1.
Chess title
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A chess title is a title created by a chess governing body and bestowed upon players based on their performance and rank. Such titles are granted for life. The most prestigious titles are granted by the international chess governing body FIDE. In general, a master is a player of such skill that he or she can usually beat most amateurs. Among chess players, the term is abbreviated to master. The establishment of the world body, Fédération Internationale des Échecs. In 1950 FIDE created the titles Grandmaster and International Master, the requirements for which were increasingly formalized over the years, in 1978 FIDE created the lesser title of FIDE Master. From the beginning of recorded chess, to the establishment of the first chess organizations, strong players demonstrated their strength in play, and gained the informal reputation of being chess masters. As chess became more widespread in the half of the 19th century. One of the most prestigious events of the time was the DSB Congress, the DSBs standard for the title of Master was the Meisterdrittel, i. e. to win at least one third of the games in the premiere tournament at a DSB Congress. The winner of the Hauptturnier or reserve event was entitled to compete in the event in the next congress. Grandmaster is awarded to world-class chess masters, apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. There are also other milestones a player can achieve to attain the title, the conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400, the usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE Rating of 2300 or more. Similar to FM, but with a FIDE Rating of at least 2200, all the titles listed above are open to men and women. Separate women-only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster, are also available, beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, many women have also earned the unsegregated GM title. Some national chess federations award titles such as National Master, National chess federations are free to set whatever standards they want for such titles, which are not recognized by FIDE. In some cases, it may extend to honorary titles awarded to prominent chess administrators, since the introduction of the FIDE Master title in 1978, some federations such as those of Ireland and Germany have ceased awarding National Master titles, apparently regarding them as obsolete
2.
Courts of England and Wales
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The United Kingdom does not have a single unified legal system—England and Wales have one system, Scotland another, and Northern Ireland a third. Additionally, the Military Court Service has jurisdiction over all members of the forces of the United Kingdom in relation to offences against military law. The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court in almost all cases in England, before the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 this role was held by the House of Lords. The Supreme Court is also the highest court of appeal for devolution matters, the Privy Council is the highest court of appeal for a small number of Commonwealth countries, colonies and the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. There are a number of smaller jurisdictions, such as appeals from ecclesiastical and professional bodies. The judges who sit on the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council are also the members of the Supreme Court, the Senior Courts of England and Wales were originally created by the Judicature Acts as the Supreme Court of Judicature. It was renamed the Supreme Court of England and Wales in 1981 and it consists of the following courts, Court of Appeal High Court of Justice Crown Court The Court of Appeal deals only with appeals from other courts or tribunals. Its decisions are binding on all courts, including itself, apart from the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice functions both as a civil court of first instance and a criminal and civil appellate court for cases from the subordinate courts. It consists of three divisions, the Queens Bench, the Chancery and the Family divisions, the divisions of the High Court are not separate courts, but have somewhat separate procedures and practices adapted to their purposes. Although particular kinds of cases will be assigned to each depending on their subject matter. However, beginning proceedings in the division may result in a costs penalty. The Crown Court is a court of both original and appellate jurisdiction which in addition handles a limited amount of civil business both at first instance and on appeal. It was established by the Courts Act 1971 and it replaced the assizes whereby High Court judges would periodically travel around the country hearing cases, and quarter sessions which were periodic county courts. The Old Bailey is the name of Londons most famous criminal court. Its official name is the Central Criminal Court, the Crown Court also hears appeals from magistrates courts. The Crown Court is a court in respect of the other work it undertakes, viz. inter alia, appeals from the magistrates’ courts. They hear minor criminal cases, as well as certain licensing appeals, youth courts are run on similar lines to adult magistrates courts but deal with offenders aged between the ages of ten and seventeen inclusive. Youth courts are presided over by a specially trained subset of experienced adult magistrates or a district judge, youth magistrates have a wider catalogue of disposals available to them for dealing with young offenders and often hear more serious cases against youths
3.
English law
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English law is the common law legal system governing England and Wales, comprising criminal law and civil law. English law has no formal codification, the essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts applying statute, and legal precedent from previous cases. A decision of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the highest civil court of the United Kingdom, is binding on every other court. Some rulings are derived from legislation, others, known as law, are based on rulings of previous courts. For example, murder is a common law rather than one established by an Act of Parliament. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament, murder, for example, the first schedule of the Interpretation Act 1978, defines the following terms, British Islands, England, and United Kingdom. The use of the term British Isles is virtually obsolete in statutes and, for interpretation purposes, England includes a number of specified elements, Wales and Berwick Act 1746, section 3 formally incorporated Wales and Berwick-upon-Tweed into England. But section 4 Welsh Language Act 1967 provided that references to England in future Acts of Parliament should no longer include Wales, but Dicey & Morris say It seems desirable to adhere to Diceys definition for reasons of convenience and especially of brevity. It would be cumbersome to have to add or Wales after England, the adjacent islands of the Isle of Wight and Anglesey are a part of England and Wales by custom, while Harman v Bolt 47 TLR219 expressly confirms that Lundy is a part of England. The adjacent territorial waters by virtue of the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878, great Britain means England, Wales, Scotland, their adjacent territorial waters and the islands of Orkney and Shetland, the Hebrides and, by virtue of the Island of Rockall Act 1972, Rockall. V Canon Film Sales Ltd.1 WLR1597 and Chloride Industrial Batteries Ltd, V F. & W. Freight Ltd.1 WLR823. British Islands – but not British Isles – means the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, compare with American convention, which includes of, as in Civil Rights Act of 1964. For example, the Pleading in English Act 1362 was referred to as 36 Edw,15, meaning 36th year of the reign of Edward III, chapter 15, though in the past this was all spelt out, together with the long title. Common law is a term with historical origins in the system of England. This may be a legacy of the Norman conquest of England, an example is the Law Merchant derived from the Pie-Powder Courts, named from a corruption of the French pieds-poudrés implying ad hoc marketplace courts. In 1276, the concept of time immemorial often applied in common law was defined as being any time before 6 July 1189, one of the major challenges in the early centuries was to produce a system that was certain in its operation and predictable in its outcomes. Too many judges were either partial or incompetent, acquiring their positions only by virtue of their rank in society, thus, a standardised procedure slowly emerged, based on a system termed stare decisis which roughly means let the decision stand. The doctrine of precedent which requires similar cases to be adjudicated in a like manner, thus, the ratio decidendi of each case will bind future cases on the same generic set of facts both horizontally and vertically in the court structure
4.
Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)
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The Ministry of Justice is a ministerial department of the UK Government headed by the Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor. The department is responsible for areas of constitutional policy not transferred in 2010 to the Deputy Prime Minister, human rights law. The ministry was formed in May 2007 when some functions of the Home Secretary were combined with the Department for Constitutional Affairs, the latter had replaced the Lord Chancellors Department in 2003. Its stated priorities are to reduce re-offending and protect the public, to access to justice, to increase confidence in the justice system. Responsibility for devolution was then transferred to the position of Deputy Prime Minister. The Deputy Prime Minister and Secretary of State for Justice have joint responsibility for a commission on a British bill of rights, the vast majority of the Ministry of Justices work takes place in England and Wales. The ministry has no responsibility for devolved criminal justice policy, courts, the ministry is therefore responsible for all aspects of the criminal law, including the scope and content of criminal offences. The prison population in England and Wales has risen because politicians of both parties wanted to show they were tough on criminals and this led to overcrowding and increase in other problems like violence, self-harm and suicide. The Ministry of Justice is the department that facilitates communication between the Crown dependencies i. e. Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, and the UK Government. These are self-governing possessions of the British monarch, through her titles as Duke of Normandy in the Channel Islands and it processes legislation for Royal Assent passed by the insular legislative assemblies and consults with the Islands on extending UK legislation to them. It also ensures that relevant UK legislation is extended to the islands smoothly, the Ministry has outlined its aims for the 2011–15 Parliament in its structural reform plan, which commits the department to,1. Develop court reforms to improve the resolution of disputes, maximise efficiency and improve services and work with others to make delivery of justice more effective. Assure better law Assure that law-making is transparent and accountable, safeguarding civil liberties, Reform how the ministry delivers its services Reform the way the Ministry of Justice works. Reassess its ways of working to develop more efficient shared services, match its provision ever more closely to demand, reduce duplication, the departmental board has overall responsibility for delivery of the structural reform plan. It publishes progress against the plan on the 10 Downing Street website, official website Ministry of Justice resources for legal professionals Ministry of Justice organogram from data. gov. uk
5.
