the Spanish State, constitutionally, the king is the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces. According to the constitution, the monarch is also instrumental in promoting relations with the nations of its historical community, the King of Spain serves as the president of the Ibero-American States Organization, purportedly representing over 700,000,000 people in twenty-four member nations worldwide. In 2008, Juan Carlos I was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, a dynastic marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united Spain in the 15th century. The last pretender of the Crown of the Byzantine Empire, Andreas Palaiologos, sold his title to Ferdinand II of Aragon. However, there is no evidence that any Spanish monarch has used the Byzantine imperial titles, the Spanish Empire became one of the first global powers as Isabella and Ferdinand funded Christopher Columbuss exploratory voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. This led to the discovery of America, which became the focus of Spanish colonization, in 2010, the budget for the Spanish monarchy was 7.4 million euros, one of the lowest public expenditures for the institution of monarchy in Europe. One of the earliest influential dynasties was the House of Jiménez which united much of Christian Iberia under its leadership in the 11th century. From Sancho III of Navarre until Urraca of León and Castile, the Jiménez rulers sought to bring their kingdoms into the European mainstream and often engaged in cross-Pyrenees alliances and marriages, and became patrons to Cluniac Reforms. Urracas son and heir Alfonso VII of León and Castile, the first of the Spanish branch of the Burgundy Family, was the last to claim the title of Spain. The Castilian Civil War ended with the death of King Peter at the hands of his illegitimate half-brother Henry, Henry II became the first of the House of Trastámara to rule over a Spanish kingdom. King Peters heiress, his granddaughter Catherine of Lancaster, married Henry III, reuniting the dynasties in the person of their son, each kingdom retained its basic structure. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs conquered the Kingdom of Granada in southern Spain and this date marks the unification of Spain. The territories of the Spanish empire overseas were dependencies of the crown of Castile, in the early 16th century, the Spanish monarchy controlled several territories in Europe under the Habsburg King Charles I, son of Queen Joanna of Castile. His reign ushered in the Spanish Golden Age a period of colonial expansion
Monarchy of Spain
–
King of Spain
Monarchy of Spain
–
Coat of arms of the King of Spain
Monarchy of Spain
–
Statue of
Queen Urraca in the
Parque del Buen Retiro in
Madrid. Urraca succeeded as queen in 1108, becoming Europe's second regnant female monarch after
Irene I of the Byzantine Empire.
Monarchy of Spain
–
A copy of the Spanish Constitution, signed by
King Juan Carlos, is held at the Palace of the
Cortes.
10.
Spanish Florida
–
Spanish Florida refers to the Spanish territory of La Florida, which was the first major European land claim and attempted settlement in North America during the European Age of Discovery. La Florida formed part of the Captaincy General of Cuba, the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Spains claim to this vast area was based on several wide-ranging expeditions mounted during the 16th century. However, Spain never exercised control over La Florida much beyond several settlements and forts which were predominantly located in present-day Florida. Spanish Florida was established in 1513, when Juan Ponce de León claimed peninsular Florida for Spain during the first official European expedition to North America, the presidio of St. Spanish control of the Florida peninsula was made possible by the collapse of native cultures during the 17th century. Several Native American groups had been long-established residents of Florida, during the mid-1700s, small bands of Creek and other Native American refugees began moving south into Spanish Florida after having been forced off their lands by English settlements and raids. They were later joined by African-Americans fleeing slavery in nearby colonies and these newcomers - plus perhaps a few surviving descendants of indigenous Florida peoples - eventually coalesced into a new Seminole culture. The extent of Spanish Florida began to shrink in the 1600s, between disease, poor management, and ill-timed hurricanes, several Spanish attempts to establish new settlements in La Florida ended in failure. The War of Jenkins Ear included a British attack on St. Augustine, at the conclusion of the war, the northern boundary of Spanish Florida was set near the current northern border of modern-day Florida. Great Britain temporarily gained control of Florida beginning in 1763 as a result of the Anglo-Spanish War, France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803. The U. S. claimed that the transaction included West Florida, as with earlier American incursions into Florida, Spain protested this invasion but could not defend its territory, and instead opened diplomatic negotiations seeking a peaceful transfer of land. By the terms of the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819, Spanish Florida ceased to exist in 1821, anonymous Portuguese sailors were likely the first Europeans to map the southeastern portion of the future United States. They kept their discoveries secret, however, and did not attempt to establish settlements or explore very far inland, in 1512 Juan Ponce de León, governor of Puerto Rico, received royal permission to search for land north of Cuba. On March 3,1513, his expedition departed from Punta Aguada, Puerto Rico, in late March, he spotted a small island but did not land. On April 2, Ponce de León spotted the east coast of the Florida peninsula and went ashore the next day at an exact location that has been lost to time. Assuming that he had found an island, he claimed the land for Spain and named it La Florida, because it was the season of Pascua Florida. After briefly exploring the area around their landing site, the returned to their ships and sailed south to map the coast. The expedition followed Floridas coastline all the way around the Florida Keys, popular legend has it that Ponce de León was searching for the Fountain of Youth when he discovered Florida. Ponce de León probably was not the first Spaniard to reach Florida, evidence suggests that Spanish raiders from the Caribbean had conducted small secret expeditions to Florida to capture Indian slaves
Spanish Florida
–
Florida from the 1502
Cantino planisphere
Spanish Florida
–
Royal standard of Castile (1503) Cross of Burgundy (1565) 1st National flag of Spain (1785)
Spanish Florida
–
Juan Ponce de León (
Santervás de Campos,
Valladolid,
Spain). He was one of the first Europeans to arrive to the current
U.S. because led the first European expedition to Florida, which he named.
Spanish Florida
–
Spanish colonization of the Americas
11.
Fountain of Youth
–
The Fountain of Youth is a spring that supposedly restores the youth of anyone who drinks or bathes in its waters. Tales of such a fountain have been recounted across the world for thousands of years, appearing in writings by Herodotus, the Alexander romance, and the stories of Prester John. The legend became particularly prominent in the 16th century, when it was attached to the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, first Governor of Puerto Rico. According to a combination of New World and Eurasian elements, Ponce de León was searching for the Fountain of Youth when he traveled to what is now Florida in 1513. The legend says that Ponce de León was told by Native Americans that the Fountain of Youth was in Bimini, Herodotus mentions a fountain containing a special kind of water in the land of the Macrobians, which gives the Macrobians their exceptional longevity. The water was so weak, they said, that nothing would float in it, neither wood, nor any lighter substance, if the account of this fountain be true, it would be their constant use of the water from it which makes them so long-lived. The servant in that story is in turn derived from Middle Eastern legends of Al-Khidr, arabic and Aljamiado versions of the Alexander Romance were very popular in Spain during and after the period of Moorish rule, and would have been known to the explorers who journeyed to America. The people in the pool are youthful and naked, and after a while they leave it, there are countless indirect sources for the tale as well. An additional hint may have taken from the account of the Pool of Bethesda in the Gospel of John. According to legend, the Spanish heard of Bimini from the Arawaks in Hispaniola, Cuba, the Caribbean islanders described a mythical land of Beimeni or Beniny, a land of wealth and prosperity, which became conflated with the fountain legend. By the time of Ponce de Leon, the land was thought to be located northwest towards the Bahamas, the natives were probably referring to the area occupied by the Maya. This land also became confused with the Boinca or Boyuca mentioned by Juan de Solis and it was this Boinca that originally held a legendary fountain of youth, rather than Bimini itself. Sequene, an Arawak chief from Cuba, purportedly was unable to resist the lure of Bimini and he gathered a troupe of adventurers and sailed north, never to return. Found within the salt water swamp that covers 6 kilometres of the shoreline of North Bimini is The Healing Hole. During outgoing tides, these channels pump cool, mineral-laden fresh water into the pool, because this well was carved out of the limestone rock by ground water thousands of years ago it is especially high in calcium and magnesium. Magnesium, which has shown to improve longevity and reproductive health, is present in large quantities in the sea water. The legend of Bimini and its waters was widespread among the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean. The Italian-born chronicler Peter Martyr told of them in a letter to the pope in 1513, in the 16th century the story of the Fountain of Youth became attached to the biography of the conquistador Juan Ponce de León
Fountain of Youth
–
The Fountain of Youth, 1546 painting by
Lucas Cranach the Elder.
Fountain of Youth
–
Persian miniature depicting
Khidr and
Alexander watching the Water of Life revive a salted fish
Fountain of Youth
–
French 14th-century ivory mirror case with a Fountain of Youth
Fountain of Youth
–
Juan Ponce de León and their explorers in
Florida looking for the Fountain of youth, according to a drawing of the nineteenth century German.
12.
Southwest Florida
–
Southwest Florida is the region along the south west gulf coast of the U. S. State of Florida. For some purposes, the counties of DeSoto, Glades, and Hendry. The region includes four areas, the North Port-Bradenton-Sarasota MSA, the Cape Coral-Fort Myers MSA, the Naples-Marco Island MSA. The most populous county in the region is Lee County, inland counties are notably rural, with the primary economic driver being agriculture. Important products grown in area include tomatoes, beef, sugarcane. Agricultural harvesting in Southwest Florida employs approximately 16,000 seasonal workers,90 percent of which are thought to be migrants, each county in the region has its own county government. Within each county, there are also self-governing cities, towns, the remaining majority of land in each county is controlled directly by the county government. It is also common for incorporated municipalities to contract county services in order to save costs. The region is designated as one of Floridas 4 districts for the Committee of Southern Historic Preservation, the district has been represented by Tommy Stolly since 2013. Southwest Florida is served by major highways, including the Tamiami Trail. Long-term cooperative infrastructure planning is coordinated by the Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council, and in heavily populated Lee County, greyhound Lines serves several locations in Southwest Florida, including Bradenton, Fort Myers, Naples, Port Charlotte, Punta Gorda and Sarasota. The areas secondary airport, Sarasota-Bradenton International Airport, served 1.34 million passengers in 2009, Seminole Gulf Railway provides freight services throughout Southwest Florida. Tourism is an economic driver in the area. In addition, many residents live in the area during the winter months. Armands Circle on St. Armands Key Attractions including, Edison and Ford Winter Estates in Fort Myers Lake Okeechobee renowned for fishing, Naples Botanical Garden Naples Zoo at Caribbean Gardens Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation where the Seminole nation operates a sizable casino. The university belongs to the 12-campus State University System of Florida, FGCU competes in the Atlantic Sun Conference in NCAA Division I sports. The following table shows the teams and major NCAA Division 1 teams that play in Southwest Florida. Florida is the home for Major League Baseball spring training
Southwest Florida
–
Fishermen wading in
Fort Myers Beach.
Southwest Florida
–
Map of Southwest Florida
Southwest Florida
–
Bonita Beach
Southwest Florida
–
Edison's winter home.
13.
Calusa
–
The Calusa were a Native American people of Floridas southwest coast. Calusa society developed from that of peoples of the Everglades region. Previous indigenous cultures had lived in the area for thousands of years, at the time of European contact in the 16th and 17th centuries, the historic Calusa were the people of the Caloosahatchee culture. They are notable for having developed a culture based on estuarine fisheries rather than agriculture. Calusa territory reached from Charlotte Harbor to Cape Sable, all of present-day Charlotte and Lee counties, and may have included the Florida Keys at times. They had the highest population density of south Florida, estimates of population at the time of European contact range from 10,000 to several times that. Calusa influence may have extended to the Ais tribe on the central east coast of Florida. Early Spanish and French sources referred to the tribe, its town and its chief as Calos, Calus, Caalus. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, a Spaniard held captive by the Calusa in the 16th century, by the early 19th century, Anglo-Americans in the area used the term Calusa for the people. It is based on the Creek and Mikasuki ethnonym for the people who had lived around the Caloosahatchee River. Juan Rogel, a Jesuit missionary to the Calusa in the late 1560s, noted the name as Carlos. Rogel also stated that the name was Caalus, and that the Spanish had changed it to Carlos. Marquardt quotes a statement from the 1570s that the Bay of Carlos, in the Indian language is called Escampaba, for the cacique of this town, who afterward called himself Carlos in devotion to the Emperor. Escampaba may be related to a place named Stapaba, which was identified in the area on an early 16th-century map, paleo-Indians entered what is now Florida at least 12,000 years ago. By around 5000 BC, people started living in villages near wetlands, favored sites were likely occupied for multiple generations. Floridas climate had reached current conditions and the sea had risen close to its present level by about 3000 BC, People commonly occupied both fresh and saltwater wetlands. Because of their reliance on shellfish, they accumulated large shell middens during this period, many people lived in large villages with purpose-built earthwork mounds, such as those at the Horrs Island. People began creating fired pottery in Florida by 2000 BC, by about 500 BC, the Archaic culture, which had been fairly uniform across Florida, began to devolve into more distinct regional cultures
Calusa
–
Diorama of a Calusa chief at the
FMNH
Calusa
–
Approximate Calusa core area (red) and political domain (blue)
Calusa
–
Calusa carving of an alligator's head
Calusa
–
De Soto route and indigenous groups at time
14.