Secretary of State for Justice
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On 9 May 2007, the Department for Constitutional Affairs was abolished, and a Ministry of Justice was created in its place. The Ministry of Justice is also responsible for certain functions transferred from the Home Office, the then Lord Chancellor, Charlie Falconer, was appointed to the post of Secretary of State for Justice on the abolition of his position as Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. The Home Secretary, John Reid, told Parliament that future Secretaries of State for Justice would be MPs rather than peers and he was replaced by Conservative MP Ken Clarke. In the Cabinet reshuffle of August 2012 Chris Grayling MP was promoted to Lord Chancellor and, by convention, after the 2015 UK General election, the position was given to former Government Chief Whip Michael Gove MP. Michael Gove was sacked after Theresa May became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 14 July 2016 and succeeded by Liz Truss
6.
Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service
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Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service is an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice. It was created on 1 April 2011 by the merger of Her Majestys Courts Service and it works from about 600 locations across the United Kingdom. The courts over which it has responsibility are the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Crown Court, the courts. The Chief Executive is responsible for the operations and administration of the agency. Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service is an agency, in contrast with the Scottish Court Service which is not subject to the control of a Minister in any way. However, it is unique in being such an agency and having constitutional accountability to judges as well as the Lord Chancellor, the framework document says that the agency is accountable to the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales and the Senior President of Tribunals. This provides a unique partnership between all three in relation to the governance, financing and operation of Her Majesty’s Courts and Tribunals Service. For example, where the Board cannot reach agreement, its Chair will refer the issue in question to the Lord Chancellor, any amendment of the framework document must be agreed between all parties, and laid before Parliament. Furthermore, the Lord Chief Justice is entitled to terminate the partnership if either concludes that it is no longer compatible with his position or the independence of the judiciary. Incumbent Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service website Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service Guidance website Judiciary of England and Wales website Crime and justice
7.
Judges' Council
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The Judges Council is a body in England and Wales that, representing the judiciary, advises the Lord Chief Justice on judicial matters. It has its roots in the original Council of the Judges of the Supreme Court. This was criticised on the grounds that the judges might do so ineffectively or slowly, the 1873 bills eventual clauses contained, thanks to the influence of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, provisions for the creation of a Council of the Judges of the Supreme Court. This Council would oversee the new system, reviewing its workings yearly. The Council first met on 6 June 1874, providing recommendations for the circuit courts, in 1892 the Council considered further reform of the court system to deal with growing backlogs in the Chancery Division and the cost of appeals to the House of Lords. After this the council met irregularly, only twice between 1900 and 1907, there was a ten-year gap between meetings in 1940 and 1950 respectively, and little was done. Denis Dobson, Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellors Office, suggested this was because other bodies now existed to do what the Council had been created to achieve, in 1986 Lord Donaldson and Professor I. R. Scott campaigned for a new, non-statutory, Judges Council, arguing that the judiciary had no representative body, at the same time, Sir Nicholas Browne-Wilkinson published a paper that the executives financial and managerial control over the judiciary was having a negative effect on judicial independence. On 11 January 1988 the proposal for a new Judges Council was discussed at the meeting of the High Court of Justice. The new Council was described in Parliament as, An independent body without a formal constitution and it has no statutory basis, exercises no executive functions and controls no public expenditure. It meets to discuss issues of concern to the judiciary and to represents to the views of the senior judiciary to the Lord Chancellor and other individuals. It is wholly independent of Government and is only to those whose views it represents. Its membership is a matter for the Council itself and those whose views it represents, the Councils initial remit was to promote co-operation between the judiciary and executive, maintain judicial independence and make court procedure more efficient. To this end, it was composed of the Lord Chief Justice, the Master of the Rolls, the Council adopted a written constitution in 2002, and has considerably widened its membership to include representatives from other parts of the judiciary. Each level of the judiciary is represented in the Judges Council, the composition, as of January 2017, is, The Lord Chief Justice of England & Wales – The Rt. The Lord Thomas Master of the Rolls and Head of Civil Justice – The Rt, Sir Terence Etherton President of the Queen’s Bench Division – The Rt. Sir Brian Leveson President of the Family Division and Head of Family Justice – The Rt, Sir James Munby The Chancellor of the High Court – The Rt. Sir Geoffrey Vos The Vice President of the Court of Appeal Criminal Division – The Rt, lady Justice Hallett DBE The Chairman of the Judicial College - The Rt
8.
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
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The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the supreme court in all matters under English and Welsh law, Northern Ireland law and Scottish civil law. It is the court of last resort and the highest appellate court in the United Kingdom, the Supreme Court was established by Part 3 of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and started work on 1 October 2009. Its jurisdiction over devolution matters had previously exercised by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Because of the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the Supreme Court is much more limited in its powers of review than the constitutional or supreme courts of some other countries. It cannot overturn any primary legislation made by Parliament, however, it can overturn secondary legislation if, for example, that legislation is found to be ultra vires to the powers in primary legislation allowing it to be made. Such a declaration can apply to primary or secondary legislation, the legislation is not overturned by the declaration, and neither Parliament nor the government is required to agree with any such declaration. The current President of the Supreme Court is Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury, the Supreme Courts focus is on cases that raise points of law of general public importance. The Supreme Court also determines devolution issues, ordinarily, all twelve justices do not all hear every case. Typically a case is heard by a panel of five justices, the justices are also members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and spend some of their time in that capacity. The creation of a Supreme Court for the United Kingdom was first mooted in a paper published by the Department of Constitutional Affairs in July 2003. Space within the House of Lords was at a constant premium, the main argument against a new Supreme Court was that the previous system had worked well and kept costs down. Reformers expressed concern that this second main example of a mixture of the legislative, judicial, officials who make or execute laws have an interest in court cases that put those laws to the test. When the state invests judicial authority in those officials or even their colleagues, it puts the independence. Lord Phillips said such an outcome was a possibility, but was unlikely, the reforms were controversial and were brought forward with little consultation but were subsequently extensively debated in Parliament. During 2004, a committee of the House of Lords scrutinised the arguments for. The Government estimated the set-up cost of the Supreme Court at £56.9 million, the Supreme Court was established by Part 3 of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and started work on 1 October 2009. Its jurisdiction over devolution matters had previously held by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The first case heard by the Supreme Court was HM Treasury v Ahmed, at issue was the extent to which Parliament has, by the United Nations Act 1946, delegated to the executive the power to legislate
9.
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
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The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is one of the highest judicial bodies in the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Councillors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. It is often referred to as the Privy Council, as in most cases appeals are made to Her Majesty in Council. The panel of judges hearing a case is known as the Board. The report of the Board is always accepted by the Queen in Council as judgment, in Commonwealth republics retaining the JCPC as their final court of appeal, appeals are made directly to the Judicial Committee itself. In the case of Brunei, appeals are made to the Sultan of Brunei, formerly the Judicial Committee gave a unanimous report, but since the Judicial Committee Order 1966 dissenting opinions have been allowed. The Judicial Committees permanent home is in London, in the United Kingdom, in this renovated building, Court 3 is used for Privy Council sittings. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has jurisdiction in the domestic matters. Appeals from the courts in non-doctrinal faculty cases. Appeals from the High Court of Chivalry, Appeals from the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports. Appeals from the Disciplinary Committee of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975. Additionally, the government may refer any issue to the committee for consideration, in other courts in the United Kingdom, judgments of the Judicial Committee are only of persuasive authority and are not binding as a matter of law. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal for the Church of England. It hears appeals from the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York, except on matters of doctrine, ritual or ceremony, which go to the Court for Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved. By the Church Discipline Act 1840 and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 all archbishops and bishops of the Church of England became eligible to be members of the Judicial Committee. Prior to the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, on 1 October 2009 this jurisdiction was transferred to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The New Zealand associated states of Cook Islands and Niue, the Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey, including Guernseys own dependencies of Alderney and Sark, and appeals from the Staff of Government Division on the Isle of Man. The United Kingdoms Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, in Cyprus, Appeal is directly to the Judicial Committee from three independent Commonwealth republics, Mauritius and Trinidad and Tobago, and also, if the case involves constitutional rights, Kiribati
10.