Interred
–
Burial or interment is the ritual act of placing a dead person or animal, sometimes with objects, into the ground. This is accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, humans have been burying their dead for at least 100,000 years. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead, sometimes objects or grave goods are buried with the body, which may be dressed in fancy or ceremonial garb. Depending on the culture, the way the body is positioned may have great significance, the location of the burial may be determined taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep the close to provide guidance to the living. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries, most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones, which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons, sometimes multiple bodies are buried in a single grave either by choice, due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once. Alternatives to burial may include cremation, burial at sea, promession, cryopreservation, some human cultures may bury the remains of beloved animals. Humans are not the species which bury their dead, the practice has been observed in chimpanzees, elephants. Evidence suggests that the Neanderthals were the first human species to practice burial behavior and intentionally bury their dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools, exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons, the earliest undisputed human burial dates back 100,000 years. Human skeletal remains stained with red ochre were discovered in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh, a variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons. Prehistoric cemeteries are referred to by the neutral term grave field. After death, a body will decay, Burial is not necessarily a public health requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the WHO advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial, human burial practices are the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate respect for the dead. Cultures vary in their mode of respect, some reasons follow, Respect for the physical remains. If left lying on top of the ground, scavengers may eat the corpse, in Tibet, Sky burials return the remains to the cycle of life and acknowledge the body as food, a core tenet of some Buddhist practices. Burial can be seen as an attempt to bring closure to the deceaseds family, psychologists in some Western Judeo-Christian quarters, as well as the US funeral industry, claim that by interring a body away from plain view the pain of losing a loved one can be lessened
Interred
–
Underwater
funeral in
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea from an edition with drawings by
Alphonse de Neuville and
Édouard Riou
Interred
–
Reconstruction of the
Mesolithic tomb of two women from
Téviec,
Brittany.
Interred
–
A naturally
mummified body in the
British Museum.
Interred
–
A
Muslim cemetery in
Sahara, all graves point across the desert placed at right angles to
Mecca
15.
Puerto Rico
–
Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
Puerto Rico
–
A Taíno Village at the
Tibes Ceremonial Center.
Puerto Rico
–
Flag
Puerto Rico
–
Juan Ponce de León (
Santervás de Campos,
Valladolid, Spain), was the first governor of Puerto Rico. His grandson
Juan Ponce de León II was the first criollo governor of Puerto Rico.
Puerto Rico
–
The 16th century
Fort San Felipe del Morro in San Juan, Puerto Rico
16.
Cathedral of San Juan Bautista
–
The Catedral Metropolitana Basílica de San Juan Bautista or in English, Cathedral of San Juan Bautista, is the Roman Catholic cathedral of the Archdiocese of San Juan de Puerto Rico. The cathedral is one of the oldest buildings in San Juan, located in Old San Juan, the original cathedral in what was the city of Puerto Rico was constructed from wood in 1521. It was destroyed by a hurricane and the current structure constructed in 1540, being reshaped in later centuries, the first school in Puerto Rico was the Escuela de gramática. The school was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the cathedral would later be constructed, the school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology. The cathedral contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer and settlement founder Juan Ponce de León and it also has a shrine to the Blessed Carlos Manuel Rodríguez Santiago, the first Puerto Rican, the first Caribbean-born layperson in history to be beatified
Cathedral of San Juan Bautista
–
Front entrance
Cathedral of San Juan Bautista
Cathedral of San Juan Bautista
Cathedral of San Juan Bautista
17.
Provinces of Spain
–
Spain and its autonomous communities are divided into fifty provinces. The layout of Spains provinces closely follows the pattern of the division of the country carried out in 1833. The only major change of provincial borders since that time has been the sub-division of the Canary Islands into two rather than one. Historically, the provinces served mainly as transmission belts for policies enacted in Madrid, the importance of the provinces has declined since the adoption of the system of autonomous communities in the period of the Spanish transition to democracy. They nevertheless remain electoral districts for national elections and as references, for instance in postal addresses. A small town would normally be identified as being in, say, Valladolid province rather than the community of Castile. The provinces were the building-blocks from which the communities were created. Consequently, no province is divided more than one of these communities. Only two capitals of autonomous communities—Mérida in Extremadura and Santiago de Compostela in Galicia—are not also the capitals of provinces, seven of the autonomous communities comprise no more than one province each, Asturias, Balearic Islands, Cantabria, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, and Navarra. These are sometimes referred to as uniprovincial communities, the table below lists the provinces of Spain. For each, the city is given, together with an indication of the autonomous community to which it belongs. The names of the provinces and their capitals are ordered according to the form in which they appear in the main Wikipedia articles describing them. Unless otherwise indicated, their Spanish-language names are the same, locally valid names in Spains other co-official languages are indicated where they differ
Provinces of Spain
–
Provinces of Spain
18.
Valladolid (province)
–
Valladolid is a province of northwest Spain, in the central part of the autonomous community of Castile and León. It has a population of 526,223 people in a total of 225 municipalities, an area of 8,110 km2, the capital is the city of Valladolid. It is bordered by the provinces of Zamora, León, Palencia, Burgos, Segovia, Ávila and it is, therefore, the only Spanish province surrounded only - and entirely - by other provinces of the same autonomous community. Its the only province which doesnt have mountains. Precisely because of its plain has a strategic importance because it is an important communications hub. From the national point of view, is the track that connects Madrid with all the north of Spain, from the international point of view, here goes the shortest land route that connects Portugal with France, from the north of Portugal to the south of France. The capital has an important historical - artistic heritage and one of the important museums of sculpture of Europe. The province of Valladolid is specially famous for his processions of Holy Week, as much in the capital as in the localities of Medina de Rioseco and Medina del Campo. The province of Valladolid was established as such by the Royal Decree of September 29,1833 driven by the minister Javier de Burgos, in the year 178 BC the Romans conquered the territory. After the invasion of the Iberian peninsula by the Muslims in the year 711, they arrived in these lands just a year later, in 712. Later, during the Reconquista, this area was the subject of battles between the Muslims and the Christian Kingdom of León in the first half of the eleventh century. In 939, after the Battle of Simancas clinched the domain of the basin of the Douro river by the Christian kingdoms, Valladolid was founded in the year 1072 by Count Pedro Ansúrez. From here its history was linked to that of the Crown of Castile, in fact, cities such as Medina del Campo or Valladolid became important administrative centers Castilians and also experienced an economic boom. Had a great importance in the Discovery of the Americas in 1492, the revolt of the comuneros in the year 1520, which ended with the ringleaders of that revolt publicly executed in Villalar de los Comuneros. Valladolid became the capital of the Spanish empire between the years 1601-1606, during the War of the Spanish Succession It positioned the side of the Bourbon pretender, that would be the one who got the throne. In the Peninsular War against France, There were a succession of small battles, the province was controlled by Francos Nationalists throughout the Civil War. During the Franco period there was an exodus from the countryside to the industrial cities. A further exodus occurred with the arrival of democracy in Spain, start a process of economic growth that peaked with the Spanish property bubble and then suffers from the economic crisis of 2008-2015, like the rest of the south of Europe
Valladolid (province)
–
Map of the territory of the
Vaccaei, the first people with stable presence on the sector of the middle valley of the Duero River documented in historical times.
Valladolid (province)
–
Flag
Valladolid (province)
–
Prosecution of the captains comuneros in
Villalar on 24 April 1521, in the framework of
Revolt of the Comuneros.
Valladolid (province)
–
Juan Ponce de León (
Santervás de Campos). He was one of the first Europeans to arrive to the current
United States because led the first European expedition to
Florida, which he named.
19.
Ponce Vela de Cabrera
–
Ponce Vela de Cabrera, also known as Ponce Vélaz de Cabrera, was a noble from the Kingdom of León who played an important role during the reign of Alfonso IX. Through one of his sons, descends the Ponce de León, Ponce had several brothers and sisters, Fernando, Pedro, María, and Juan Vela. He also governed Mayorga, Zamora, and El Bierzo and he died on 24 September 1202 and was buried in the Monastery of Santa María de Nogales in San Esteban de Nogales that had been founded by his parents. Count Ponce Vela married Teresa Rodríguez Giron, daughter of Rodrigo Gutiérrez Girón and his first wife, in 1195, Pontius Velez una cum uxore mea, Tharesia Rodrigues donated one-third of Granucillo that he had inherited from his parents to the Monastery of Nogales. Two Catalan magnates in the courts of the kings of León-Castile, El impulso nobiliario a la expansión del Císter en el reino de León. La parentela de Ponce de Cabrera en los monasterios de Santa María de Moreruela y San Esteban de Nogales, revista de la Sociedad Española de Estudios Medievales. Murcia, Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia, 341–374, El conde Suero Vermúdez, su parentela y su entorno social, La aristocracia asturleonesa en los siglos XI y XII. La memoria del linaje, Los Ponce de León y sus antepasados a fines de la Edad Media, seville, Universidad de Sevilla, Secretariado de Publicaciones. Una Familia de la Alta Edad Media, Los Velas y su Realidad Histórica, asociación Española de Estudios Genealógicos y Heráldicos. Torres Sevilla-Quiñones de León, Margarita Cecilia, linajes nobiliarios de León y Castilla, Siglos IX-XIII. Salamanca, Junta de Castilla y León, Consejería de educación y cultura
Ponce Vela de Cabrera
–
"Count Ponce" (the words above the figure are Poncius comes) as he appears in the Privilegium Imperatoris Ponce Vela's maternal grandfather. His shield shows a goat (Spanish cabra), which was probably used on the earliest
canting arms of the Cabrera family.
Ponce Vela de Cabrera
–
Ruins of the Monastery of Santa Maria de Nogales
20.