Court of Appeal (England and Wales)
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Within the English legal system, the Court of Appeal is second only to the Supreme Court. Established in 1875, the Court of Appeal today comprises 39 Lord Justices of Appeal, the Court has two divisions, Criminal and Civil, led by the Lord Chief Justice and Master of the Rolls respectively. Criminal appeals are heard in its Criminal Division, and civil appeals in the Civil Division, the Criminal Division also hears appeals from the Crown Court, while the Civil Division hears appeals from the County Courts and High Court of Justice. Leave to appeal is required either the lower court or the Court of Appeal itself. The appeal system before 1875 was chaotic and this was the subject of a review by the Judicature Commission, established in 1867 to consider the creation of a Supreme Court which was published in 1869. The recommendation was that there should be a system of appeal from all of the High Court divisions. This was instituted by the Judicature Acts, with the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 giving an almost limitless right of appeal to the Lords. The new legal structure provided a single Court of Appeal, which heard appeals from all the various Divisions of the new unified High Court of Justice, after the opening of the Royal Courts of Justice in 1882 the Court of Appeal transferred there, where it remains. The appeals from the County Courts were seen similarly, involving an appeal to the High Court of Justice, the process of leapfrogging, which they had recommended, was eventually brought into force with the Administration of Justice Act 1969. A separate Court of Criminal Appeal had been established in 1908, in 1966 this was merged with its older namesake, establishing the present-day structure of a single Court of Appeal with two Divisions. In the early 1960s there was an exchange between judges and academics in the United Kingdom and United States comparing the process of used in both nations. After a trial in the Court of Appeal, despite the success of this, the court which Lord Denning presided over from 1962 to 1982 was under no pressure and had no inclination to modernise, with liaisons and management handled by clerks with little knowledge. This changed in 1981 with the appointment of a Registrar, John Adams, an academic and lawyer, in July 1996, Lord Woolf published Access to Justice, a report on the accessibility of the courts to the public. Woolf identified civil litigation as being characterised by excessive cost, delay and complexity, and managed to replace the diverse rules with a single set of Civil Procedure Rules. Bowman noted a growing workload and delays, with 14 months between setting down and disposing of a case in 70 percent of cases, the rest taking even longer than that – some had five years. Bowmans recommendations were enacted through statutory provisions, such as Part IV of the Access to Justice Act 1999. In Tanfern Ltd v Cameron-MacDonald 1 WLR1311, Brooke LJ laid down the procedural methods of the Court of Appeal post-Woolf and Bowman. With a few exceptions, such as cases where the liberty of the subject is an issue, permission is required to appeal, the Civil Division deals with all non-criminal cases, and has been part of the Court since its establishment in 1875
11.
Master of the Rolls
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The position dates from at least 1286, although it is believed that the office probably existed earlier than that. The Master of the Rolls was initially a clerk responsible for keeping the Rolls, or records, of the Court of Chancery, the Keeper was the most senior of the dozen Chancery clerks, and as such occasionally acted as keeper of the Great Seal of the Realm. The post evolved into a one as the Court of Chancery did. He retained his functions as the nominal head of the Public Record Office until the Public Records Act 1958 transferred responsibility for it to the Lord Chancellor. One residual reminder of this role is the fact that the Master of the Rolls of the day continues to serve, ex officio, the Master of the Rolls was also previously responsible for registering solicitors, the officers of the Senior Courts. One of the most prominent people to hold the position was Thomas Cromwell, on 3 October 2016, Sir Terence Etherton succeeded Lord Dyson as Master of the Rolls. Category, Masters of the Rolls Hanworth, Lord, some Notes on the Office of Master of the Rolls. The Judges of England 1272–1990, a list of judges of the superior courts
12.
High Court of Justice
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Her Majestys High Court of Justice in England is, together with the Court of Appeal and the Crown Court, one of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. Its name is abbreviated as EWHC for legal citation purposes and it has three main divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division. The jurisdictions overlap in some cases, and cases started in one division may be transferred by order to another where appropriate. Most High Court proceedings are heard by a judge, but certain kinds of proceedings, especially in the Queens Bench Division, are assigned to a Divisional Court. Exceptionally the court may sit with a jury, but in practice only in defamation cases or cases against the police. Litigants are normally represented by counsel, but may be represented by solicitors qualified to hold a right of audience, in principle the High Court is bound by its own previous decisions, but there are conflicting authorities as to what extent. In criminal matters appeals from the Queens Bench Divisional Court are made directly to the Supreme Court, the High Court is based at the Royal Courts of Justice on the Strand in the City of Westminster, London. It has district registries across England and Wales and almost all High Court proceedings may be issued, the High Court is headed by the Lord Chief Justice. The High Court is organised into three divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division, a list of hearings in the High Courts divisions is published daily. The Queens Bench Division – or Kings Bench Division when the monarch is male – has two roles and it hears a wide range of common law cases and also has special responsibility as a supervisory court. Until 2005, the head of the QBD was the Lord Chief Justice, Sir Igor Judge was the first person to hold this office, appointed in October 2005. A single judge first decides whether the matter is fit to bring to the court, in addition, the Queens Bench Divisional Court hears appeals on points of law from the Magistrates Court and from the Crown Court. These are known as appeals by way of case stated, since the questions of law are considered solely on the basis of the facts found, other specialised courts of the Queens Bench Division include the Technology and Construction Court, Commercial Court, and the Admiralty Court. The specialised judges and procedures of these courts are tailored to their type of business, appeals from the High Court in civil matters are made to the Court of Appeal, in criminal matters appeal from the Divisional Court is made only to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Chancery Division deals with law, trusts law, probate law, insolvency. It has specialist courts which deal with patents and registered designs, all tax appeals are assigned to the Chancery Division. The head of the Chancery Division was known as the Vice-Chancellor until October 2005, the first Chancellor was Sir Andrew Morritt, who retired in 2013 to be succeeded by Sir Terence Etherton. In 2016, Sir Geoffrey Vos succeeded Sir Terence as Chancellor on the appointment as Master of the Rolls
13.
High Court judge (England and Wales)
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High Court judges are referred to as puisne judges. High Court Judges wear red and black robes, upon appointment all High Court judges are knighted, or in the case of female judges made Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire. So, for example, Nigel Bridge became Sir Nigel Bridge, in court, a High Court judge is referred to as My Lord or Your Lordship if male, or as My Lady or Your Ladyship if female. High Court judges use the title in office of Mr Justice for men or, normally, when, however, Dame Alison Russell was appointed in 2014, she took the title Ms Justice Russell. The style of The Honourable is also used during office, for example, Sir Joseph Bloggs would be referred to as The Hon Mr Justice Bloggs Kt. and Dame Jane Bloggs DBE as The Hon Mrs Justice Bloggs DBE, for as long as they continue to hold office. When there is already or has recently been a judge with the same surname as a new appointee. Many judges have done this, such as Mr Justice Christopher Clarke, when referring to a High Court judge in a legal context, the judge is identified by use of the surname, followed by the letter J. For example, Mr Justice Bloggs or Mrs Justice Bloggs would be referred to as Bloggs J, where several judges are listed the double letters JJ are used, for example, Bloggs, Smith and Jones JJ. High Court judges, as with the other Senior Judiciary are appointed by The Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 a new Judicial Appointments Commission has removed the appointment of judges from the political arena. High Court judges, as with other judges, are now appointed on the basis of open competition, High Court judges, as with all judges in England and Wales, hold office during good behaviour, this is laid down in the Bill of Rights 1689. A High Court judge can only be removed by the Queen upon an Address of both Houses of Parliament, formerly, High Court judges could only be appointed from among barristers of at least 10 years standing. Before the qualifications changed, a typical appointee had in the region of twenty to thirty years experience as a lawyer. Only four solicitors had been appointed as puisne judges – Michael Sachs in 1993, Lawrence Collins in 2000, Henry Hodge in 2004, Collins was elevated further to the Court of Appeal in 2007 and became a law lord in 2009. A few distinguished academics have made it on to the High Court bench, including Mrs Justice Hale and, more recently. List of High Court Judges of England and Wales Judicial titles in England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales
14.