Sancha Ponce de Cabrera
–
Sancha Ponce de Cabrera was a daughter of Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera, and his first wife, Sancha Núñez. She was the wife of the important magnate from the Kingdom of León, Vela Gutiérrez. In 1149, King Alfonso VIII of León gave the couple as a gift the villa of Nogales which they, in turn, donated to Aldara Pérez. The abbess was entrusted with the task of bringing nuns from her monastery to the new one which would be governed by the Rule of Saint Benedict. She had previously made arrangements to have three sarcophagi carved from stone, one for her husband, another one for a son who had died previously. These were placed in the chapel of the church of Nogales Abbey which had been consecrated in 1172. Sancha died in 1176 and her remains, as well as those of her husband and son, the following children were born from her first marriage around 1149 with Vela Gutiérrez, Fernando Vela, tenente in Asturias, Tineo, León, and Benavente. He married Sancha Álvarez, daughter of Álvaro Rodríguez de Sarria, one of the children of this marriage, Juan Fernández de Cabrera, also governed Trastámara, Monterroso, Toroño, and Salamanca. Ponce Vela de Cabrera, the husband of Teresa Rodríguez Girón, daughter of Rodrigo Gutiérrez Girón, María Vela, abbess at the monastery founded by her parents. Juan Vela and buried at Monastery of Santa María de Moreruela founded by his maternal grandparents and they could also have been the parents of a son named García Vela. A son was born of this marriage, Suero Menéndez. El impulso nobiliario a la expansión del Císter en el reino de León, La parentela de Ponce de Cabrera en los monasterios de Santa María de Moreruela y San Esteban de Nogales. Revista de la Sociedad Espyearla de Estudios Medievales, Murcia, Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia, 341–374. El conde Suero Vermúdez, su parentela y su entorno social, La memoria del linaje, Los Ponce de León y sus antepasados a fines de la Edad Media. Sevilla, Universidad de Sevilla, Secretariado de Publicaciones, el archivo del Monasterio de Santa María de Nogales en el Tumbo de Astorga. Madrid, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Servicio de Publicaciones, un magnate catalán en la corte de Alfonso VII, Comes Poncius de Cabreira, Princeps Çemore. Madrid, Prensa y Ediciones Iberoamericanas, D. L, una Familia de la Alta Edad Media, Los Velas y su Realidad Histórica. Madrid, Asociación Española de Estudios Genealógicos y Heráldicos, torres Sevilla-Quiñones de León, Margarita Cecilia
Sancha Ponce de Cabrera
–
Ruins of the Monastery of Santa María de Nogales founded by Sancha and her husband and where both were buried
21.
Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera
–
Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera, called Ponç Guerau in Catalan or Pons in Occitan, was a Catalan nobleman, courtier and military leader in the kingdoms of León and Castile. Ponce came to León in the entourage of Berenguela, daughter of Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, immediately after his arrival, Ponce assumed a position of some importance in the kingdom. By 1143 he held the title of count, the highest rank of the Leonese nobility, by 1145 he had been appointed the kings majordomo, the highest official in the realm. Ponce was a son of Guerau II de Cabrera, the first viscount of Àger and Girona and his mother was Gueraus second wife, Elvira, probably a daughter of the Leonese magnate Pedro Ansúrez and his wife Elo Alfonso. Ponce was born between 1098 and 1105, he had two brothers, Ferrer Guerau and Bernat Guerau, both born before 1100, in his fathers will of 1131, he was nominated as heir to the greater part of his fathers lands and titles. Ponce succeeded his father in 1132 as Viscount Ponç II, by 1145 he had ceded control over Àger and Girona to his son, Guerau III de Cabrera. It was once believed that there were two Ponces de Cabrera, one in Castile and one, a brother or cousin, who ruled the familys Catalan lands from 1128 until 1145. It is now recognised that the person was viscount in Catalonia. In the charter, Ponces surname is given as de Capraria, there is a charter dated to 25 October 1122 in which Ponce, using the vicecomital title, pledges fealty to the bishop of Girona, Berenguer Dalmau. If authentic, this charter, found in the Cartoral de Carles Many cartulary, shows that Ponce was already sharing in the government of the Cabrera lands with his father as early as 1122. This charter is preserved in the cartulary of the monastery of San Pedro de Montes, ulver had been held by the powerful magnate Ramiro Fróilaz as late as May earlier that year, and by July 1133 it was back in his hands. It is possible that it was returned to his much earlier. It was certainly only at the behest of Alfonso VI that an important castle in the region of one of the most powerful men in the kingdom could be bestowed on a newcomer like Ponce. Some time earlier Ponce purchased some land at Covelo from one Pedro Bellido, on 31 March 1132 he sold the same land to García Pérez and his wife Velasquita for a breastplate, a mule and thirty rolls of linen. In August 1135 he more land in the territory of Senabria beside the river Tera to the couple for a mule valued at fifty morabetinos. Both these donations indicate that at the time Ponce ruling Senabria and his control of Senabria and the surrounding territory lasted until shortly before his death. Around the same time, between 1129 and 1138, Ponce also came into neighbouring districts of La Cabrera and Morales, Ponce later served closely with Ramiro on several military campaigns. The two even shared the tenancy of Astorga in 1154, and probably later that of Villafranca del Bierzo
Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera
–
"Count Ponce" (the words above the figure are Poncius comes) as he appears in the Privilegium Imperatoris of Alfonso VII. He is standing to the right of the king, whose majordomo he was at the time. His shield shows a goat (Spanish cabra), which was probably used on the earliest
canting arms of the Cabrera family.
Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera
–
The castle of Ulver (Cornatel), the first command of Ponce in León.
Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera
–
Ruins of the castle of Castrotorafe
Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera
–
The monastery of Moreruela, founded by Ponce, became one of the richest in Spain by the thirteenth century, although Ponce seems to have paid little attention to it.
22.
Pedro Ponce de Cabrera
–
From his marriage to Aldonza Alfonso of León, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso IX and his mistress Aldonza Martínez de Silva, «. In February 1221 he was part of the entourage that accompanied Infanta Eleanor of Castile, daughter of King Alfonso VIII of Castile, to Ágreda for her wedding with King James I of Aragon. He played a role in the reconquista campaigns of King Fernando III in Andalusia and fought against the moors in Seville, Lora del Río. Pedro Ponce de Cabrera was buried in the chapel of Saint Benito at the Monastery of Santa María de Nogales, founded by his grandparents Vela Gutiérrez and his widow Aldonza was also buried in the same chapel. Pedro Pérez Ponce de León, comendador of the Order of Santiago, Elvira Ponce de León Álvaro Ponce de León Juana Ponce de León Calderón Medina, el impulso nobiliario a la expansión del Císter en el reino de León. La parentela de Ponce de Cabrera en los monasterios de Santa María de Moreruela y San Esteban de Nogales, revista de la Sociedad Española de Estudios Medievales. Murcia, Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia, 341–374, la memoria del linaje, Los Ponce de León y sus antepasados a fines de la Edad Media. Sevilla, Universidad de Sevilla, Secretariado de Publicaciones, un magnate catalán en la corte de Alfonso VII, Comes Poncius de Cabreira, Princeps Çemore. Madrid, Prensa y Ediciones Iberoamericanas, D. L, la chèvre et la dynastie des Cabrera dans le León du XII siècle. Cahiers de linguistique et de civilisation hispaniques medievales, una Familia de la Alta Edad Media, Los Velas y su Realidad Histórica. Madrid, Asociación Española de Estudios Genealógicos y Heráldicos, torres Sevilla-Quiñones de León, Margarita Cecilia. Linajes nobiliarios de León y Castilla, salamanca, Junta de Castilla y León, Consejería de educación y cultura
Pedro Ponce de Cabrera
–
Ruins of the Monastery of Santa María de Nogales where Pedro Ponce and his wife Aldonza were buried
23.