County court
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Since 2014, England and Wales have had what is officially described as a single civil court named the County Court, with unlimited financial jurisdiction. However it should be understood there are County Court buildings and courtrooms throughout England and Wales. It is a civil court in the sense of a single centrally organised and administered court system. County court districts did not have the boundaries as counties. Today the court sits in many County Court centres, currently corresponding to the old county courts. County Court matters can be lodged at a court in person, cases are normally heard at the court having jurisdiction over the area where the claimant lives. Most matters are decided by a judge or circuit judge sitting alone. Civil matters in England do not have juries, judges in the County Court are either former barristers or former solicitors, whereas in the High Court they are more likely to have formerly been a barrister. Civil claims with an amount in controversy under £10,000 are dealt with in the County Court under the small claims track. Claims between £5,000 and £25,000 that are capable of being tried within one day are allocated to the fast track and claims over £25,000 to the multi track. These tracks are labels for the use of the court system - the actual cases will be heard in the County Court or the High Court depending on their value, for personal injury, defamation, and some landlord-tenant dispute cases the thresholds for each track have different values. Appeals are to a judge, the High Court of Justice or to the Court of Appeal. In debt cases, the aim of a claimant taking County Court action against a defendant is to secure a County Court judgment and this is a legal order to pay the full amount of the debt. County Court judgments are recorded in the Register of Judgments, Orders and Fines and this information is used in consumer credit scores, making it difficult or more expensive for the defendant to obtain credit. In order to avoid the record being kept for years in the register, if the debt was not fully paid within the statutory period, the entry will remain for six full years. County court is the given to the intermediate court in some Australian states. They hear indictable criminal offences except for treason, murder, in some states the same level of court is called a district court. Below them are the magistrates courts, above them are the state supreme courts
15.
County Court Business Centre
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The County Court Business Centre is a centre of the County Court of England and Wales created to deal with claims by the use of various electronic media. Unlike other County Court centres the CCBC does not physically hear cases, if any case might require a hearing it is transferred to another centre. The increasing ubiquity of computers and Internet access led to discussion of allowing greater use of information technology to run court proceedings. In January 1990 the Claim Production Centre was created, with the power to issue and this is currently enshrined within Rule 7.10 of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998. All claims issued through the CPC were originally issued in the name of a county court in the way as claims issued in the traditional manner. In March 1992 the CCBC was created to remove the burden of routine matters in simple CPC cases from the county court. The current definition of such matters is contained in Practice Direction 7C, currently both the CPC and CCBC are located in Northampton. Use of the CCBC is available only to members, Membership is free and is available to anyone who successfully demonstrates they can meet the IT requirements of the CCBC. Continued use of the CCBC is subject to the Rules of Membership, cases can be issued through the CCBC in two different ways. Money Claim Online was created in February 2002 and it provides users who wish to issue a limited number of claims to commence and manage County Court proceedings using a website, and to pay court fees online using a credit card. Fees for all of these cases can be paid in a lump sum, previously files could be submitted on floppy disk or magnetic tape. For this reason long-standing users of the CCBC may still refer to the file as the tape. In 2012 a secure email transfer system was implemented as an interim measure until the new SDT system was completed, once this was done the secure email transfer option was removed. CCBC users may poll the SDT API to request updates on the status of their cases, as well as issuing claim forms, the CCBC also handles requests for judgments and warrants of execution in the same manner. Claim forms issued by the CCBC are served upon the defendant in the manner as other courts. However, the pack also includes a password to allow the defendant to file their response via a website. Where the defendant contests some, or all, of the claim, Rule 7 allows for limits to be placed on the types of claim that may be issued via the CCBC. In addition the CCBC cannot be used to issue claims under Part 8 of the CPR, Northampton Bulk Centre Money Claim Online Civil Procedure Rules 1998 online
16.
Judiciary of England and Wales
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There are various levels of judiciary in England and Wales — different types of courts have different styles of judges. At 31 March 2006 there were 1,825 judges in post in England and Wales, some judges with United Kingdom-wide jurisdiction also sit in England and Wales, particularly Justices of the United Kingdom Supreme Court and members of the tribunals judiciary. By statute, judges are guaranteed continuing judicial independence, the following is a list of the various types of judges who sit in the Courts of England and Wales, Since 3 April 2006, the Lord Chief Justice has been the overall head of the judiciary. Previously he was second to the Lord Chancellor, but that office lost its functions under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. The Lord Chief Justice is also the head of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal and he was also President of the Queens Bench Division of the High Court, but on becoming head of the judiciary that responsibility was transferred to a new office. Although the Lord Chancellor is no longer a judge, he still exercises disciplinary authority over the judges and he also has a role in appointing judges. In law reports, the Lord Chief Justice is referred to as Smith LCJ or Lord Smith CJ, and the Lord Chancellor as Smith C. In court, the Lord Chief Justice wears a black gown with gold lace along with a short wig during criminal cases. Ceremonially, the Lord Chief Justice wears the red robe with white trim along with a gold chain, the Master of the Rolls is head of the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal. The other Heads are in charge of the three divisions of the High Court, the Chancellor of the High Court is President of the Chancery Division of the High Court. Until 2006 this role was held by the Lord Chancellor. The Vice-Chancellor was renamed Chancellor of the High Court when the Lord Chancellors judicial role was abolished, the Heads of Division are referred to in law reports as Smith MR, Smith P, Smith P, and Smith C respectively. Vice-Chancellors from pre-2006 Chancery cases were referred to as Smith VC, in court, the Heads of Division wear a black damask gown with gold lace along with a short wig during criminal cases and the black civil gown with gold tabs during civil cases. Ceremonially, the Heads of Division wear red gowns with white trim along with full wigs except for the Master of the Rolls who wears the black gown with gold lace. Judges of the Court of Appeal are known as Lords Justices, before swearing in they may be addressed as The Honourable Lord Justice Smith, and after swearing in as the Right Honourable Lord Justice Smith. Female Lord Justices are known as Lady Justices, addressed as My Lord or My Lady. In law reports, referred to as Smith LJ, and, for more than one judge, Smith, formerly, Lords Justices of Appeal could only be drawn from barristers of at least 10 years standing. The Lord Justices wear black gowns and court coats and short wigs during criminal cases
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High Court of Chivalry
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Her Majestys High Court of Chivalry is a civil court in all matters under English and Welsh law relating to the jurisdiction of heraldry. The court has been in existence since the century, however. The sole judge is now the hereditary Earl Marshal of England, in Scotland, these types of cases are heard in the Court of the Lord Lyon, which is a standing civil and criminal court, with its own Procurator Fiscal under the Scottish legal system. The court was known as the Curia Militaris, the Court of the Constable. During this time the court heard well over a thousand cases, the case itself was that the Palace theatre had been displaying the arms of the Manchester Corporation both inside and on its seal and this usage implied that it was linked with the citys council. The Corporation had requested that the theatre stop using it, the court ruled in favour of the Corporation. Since 1832, appeals from the High Court of Chivalry are to be directly by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Sittings by these Commissioners became known as the High Court of Delegates by the time of the 1832 Act. Since then the office of Lord High Constable of England has only been appointed to perform ceremonial duties during a Coronation and there has only been the Earl Marshal acting as the sole judge
18.
Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales
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The Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales is the head of the judiciary and President of the Courts of England and Wales. The Lord Chief Justice is also the nominal President of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal and Head of Criminal Justice, but can appoint another judge to these positions under the 2005 Act. The Lord Chief Justices equivalent in Scotland is the Lord President of the Court of Session, there is also a Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland, successor to the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland of the pre-Partition era. The current Lord Chief Justice is Lord Thomas of Cwmgiedd, who took over the role on 1 October 2013, although the Court of the Kings Bench had existed since 1234, the title of chief justice was not used until 1268. In the intermediary period, one of the justices would be considered the senior judge, the suffix and Wales, now found in statutes and elsewhere, was unilaterally appended by Lord Bingham of Cornhill between 1996 and 2000. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 made the Lord Chief Justice the President of the Courts of England and Wales, vesting the office with many of the powers formerly held by the Lord Chancellor. While the Lord Chief Justice retains the role of President of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal, the first Lord Chief Justice to act as head of the judiciary under the provisions of the CRA was Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers. The CRA also provides that the Lord Chief Justice is chosen by a specially appointed committee convened by the Judicial Appointments Commission
19.
Crown Court
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The Crown Court of England and Wales is, together with the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal, one of the constituent parts of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. It is the court of first instance in criminal cases, however, for some purposes the Crown Court is hierarchically subordinate to the High Court. The Crown Court sits in around 92 locations in England and Wales, the administration of the Crown Court is conducted through HM Courts and Tribunals Service. Previously conducted across six circuits, HM Courts and Tribunals Service is now divided into seven regions, Midlands, North East, North West, South East, South West, London and Wales. The Wales region was identified separately, having regard to the legislative powers of the Welsh Assembly Government. When the Crown Court sits in the City of London it is known as the Central Criminal Court, the average time from receipt by the Crown Court to completion was 177 days by the start of 2016. Rather than speaking of a location at which the Crown Court sits, it is practice to refer to any venue as a Crown Court. In 2015 the Crown Court heard 11,348 appeals against conviction, at the conclusion of the hearing the Crown Court has the power to confirm, reverse or vary any part of the decision under appeal. The average waiting time for appeals was 8.8 weeks in 2015, in 2015 the Crown Court dealt with 30,802 cases for sentencing from the magistrates courts. Committals may also arise from breaches of the terms of a Community Rehabilitation Order or a sentence of imprisonment. The court performance target is that cases committed for sentence should be heard within 10 weeks, when the Crown Court is dealing with a matter connected with a trial on indictment, appeal lies to the criminal division of the Court of Appeal and thence to the Supreme Court. In all other cases, appeal from the Crown Court lies by way of case stated to a Divisional Court of the High Court, the judges who normally sit in the Crown Court are High Court judges, Circuit judges and Recorders. Circuit judges also sit in the County Court, Recorders are barristers or solicitors in private practice, who sit part-time as judges. The most serious cases are allocated to High Court judges and Senior Circuit judges, the remainder are dealt with by Circuit judges and Recorders, although Recorders will normally handle less serious work than Circuit judges. The allocation is conducted according to directions given by the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Crown Court was established on 1 January 1972 by the Courts Act 1971, acting on the recommendations of the commission. The quarter sessions were local courts assembled four times a year to dispose of cases which were not serious enough to go before a High Court judge. The Crown Court and a county court may sit in the same building, since the establishment of Her Majestys Courts Service in April 2005 there is an increased sharing of facilities between the Crown Court, county courts and magistrates courts. At the front of the court, on a platform, is a large bench
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Circuit judge (England and Wales)
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There are currently over 600 circuit judges throughout England and Wales. The office of judge was created by the Courts Act 1971 and replaced the former offices of Chairman of Quarter Sessions. Circuit judges are styled His or Her Honour Judge X and are referred to as His or Her Honour and they are sometimes referred to as purple judges on account of their purple colour dress robes. Part-time circuit judges are known as Recorders but are also addressed as Your Honour, Circuit judges rank below High Court judges but above District judges. They may be appointed to sit as deputy High Court judges, some are also eligible to sit in the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal, though they are the more senior circuit judges. Until April 1,2005 there were six circuits in England and Wales, namely the Midland, Northern, North Eastern, South Eastern and Western circuits. On that date, following the creation of Her Majestys Courts Service, formerly, circuit judges could only be drawn from barristers and solicitors of at least 10 years standing. When hearing criminal cases, circuit judges wear a robe with lilac trim, bands, a short horsehair wig. For civil cases the tippet is lilac and neither bands nor wigs are worn, when sitting at the Old Bailey, and for some types of High court work, circuit judges wear a black silk gown over a court coat or a waistcoat. On ceremonial occasions they wear violet robes with a lilac trim, in Rumpole and the Reign of Terror by John Mortimer, Horace Rumpole dismisses the idea of being a circuit judge, Circus judge is what I call them. Judicial Roles - Circuit Judge, judiciary. gov. uk
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Recorder (judge)
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Its jurisdiction did not extend to civil suits. It was merged into the Wayne County Circuit Court, the general court in Wayne County. It traces its roots to the Mayors Court in Detroit, formed in 1824 and this municipal court probably owed its name to the fact that from 1827 until 1857, the official name of the City of Detroit was The Mayor, Recorder and Alderman of Detroit. In its 173-year history, it is probable that the Ossian Sweet family murder trials—defended by Clarence Darrow, the trials are memorialized in two official Michigan Historical Markers, Frank Murphy Dr. Ossian Sweet / Home Additionally, there is a Michigan Legal Milestones. Plaque (erected by the State Bar of Michigan in the first floor of the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice in Detroit, Kevin Boyles chronicle, Arc of Justice, A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age was adapted into a play. Mr. Boyle was honored by the Detroit City Council for The Sweet Trials, *The Sweet Trials, Malice Aforethought is a play written by Arthur Beer, based on the trials of Ossian and Henry Sweet, and derived from Kevin Boyles Arc of Justice. The merger of the Recorders court and Wayne County Circuit Court was not without controversy and it was made pursuant to a 1997 state law which also consolidated the states probate courts into a family court, a far less controversial change. A lawsuit brought by Richard Kuhn opposed the merger, but did not prevail, prior to the merger, judges of Recorders Court were elected from Detroit, so unsurprisingly, most of them were African-American. Then Detroit Recorders Court was abolished — or rather, it was merged with Wayne County Circuit Court, the Recorders Court judges became Circuit Court judges, and have to run for re-election in Wayne County as a whole, which is predominantly white. At the time of its merger, and now as reconfigured as a part of the Wayne County Circuit Court, gershwin A. ISBN 0-8050-7933-5, ISBN 978-0-8050-7933-3
22.
Magistrates' court (England and Wales)
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In England and Wales, a magistrates court is a lower court, where almost all criminal proceedings start. Some civil matters are also decided here, notably family proceedings and they have been streamlined to deliver justice swiftly. In 2015 there were roughly 330 magistrates courts in England and Wales, the jurisdiction of magistrates courts and rules governing them are set out in the Magistrates Courts Act 1980. Summary offences are crimes, that can be punished under the magistrates courts limited sentencing powers – community sentences, fines. Either-way offences will ultimately fall into one of the previous categories depending on how serious the crime in question is. Cases are heard by a bench of three lay judges, or by a district judge, there is no jury at a magistrates court. Criminal cases are usually, although not exclusively, investigated by the police, defendants may hire a solicitor or barrister to represent them, often paid for by legal aid. There are magistrates courts in other common-law jurisdictions, in criminal matters, magistrates’ courts in England and Wales have been organized to deal with minor offences in a speedy manner. All criminal cases start here and over 95 percent of them will end here too – only the most serious ones go to Crown Court, summary offences are the least serious criminal offences. They include driving offences, vandalism, criminal damage of small extent, low level violent offences and being drunk and disorderly. This kind of small criminality will be dealt with in summary proceedings at a court. Both verdict and sentence are solely in the hands of judges and magistrates, the sentencing powers of magistrates courts are therefore limited. For one summary offence, they can inflict imprisonment of up to six months, when dealing with two or more separate either-way offences, the maximum total custodial sentence is 12 months. The maximum fine available is usually £5,000, though for certain specified offences maximum fines permitted to magistrates may be higher, there is no maximum aggregate fine. Some driving offences are punished by licence points and/or disqualification from driving for a period of time. There are four types of available to the magistrates - a discharge, a financial penalty, a community order. The majority of sentences will be non-custodial sentences, for either way offences, if the magistrates feel that their powers of sentencing are insufficient, they can send the case up to a judge at the Crown Court, who can impose more severe sentences. Often the point is to achieve justice and reformation of the offenders
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Magistrate (England and Wales)
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They are called justices of the peace or magistrates. These magistrates were termed lay magistrates to distinguish them from professional magistrates known as stipendiary magistrates, district judges sit alone to hear cases and are permanently employed by the Ministry of Justice. Magistrates are not paid, apart from an allowance for loss of earnings, mileage, a practising solicitor or barrister may sit part-time as a deputy district judge. Retired district judges may sit as deputies. District judges are addressed in court as sir or madam. In law reports, they are referred to as DJ Smith, Magistrates generally sit in threes in order to give judgement on a variety of cases in magistrates courts, youth courts and family proceedings courts. The lead magistrate, known as the chairman, is addressed in court as sir or madam or your worship. In law reports, they are referred to as John Smith JP, Magistrates deal with less serious criminal cases, such as minor theft, criminal damage, assaults, public disorder and motoring offences. All magistrates sit in adult criminal courts as benches of three, mixed in gender, age and ethnicity whenever possible to bring a broad experience of life to the bench. All three members of the bench have equal decision-making powers but only the chairman speaks in court, a qualified legal adviser, also known as the court clerk, sits with the bench in the court room and is available to them at all times during the court sitting. The term bench is also used collectively to describe a group of magistrates assigned to a local justice area. Today, in England and Wales, the word is used to describe a justice of the peace, the office of justice of the peace has its origins in the 12th century when Richard I appointed keepers of the peace in 1195. The title justice of the peace derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III, an Act of 1327 had referred to good and lawful men to be appointed in every county in the land to guard the Peace. Justices of the peace still retain the power confirmed to them by the Justices of the Peace Act 1361 to bind over unruly persons to be of good behaviour. The bind over is not a punishment, but a preventive measure, over the following centuries, justices acquired many administrative duties, such as the administration of the Poor Laws, highways and bridges, and weights and measures. It was relatively common for these magistrates to write out, on the spot, the 19th century saw elected local authorities taking over many of these duties. There is one remnant of these duties, the jurisdiction over the licensing of pubs and clubs. Towards the end of the 18th century, the absence of a police force
24.