Moors
–
Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that The term Moors has no real ethnological value. Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, Berber North Africans and Muslim Europeans. The term has also used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent. During the colonial era, the Portuguese introduced the names Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors in Sri Lanka, in 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, in 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily, developing it as a port. They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy, in 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300. The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, the Berber tribes of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English and in related variations in other European languages. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, in medieval Romance languages, variations of the Latin word for the Moors developed different applications and connotations. During the context of the Crusades and the Reconquista, the term Moors included the suggestion of infidels. Apart from these associations and context, Moor and Moorish designate a specific ethnic group speaking Hassaniya Arabic. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, in Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Some authors have pointed out that in modern colloquial Spanish use of the term moro is derogatory for Moroccans in particular, however, this designation has gained more acceptance in the south. In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many modern Filipinos call the large, local Muslim minority concentrated in Mindanao, the word is a catch-all term, as Moro may come from several distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as the Maranao people. The term was introduced by Spanish colonisers, and has since been appropriated by Filipino Muslims as an endonym, moreno can mean dark-skinned in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and the Philippines. Also in Spanish, morapio is a name for wine, especially that which has not been baptized or mixed with water. Among Spanish speakers, moro came to have a broader meaning, Moro refers to all things dark, as in Moor, moreno, etc. It was also used as a nickname, for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion, in Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where moor implies alien and non-Christian
Moors
–
Depiction of Moors in
Iberia. Taken from the
Tale of Bayad and Riyad
Moors
–
Depiction of three Moorish knights found on
Alhambra 's Ladies Tower
Moors
–
Castillian ambassadors attempting to convince Moorish Almohad king
Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada to join their alliance (contemporary depiction from The Cantigas de Santa María)
Moors
–
Reconstruction of costumes of Moorish
nobility from a German book published in 1880
24.
Order of Calatrava
–
The Order of Calatrava was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26,1164. Most of the political and military power of the order dissipated by the end of the 15th century and it was founded at Calatrava la Vieja in Castile, in the twelfth century by St. Raymond of Fitero, as a military branch of the Cistercian family. The etymology of the name of military order, Calatrava, conveys the meaning. In the Cistercian Order, then recently formed, there had been a large number of knights or sons of knights. In Calatrava, on the contrary, those who had been monks became knights, monastic life has been called a warfare, and it would be a mistake to suppose those rough medieval warriors sought in the cloister only a comfortable asylum after a troubled career. These impetuous natures, who did nothing by halves, were eager to take Heaven, as they took earthly strongholds, by storm. It runs as follows, Calatrava is the Arabic name of a castle recovered from the Moslems, in 1147, by the King of Castile, Alfonso VII, called el Emperador. Located in what was then the southernmost border of Castile, this conquest was difficult to keep than to make. In part to correct this deficiency, the military such as Knights Templars were founded. The Templars, however, were unable to hold Calatrava, and this step is said to have been suggested to the abbot by Father Diego Velázquez, a simple monk, but one who had been a knight, and thus was well acquainted with military matters. Diego was inspired with the idea of employing the lay brothers of the abbey to defend Calatrava, Diego recommended that they become soldiers of the Cross. Thus a new order was created in 1157, motivated by the desire for religious and pecuniary rewards, these brethren were eager to take the offensive against the Moors. When the Abbot Raymond died, a certain Don García started to lead them in battle as their first grand master. At the same time, the monks, not without protest, left Calatrava to live under an abbot whom they had chosen. Only Velasquez and a few other clerics, to act as chaplains, remained in Calatrava with the knights and this somewhat revolutionary arrangement was approved by the general chapter at Cîteaux, and by Pope Alexander III. A general chapter held at Cîteaux in 1187 gave to the Knights of Calatrava their definitive rule, Calatrava was subject not to Cîteaux, but to Morimond in Champagne, the mother-house of Fitero, from which Calatrava had sprung. They had already called into the neighbouring Kingdom of Aragon, and been rewarded by a new encomienda
Order of Calatrava
–
Castillo de Calatrava la Nueva
Order of Calatrava
–
The order emblem, a
greek cross in
gules with
fleur-de-lis at its ends.
Order of Calatrava
–
A Knight of Calatrava killing his enemy.
Order of Calatrava
–
A Calatrava castle in
Alcañiz.
25.