Attorney General for England and Wales
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Her Majestys Attorney General for England and Wales, usually known simply as the Attorney General, is one of the Law Officers of the Crown. Along with the subordinate Solicitor General for England and Wales, the Attorney General serves as the legal adviser of the Crown and its government in England. The current Attorney General is Jeremy Wright, MP, the position of Attorney General existed since at least 1243, when records show a professional attorney was hired to represent the Kings interests in court. The position first took on a role in 1461 when the holder of the office was summoned to the House of Lords to advise the government there on legal matters. In 1673 the Attorney General officially became the Crowns adviser and representative in legal matters, the beginning of the twentieth century saw a shift away from litigation and more towards legal advice. The job of the Attorney General is a one. Duties include superintending the Crown Prosecution Service, the Serious Fraud Office, since the passing of the Law Officers Act 1997 duties can be delegated to the Solicitor General, and any actions are treated as if they came from the Attorney General. During the early days of the office the holder was largely concerned with representing the Crown in litigation, the office first took on a political element in 1461, when the holder was summoned by writ to the House of Lords to advise the government on legal matters. This was also the first time that the office was referred to as the office of the Attorney General, during the constitutional struggle centred on the Royal Declaration of Indulgence in 1672 and 1673 the Attorney General officially became the Crowns representative in legal matters. In 1890 the ability of an Attorney General to continue practising privately was formally taken away, despite this change, until the passing of the Homicide Act 1957 the Attorney General was bound to prosecute any and all poisoning cases. The Attorney General is a minister who leads the Attorney Generals Office. As a government minister, the Attorney General is directly answerable to Parliament, as well as the government as a whole, he also advises individual departments. By convention, he represents the government in case in front of the International Court of Justice. The Attorney General also superintends the Crown Prosecution Service and appoints its head, an example of a consent case is the Campbell Case, which led to the fall of the first Labour government in 1924. The Attorney General also superintends the Government Legal Department, the Serious Fraud Office, and he or she is also officially the leader of the Bar of England and Wales, although this is merely custom and has no duties or rights attached to it. The Attorney Generals duties have long been considered strenuous, with Sir Patrick Hastings saying that to be a law officer is to be in hell, list of Attorneys General for England and Wales Solicitor General for England and Wales Attorney Generals Office. The governance of Britain, a consultation on the role of the Attorney General, predecessors of the Federal Attorney General, The Attorney General in England and the American Colonies. The American Journal of Legal History, media related to Attorneys General for England and Wales at Wikimedia Commons Texts on Wikisource, Attorney-General
25.
Crown Prosecution Service
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The Crown Prosecution Service is the principal public prosecuting agency for conducting criminal prosecutions in England and Wales. It is headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions, from 1829 onwards, as the police forces were formed, they began to take on the burden of bringing prosecutions against suspected criminals. Police forces continued to be responsible for the bulk of cases, sometimes referring difficult ones to the Director, the Royal Commissions recommendation was not implemented by all police forces however, and so in 1978 another Royal Commission was set up, this time headed by Sir Cyril Philips. It reported in 1981, recommending that a single unified Crown Prosecution Service with responsibility for all public prosecutions in England, in 1997, Sir Iain Glidewell was commissioned by the government to investigate reform of the CPS. The inquiry reported in June 1998, finding that 12% of charges brought by police were discontinued by the CPS, and that there were failures to communicate between the police and CPS. The CPS undertook more than 800,000 prosecutions in 2012–13, the conviction rate was 86 per cent in the magistrates courts and 80 percent in the Crown Courts. The CPS has implemented such as the Core Quality Standards with the intention of maintaining and raising standards. Self-employed barristers are also paid to represent the prosecution in court in more complicated cases, the number of employees prior to the spending review was approximately 9,000. Headquartered in London and York, the CPS manages the organisation, the Director of Public Prosecutions is assisted by the CPS Chief Executive in running the organisation. Most of its casework is dealt with by the thirteen CPS Areas, CPS Direct provides charging advice/authorisation by phone and electronically to police forces at all hours. Most charging decisions by the CPS are now made by CPS Direct, welfare, Rural and Health Division – Benefit fraud, regulation of medicinal products and offences investigated by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. The Attorney General oversees the work of the CPS, meeting regularly with the DPP, the Attorney answer for the CPS’s performance and conduct in Parliament. However, the Attorney has no role in the running of the organisation or in deciding whether a suspect should be prosecuted. The CPS is an independent prosecuting authority and government ministers have no influence over its decision making, the only exceptions to this rule are when a case involves matters of national security or the Attorney must personally consent to a prosecution. Due to the Attorney’s limited role in the CPS’s casework, the use of nolle prosequi is now rare, questionable incidents, such as the dropping of the case against John Bodkin Adams for what was believed to be purely political reasons, have not been repeated in modern times. Her Majesty’s Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate is responsible for inspecting the work of the CPS, the current Chief Inspector of the CPS is Kevin McGinty. The CPS will often provide confidential advice to investigators on the viability of a prosecution in complex or unusual cases and this includes clarifying the intent needed to commit an offence or addressing shortcomings in the available evidence. Unlike in many jurisdictions, the CPS has no power to order investigations or direct investigators to take action
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Law Society of England and Wales
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The Law Society of England and Wales is the professional association that represents and governs the lawyers profession for the jurisdiction of England and Wales. It provides services and support to practising and training lawyers as well as serving as a board for law reform. Members of the Society are often consulted when important issues are being debated in Parliament or by the executive, the Society was formed in 1825. The Hall of The Law Society is in Chancery Lane, London, but it also has offices in Cardiff to deal with the Wales jurisdiction and Assembly, a president is elected annually to serve for one year. The current president is Robert Bourns, barristers in England and Wales have a similar professional body, the General Council of the Bar, commonly known as the Bar Council. London was dropped from the title in 1825 to reflect the fact that the Law Institution had national aspirations, the Society was founded on 2 June 1825, when a committee of management was appointed. A new Charter in 1845 defined the Society as an independent, private body servicing the affairs of the profession like other professional, literary, by further Royal Charter in 1903 the name of the Society was changed to simply The Law Society. The Society first admitted women members in 1922, although merged, the AWS will operate separately from the Law Society. In 1834, the Society first initiated proceedings against dishonest practitioners, by 1907, the Society possessed a statutory disciplinary committee, and was empowered to investigate solicitors accounts and to issue annual practising certificates. In 1983, the Society established the Office for the Supervision of Solicitors to deal with complaints about solicitors, Complaints regarding the conduct of solicitors are now dealt with by the Solicitors Regulation Authority. However complaints regarding poor service are the remit of the Legal Ombudsman, the Solicitors Act 1860 enabled the Society to create a three-tier examination system. In 1903, the Society established its own Law Society School of Law, by 1922 The Law Society required a compulsory academic year for all clerks. Following the recommendations of the Clementi Review The Law Society split its representative, the regulatory body for solicitors is the Solicitors Regulation Authority. It is a Board of The Law Society although it regulates and enforces regulation completely independently of the Law Society, Law Society Gazette Solicitors Regulation Authority Legal Complaints Service Law Society of Scotland Law Society of Northern Ireland Lexcel Official website
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Solicitor
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A solicitor is a legal practitioner who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally-defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor, for example, in England and Wales a solicitor is admitted to practise under the provisions of the Solicitors Act 1974. With some exceptions, practising solicitors must possess a practising certificate, there are many more solicitors than barristers in England, they undertake the general aspects of giving legal advice and conducting legal proceedings. Some legal graduates will start off as one and then qualify as the other. Since the replacement of the aspect of the House of Lords with the Supreme Court the full title of a solicitor is Solicitor of the Senior Courts of England. The term attorney is still used under English law to refer to someone legally appointed or empowered to act for another person. Currently, the term is most commonly used to refer to someone so appointed under a power of attorney, practitioners in specialist professions, notably intellectual property, are also referred to as attorneys, for example Registered Patent Attorney or Registered Trade Mark Attorney. Minor criminal cases are tried in Magistrates Courts, which constitute by far the majority of courts, more serious criminal cases still start in the Magistrates Court and may then be transferred to a higher court. The majority of cases are tried in county courts and are almost always handled by solicitors. In the past, barristers did not deal with the public directly and this rigid separation no longer applies. Solicitor advocates with extended rights of audience may now act as advocates at all levels of the courts, conversely, the public may now hire and interact with a barrister directly in certain types of work without having to go to a solicitor first. Registered Patent Attorneys and Registered Trade Mark Attorneys also have rights of audience in intellectual property matters, Solicitors in England and Wales who wish to practise must pay an annual fee to obtain a Practising Certificate. This fee is paid to the Law Society of England and Wales, the Solicitors Regulation Authority, though funded by these fees, acts independently of the Law Society. Together, the two make up the complete system of professional regulation for solicitors. Complaints about solicitors if not satisfactorily resolved by the firm may be made to the Legal Ombudsman. The training and qualification required to enter the profession by being admitted as a solicitor is regulated by the Solicitors Regulation Authority, there are two graduate routes of entry into the profession. Prospective solicitors holding a law degree proceed to enroll with the Law Society as a student member. Those holding a degree but one which is a qualifying degree must in addition have completed a conversion course prior to enrolling on the Legal Practice Course
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Judge
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A judge presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, the judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court. In some jurisdictions, the judges powers may be shared with a jury, in inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate. A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or occupation, in many parts of the world, judges wear long robes and sit on an elevated platform during trials. In some countries, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations, judges wear wigs, the long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous centuries. A short wig resembling but not identical to a wig would be worn in court. This tradition, however, is being phased out in Britain in non-criminal courts, American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial gavels, although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs, however, in some of the Western United States, like California, judges did not always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of state courts, such as the Maryland Court of Appeals wear distinct dress. In Italy and Portugal both judges and lawyers wear black robes. In Oman, the judge wears a stripe, while the attorneys wear the black gown. In Hong Kong, court proceedings are conducted in either English or Cantonese Chinese, Judges of Hong Kong retain many of the English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials. In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as Your worship, in writing, the post-nominal letters PJ is used to refer to a permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal and NPJ to a non-permanent judge. In the High Court, the abbreviation JA is used to denote a justice of appeal, Masters of the High Court are addressed as Master. When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as Fat Goon Dai Yan before the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, and as Fat Goon Gok Ha since 1997. In India, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts were addressed as Your Lordship or My Lord and Your Ladyship or My Lady, the Bar Council of India had adopted a resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49 in the Advocates Act. As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as Your Honour, if it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms such as sir or any equivalent phrase in the regional language concerned. Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the such as My Lord
29.
Hierarchy
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A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being above, below, or at the same level as one another. A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally, indirect hierarchical links can extend vertically upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues, each reports to a superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are alternative and complementary to hierarchy. A hierarchy is a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority, Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, for example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague, degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has a node has). Hierarchies can be categorized based on the degree, the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes, linear and branching, in a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a lineup, note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels, every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a hierarchy is the hierarchy of life. In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more, for many people, the word hierarchy automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes, the broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree. A flat hierarchy is a hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span, therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms which can be decomposed into subatomic particles. An overlapping hierarchy is a hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word both in reference to the hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy
30.
United Kingdom Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the supreme court in all matters under English and Welsh law, Northern Ireland law and Scottish civil law. It is the court of last resort and the highest appellate court in the United Kingdom, the Supreme Court was established by Part 3 of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and started work on 1 October 2009. Its jurisdiction over devolution matters had previously exercised by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Because of the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the Supreme Court is much more limited in its powers of review than the constitutional or supreme courts of some other countries. It cannot overturn any primary legislation made by Parliament, however, it can overturn secondary legislation if, for example, that legislation is found to be ultra vires to the powers in primary legislation allowing it to be made. Such a declaration can apply to primary or secondary legislation, the legislation is not overturned by the declaration, and neither Parliament nor the government is required to agree with any such declaration. The current President of the Supreme Court is Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury, the Supreme Courts focus is on cases that raise points of law of general public importance. The Supreme Court also determines devolution issues, ordinarily, all twelve justices do not all hear every case. Typically a case is heard by a panel of five justices, the justices are also members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and spend some of their time in that capacity. The creation of a Supreme Court for the United Kingdom was first mooted in a paper published by the Department of Constitutional Affairs in July 2003. Space within the House of Lords was at a constant premium, the main argument against a new Supreme Court was that the previous system had worked well and kept costs down. Reformers expressed concern that this second main example of a mixture of the legislative, judicial, officials who make or execute laws have an interest in court cases that put those laws to the test. When the state invests judicial authority in those officials or even their colleagues, it puts the independence. Lord Phillips said such an outcome was a possibility, but was unlikely, the reforms were controversial and were brought forward with little consultation but were subsequently extensively debated in Parliament. During 2004, a committee of the House of Lords scrutinised the arguments for. The Government estimated the set-up cost of the Supreme Court at £56.9 million, the Supreme Court was established by Part 3 of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and started work on 1 October 2009. Its jurisdiction over devolution matters had previously held by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The first case heard by the Supreme Court was HM Treasury v Ahmed, at issue was the extent to which Parliament has, by the United Nations Act 1946, delegated to the executive the power to legislate
31.