Emirate of Granada
–
After Prince Idris left Iberia to take the Almohad leadership, the ambitious Mohammed I ibn Nasr established the last Muslim dynasty on the Iberian peninsula—the Nasrids. The Nasrid emirs were responsible for building the Alhambra palace complex as it is known today, by 1250, the Emirate was the last part of the Iberian peninsula held by the Muslims. Andalusian Arabic was the tongue of the majority of the population. For two more centuries, the region enjoyed considerable cultural and economic prosperity, the Nasrids also provided military assistance to Castile for its conquest of areas under Muslim control, most notably Seville in November 1248 and the Taifa of Niebla in 1262. In 1305, Granada conquered Ceuta, but lost control of the city in 1309 to the Kingdom of Fez with the assistance of the Crown of Aragon, Granada re-captured Ceuta a year later, but again lost it in 1314. Granada again held the city from 1315 to 1327, in 1384, Granada again re-took Ceuta but lost it definitively to Kingdom of Fe in 1386. Finally Ceuta was taken by Portuguese Empire in 1415 and by Spanish Empire in 1580, granadas peace with Castile broke down on various occasions. Granada lost territory to Castile at the Battle of Teba in 1330, in 1340, Granada under Yusuf I supported the failed Marinid invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which ended at the Battle of Río Salado. Granada also served as a refuge for Muslims fleeing during the Reconquista, regardless of its comparative prosperity, intra-political strife was constant. Skirmishes along the border of Granada occurred frequently and territory was gradually lost to Castile, Granada was tightly integrated in Mediterranean trade networks and heavily financed by Genoese bankers aiming to gain control of the gold trade carried in through Saharan caravan routes. However, after Portugal opened direct trade routes to Sub-Saharan Africa by sea in the 15th century, with the union of Castile and Aragon in 1469, these kingdoms set their sights on annexing Granada. The war of Granada would offer an opportunity for Ferdinand and Isabella to harness the restless Castilian nobility against a common enemy, the Emirates attack on the Castilian frontier town of Zahara in December 1481 led to a prolonged war. The Granada War began in 1482, with Christian forces capturing Alhama de Granada in February 1482 and this marked the beginning of a grinding 10-year war. The Christian force was made up of troops provided by Castilian nobles, towns, the Catholic Church also encouraged other Christian countries to offer their troops and their finances to the war effort. Meanwhile, civil war erupted in Granada as a result of struggles in the Nasrid ruling house. Castile used this internal strife as an opportunity to push further into Granada, by 1491, the city of Granada itself lay under siege. On November 25,1491, the Treaty of Granada was signed, on January 2,1492, the last Muslim leader, Muhammad XII, known as Boabdil to the Spanish, gave up complete control of Granada, to Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Católicos. The Christian ousting of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula with the conquest of Granada did not extinguish the spirit of the Reconquista, Isabella urged Christians to pursue a conquest of Africa
Emirate of Granada
–
Silver coin minted by the emirate of Granada.
Emirate of Granada
26.
Battle of Granada
–
It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile, ending all Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula. The ten-year war was not an effort, but a series of seasonal campaigns launched in spring. The Granadans were crippled by internal conflict and civil war, while the Christians were generally unified, the war also saw the effective use of artillery by the Christians to rapidly conquer towns that would otherwise have required a long siege. On January 2,1492 Muhammad XII of Granada surrendered the Emirate of Granada, the city of Granada, the war was a joint project between Isabellas Crown of Castile and Ferdinands Crown of Aragon. The bulk of the troops and funds for the war came from Castile, the Crown of Aragon was less important, apart from the presence of King Ferdinand himself, Aragon provided naval collaboration, guns, and some financial loans. Aristocrats were offered the allure of new lands, while Ferdinand, New Christians came to be accused of crypto-Islam and crypto-Judaism. Spain would go on to model its national aspirations as the guardian of Christianity, the fall of the Alhambra is still celebrated every year by the City Council of Granada, and the Granada War is considered in traditional Spanish historiography as the final war of the Reconquista. At the same time, and uniquely in the Reconquista, the Granada War itself is never called the reconquest of Granada, Granada had never been Christian before the reconquista. The Emirate of Granada had been the last Muslim state in Iberia for more than two centuries by the time of the Granada War, the other remnant al-Andalus states of the once powerful Caliphate of Córdoba had long been conquered by the Christians. Still, Granada was wealthy and powerful, and the Christian kingdoms were divided, Granadas problems began to worsen after Emir Yusuf IIIs death in 1417. Succession struggles ensured that Granada was in an almost constant low-level civil war, clan loyalties were stronger than allegiance to the Emir, making consolidation of power difficult. Often, the territory the Emir really controlled was the city of Granada itself. At times, the emir did not even all the city, but rather one rival emir would control the Alhambra, and another the Albayzín. This internal fighting greatly weakened the state, the economy declined, with Granadas once world-famous porcelain manufacture now disrupted and challenged by the Christian town of Manises near Valencia, in Aragon. Despite the weakening economy, taxes were imposed at their earlier high rates to support Granadas extensive defenses. Ordinary Granadans paid triple the taxes of Castilians, the heavy taxes that Emir Abu-l-Hasan Ali imposed contributed greatly to his unpopularity. These taxes did at least support an army, Hasan was successful in putting down Christian revolts in his lands. The frontier between Granada and the Castilian lands of Andalusia was in a constant state of flux, neither in peace nor in war, raids across the border were common, as were intermixing alliances between local nobles on both sides of the frontier
Battle of Granada
–
The
Capitulation of Granada by F. Padilla:
Muhammad XII (Boabdil) confronts Ferdinand and Isabella.
Battle of Granada
–
Queen Isabella's marriage with Ferdinand of Aragon ensured a united front of Castile and Aragon against Granada.
Battle of Granada
–
The
Alhambra.
27.
Reconquista
–
The Reconquista ended just before the European discovery of the Americas—the New World—which ushered in the era of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires. The concept of a Christian reconquest of the peninsula first emerged, in tenuous form, a landmark was set by the Christian Chronica Prophetica, a document stressing the Christian and Muslim cultural and religious divide in Iberia and the necessity to drive the Muslims out. Nevertheless, the difference between Christian and Muslim kingdoms in early medieval Spain was not seen at the time as anything like the clear-cut opposition that later emerged, both Christian and Muslim rulers fought amongst themselves. Alliances between Muslims and Christians were not uncommon, blurring distinctions even further were the mercenaries from both sides who simply fought for whoever paid the most. The period is looked back upon today as one of religious tolerance. In fact previous documents from the 10th and 11th centuries are mute on any idea of reconquest and their rebellious pursuit was thus a Crusade for the restoration of Churchs unity, where Franco stood for both Pelagius of Asturias and El Cid. Many recent historians dispute the concept of Reconquista as a concept created a posteriori in the service of later political goals. A number of historians have called it a myth, One of the first Spanish intellectuals to question the idea of a reconquest that lasted for eight centuries was José Ortega y Gasset, writing in the first half of the 20th century. However, the term is widely in use. In 711, Muslim Moors, mainly North African Berber soldiers with some Arabs, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, from their stronghold of Narbonne, they launched raids into the Duchy of Aquitaine. At no point did the invading Islamic armies exceed 60,000 men and these armies established an Islamic rule that would last 300 years in much of the Iberian Peninsula and 770 years in Granada. After the establishment of a local Emirate, Caliph Al-Walid I, ruler of the Umayyad caliphate, tariq ibn Ziyad, the first governor of the newly conquered province of Al-Andalus, was recalled to Damascus and replaced with Musa bin Nusair, who had been his former superior. Musas son, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, apparently married Egilona, Roderics widow and he was suspected of being under the influence of his wife, accused of wanting to convert to Christianity, and of planning a secessionist rebellion. Apparently a concerned Al-Walid I ordered Abd al-Azizs assassination, Caliph Al-Walid I died in 715 and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa bin Nusair, who soon died during a pilgrimage in 716. In the end Abd al-Aziz ibn Musas cousin, Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi became the emir of Al-Andalus, the conquering generals were necessarily acting very independently, due to the methods of communication available. Old rivalries and perhaps even full-fledged conspiracies between rival generals may have had influence over this development, in the end, the old successful generals were replaced by a younger generation considered more loyal by the government in Damascus. A serious weakness amongst the Muslim conquerors was the tension between Berbers and Arabs
Reconquista
–
A battle of the Reconquista from the
Cantigas de Santa Maria
Reconquista
–
Northeastern al-Andalus, the Pyrenees and southern Gaul at the time of the Berber rebellion (739-742).