Statute
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A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city or country. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy, statutes are rules made by legislative bodies, they are distinguished from case law or precedent, which is decided by courts, and regulations issued by government agencies. Statute law is written by a legislative body and signed into law by its executive. Before a statute becomes law in countries, it must be agreed upon by the highest executive in the government. A universal problem encountered by lawmakers throughout human history is how to organize published statutes, such publications have a habit of starting small but growing rapidly over time, as new statutes are enacted in response to the exigencies of the moment. Eventually, persons trying to find the law are forced to sort through a number of statutes enacted at various points in time to determine which portions are still in effect. In turn, in theory, the code will thenceforth reflect the current cumulative state of the law in that jurisdiction. In many nations statutory law is distinguished from and subordinate to constitutional law, statute is also another word for law. The term was adapted from England in about the 18th century, in the Autonomous Communities of Spain, the autonomy statute is a legal document similar to a state constitution in a federated state. The autonomies statutes in Spain have the rank of Ley Organica, leyes Organicas rank between the Constitution and ordinary laws. The name was chosen, among others, to avoid confusion with the term Constitution, in biblical terminology, statute refers to a law given without any reason or justification. The classic example is the statute regarding the Red Heifer. The opposite of a chok is a mishpat, a law given for a reason, e. g. the Sabbath laws, which were given because God created the world in six days. That which upholds, supports or maintains the order of the universe meaning the Law or Natural Law. This is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion, Constitution Legislation Legislature Organic statute Statutory law
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Lord Chancellor
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The Lord Chancellor, formally the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, is a senior functionary in the government of the United Kingdom. They are appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister, the Lord Chancellor is the second highest ranking of the Great Officers of State, ranking after only the Lord High Steward. Prior to the Union there were separate Lords Chancellor for England and Wales, the Lord Chancellor is a member of the Cabinet and, by law, is responsible for the efficient functioning and independence of the courts. In 2007 there were a number of changes to the legal system, the current Lord Chancellor is Elizabeth Truss, who is also Secretary of State for Justice. One of the Lord Chancellors responsibilities is to act as the custodian of the Great Seal of the Realm, a Lord Keeper of the Great Seal may be appointed instead of a Lord Chancellor. The two offices entail exactly the same duties, the distinction is in the mode of appointment. The seal is then said to be in commission, since the 19th century, however, only Lord Chancellors have been appointed, the other offices having fallen into disuse. The office of Lord Chancellor of England may trace its origins to the Carolingian monarchy, in England, the office dates at least as far back as the Norman Conquest, and possibly earlier. Some give the first Chancellor of England as Angmendus, in 605, other sources suggest that the first to appoint a Chancellor was Edward the Confessor, who is said to have adopted the practice of sealing documents instead of personally signing them. A clerk of Edwards, Regenbald, was named chancellor in some documents from Edwards reign, in any event, the office has been continuously occupied since the Norman Conquest. The chancellor headed the office or chancery. Formerly, the Lord Chancellor was almost always a churchman, as during the Middle Ages the clergy were amongst the few men of the realm. The Lord Chancellor performed multiple functions—he was the Keeper of the Great Seal, the royal chaplain. Thus, the position emerged as one of the most important ones in government and he was only outranked in government by the Justiciar. As one of the Kings ministers, the Lord Chancellor attended the curia regis or Royal Court, if a bishop, the Lord Chancellor received a writ of summons, if an ecclesiastic of a lower degree or, if a layman, he attended without any summons. The curia regis would later evolve into Parliament, the Lord Chancellor becoming the prolocutor of its upper house, as was confirmed by a statute passed during the reign of Henry VIII, a Lord Chancellor could preside over the House of Lords even if not a Lord himself. The Lord Chancellors judicial duties also evolved through his role in the curia regis, petitions for justice were normally addressed to the King and the curia, but in 1280, Edward I instructed his justices to examine and deal with petitions themselves as the Court of Kings Bench. Important petitions were to be sent to the Lord Chancellor for his decision, by the reign of Edward III, this chancellery function developed into a separate tribunal for the Lord Chancellor
33.
Constitutional Reform Act 2005
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The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The office of Lord Chancellor was reformed to remove the ability of the holder to act as both a government minister and a judge, an arrangement that ran contrary to the idea of separation of powers. Setting up of a Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and moving the Law Lords out of the House of Lords to this new court. Other measures relating to the judiciary, including changes to the position of the Lord Chief Justice, the bill caused much controversy and the Lords made amendments to it. Other measures remained generally the same as stated above, the Lord Chancellor remains the custodian of the Great Seal. The bill was approved by both Houses on 21 March 2005, and received Royal Assent on 24 March, the act contains provisions which reform two institutions and one former office of the United Kingdom. The establishment of a Supreme Court is the subject of the act and it had consequences for the House of Lords. The sections contained in Part 3 prescribe that the Supreme Court be composed of 12 judges, the following sections set out the rules for the appointment of future members of the Court. By default, Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life, sections 32 to 37 are entitled Terms of Appointment and deal with issues such as tenure, salaries and allowances, resignation and retirement, and pensions. Section 40 additionally sets out that the new Court will assume the jurisdiction of the House of Lords, the following sections deal with practical matters such as procedures, staff, and resources of the new Court and the fees of the judges. The Chief Executive of the Supreme Court must prepare a report on the work. Although the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords is abolished, newly appointed members of the Court take no peerage, instead bearing the formal title Justice of the Supreme Court. Under the act such judges also have a title of Lord or Lady. The Lord Chief Justice replaces the Lord Chancellor as head of the English judiciary, the new Supreme Court sits in a separate building from the Houses of Parliament where the mentioned predecessor judicial committee formerly acted as the UKs final court of appeal. Architect Lord Foster was chosen to design the necessary alterations, the building reopened as the Supreme Court on 1 October 2009. The third part of the act is about the appointment of judges, in 1991 the Law Society had criticized the old system, emphasizing its defects and recommending the establishment of an independent body responsible for appointing judges. The Constitutional Reform Act realized the hopes of the Law Society, section 61 prescribed the creation of the Judicial Appointments Commission, responsible for the appointment of judges for English and Welsh courts. Following sections regulate the structure and the procedures of the Commission, halsburys Statutes, House of Commons Reports on Bills January 2005 Scroll halfway down the page for this bills two reports
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Queen's Bench
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The Queens Bench is the superior court in a number of jurisdictions within some of the Commonwealth realms. The original Kings Bench, founded in 1215 in England, was one of the ancient courts of the land and is now a division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. The Court of Queens Bench is the court in several Canadian provinces, including, Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick. There was formerly a Court of Kings Bench created in the British colony of Quebec in 1764 and it was then abolished and re-established in 1777, following the Quebec Act. Following the separation of Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, the court was replaced by several courts of Kings bench of each region of the two new provinces. In 1849, the districts in were reunited once again, in England and Wales, the Court of Kings Bench was the name of two courts. Each was a court of common law, with civil and criminal jurisdiction. The English Court of Queens Bench was abolished in 1875 by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, the Courts jurisdiction passed in each case to a new High Court of Justice and specifically to the Queens Bench Division of that court. The Irish Court of Queens Bench was abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877, the Queens Bench jurisdiction is now vested in the Queens Bench Division of the High Court in Northern Ireland. There is a Queens Bench Division as a division of the High Court of England and Wales, in England and Wales, the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice. It was created by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, in 1880 the former Common Pleas and Exchequer Divisions were merged into the Queens Bench Division. Since 1882 the High Court has sat in the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand, in Northern Ireland the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland, first created by Section 40 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Division has similar jurisdiction to its counterpart in England and Wales and it sits in the Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast. Other sub-divisions include the Commercial Court, the Admiralty Court and the Administrative Court, the abbreviation QB in legal citation is used in the Law Reports to denote cases heard in the Queens Bench Division. There are masters in the Queens Bench Division, unlike the masters in the Chancery Division, the Queens Bench masters have original jurisdiction and they hear applications in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages. The Court of Queens Bench grew out of the Kings Court, or Curia Regis, at an unknown point, another court, independent of the Kings personal presence, grew out of the Curia Regis, and consisted of a number of royal judges who would hear cases themselves. In practice pleas of the Crown were heard only in the Kings Bench, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench was also styled Lord Chief Justice of England, being the highest permanent judge of the Crown. The Kings Bench became a court sitting in Westminster Hall
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Law report
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Law reports or reporters are series of books that contain judicial opinions from a selection of case law decided by courts. When a particular judicial opinion is referenced, the law report series in which the opinion is printed will determine the case citation format, the term reporter was originally used to refer to the individual persons who actually compile, edit, and publish such opinions. For example, the Reporter of Decisions for the U. S. Supreme Court is the person authorized to publish the Courts cases in the volumes of the United States Reports. In American English, reporter also denotes the books themselves, in the Commonwealth, these are described by the plural term law reports, the title that usually appears on the covers of the periodical parts and the individual volumes. In common law countries, court opinions are binding under the rule of stare decisis. That rule requires a court to apply a principle that was set forth earlier by a court of a superior jurisdiction dealing with a similar set of facts. Thus, the publication of such opinions is important so that everyone—lawyers, judges. Official law reports or reporters are those authorized for publication by statute or other governmental ruling, governments designate law reports as official to provide an authoritative, consistent, and authentic statement of a jurisdictions primary law. Official case law publishing may be carried out by a government agency, unofficial law reports, on the other hand, are not officially sanctioned and are published as a commercial enterprise. In Australia and New Zealand, official reports are called authorised reports - unofficial are referred to as unauthorised reports, some commercial publishers also provide court opinions in searchable online databases that are part of larger fee-based, online legal research systems, such as Westlaw, Lexis-Nexis and Justis. But once a court opinion is officially published, case citation rules usually require a person to cite to the official reports, a good printed law report in traditional form usually contains the following items, - • The citation reference. • A recital of the facts of the case, • A note of the arguments of counsel before the judge. The development of the Internet created the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on Web sites and this is a relatively low cost publication method compared to paper and makes court decisions more easily available to the public. Because a court can post a decision on a Web site as soon as it is rendered, Decisions of courts from all over the world can now be found through the WorldLII Web site, and the sites of its member organizations. These projects have strongly encouraged by the