Reconquista
–
Forces of
Muhammed IX,
Nasrid Sultan of
Granada, at the
Battle of La Higueruela, 1431
Reconquista
–
Santiago the Moor-slayer
28.
Christopher Columbus
–
Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and those voyages and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola initiated the European colonization of the New World. Western imperialism and economic competition were emerging among European kingdoms through the establishment of routes and colonies. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New World instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended, landing on an island in the Bahamas archipelago that he named San Salvador. Over the course of three voyages, he visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America. These voyages had, therefore, an impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. He spearheaded the transatlantic trade and has been accused by several historians of initiating the genocide of the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, Columbus never admitted that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans, rather than the East Indies for which he had set course. He called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited indios, the name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo and, in Spanish and he was born before 31 October 1451 in the territory of the Republic of Genoa, though the exact location remains disputed. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona and who also owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked as a helper. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo were his brothers, Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. He also had a sister named Bianchinetta, Columbus never wrote in his native language, which is presumed to have been a Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at the age of 10, in 1470, the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Christopher was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. Some modern historians have argued that he was not from Genoa but, instead and these competing hypotheses have generally been discounted by mainstream scholars. In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro, later, he allegedly made a trip to Chios, an Aegean island then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in a convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe
Christopher Columbus
–
Posthumous portrait of Christopher Columbus by
Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519. There are no known authentic portraits of Columbus.
Christopher Columbus
–
Christopher Columbus at the gates of the
monastery of Santa María de la Rábida with his son Diego, by
Benet Mercadé
Christopher Columbus
–
Columbus' handwritten notes in Latin, on the margins of his copy of
The Travels of Marco Polo
Christopher Columbus
–
"Columbus map", drawn c. 1490 in the
Lisbon workshop of Bartolomeo and Christopher Columbus
29.
Hispaniola
–
Hispaniola is the 22nd-largest island in the world, located in the Caribbean island group, the Greater Antilles. It is the second largest island in the Caribbean after Cuba, two sovereign nations share the 76, 192-square-kilometre island. The only other shared island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, Hispaniola is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, founded by Christopher Columbus on his voyages in 1492 and 1493. The island was called by various names by its native people, fernández de Oviedo and de las Casas both recorded that the island was called Haiti by the Taíno. DAnghiera added another name, Quizqueia, but later shows that the word does not seem to derive from the original Arawak Taíno language. When Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana, meaning the Spanish Island in Latin and La Isla Española, meaning the Spanish Island, in Spanish. De las Casas shortened the name to Española, and when d‘Anghiera detailed his account of the island in Latin, he rendered its name as Hispaniola. Due to Taíno, Spanish and French influences on the island, historically the whole island was referred to as Haiti, Hayti, Santo Domingo, St. Domingue. The name Haïti was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the name of independent Saint-Domingue. It was also adopted as the name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. Christopher Columbus inadvertently landed on the island during his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, where his flagship, a contingent of men were left at an outpost christened La Navidad, on the north coast of present-day Haiti. The island was inhabited by the Taíno, one of the indigenous Arawak peoples, the Taino were at first tolerant of Columbus and his crew, and helped him to construct La Navidad on what is now Môle-Saint-Nicolas, Haiti, in December 1492. European colonization of the began in earnest the following year. In 1496 the town of Nueva Isabela was founded, after being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas, several 16th century writers estimated the 1492 population of Hispaniola at over 1 million people. Twentieth-century estimates of the range from 60,000 to 8,000,000. Harsh enslavement by Spanish colonists, redirection of food supplies and labor towards the colonists, had a impact on both mortality and fertility over the first quarter century. Colonial administrators and Dominican and Hyeronimite priests observed that the search for gold, demographic data from two provinces in 1514 shows a low birth rate consistent with a 3. 5% annual population decline
Hispaniola
–
View from Hispaniola
Hispaniola
–
Early map of Hispaniola and
Puerto Rico, c. 1639.
Hispaniola
–
Columbus landing on Hispaniola
Hispaniola
–
French map of Hispaniola by Nicolas de Fer
30.
La Altagracia Province
–
La Altagracia is the easternmost province of the Dominican Republic. Punta Cana is located on the shores of this province. The province was part of the old La Altagracia Province, which split into 2, La Altagracia Province, the name La Altagracia commemorates a painting, Our Lady of La Altagracia, which was brought to this area from Spain in the early 16th century. Numerous miracles are attributed to the image, urban population are those living in the seats of municipalities or of municipal districts. Rural population are living in the districts and neighborhoods outside them. The population figures are from the 2014 population estimate. For comparison with the municipalities and municipal districts of other provinces see the list of municipalities and municipal districts of the Dominican Republic
La Altagracia Province
–
Location of the La Altagracia Province
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Juan Ponce de León". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
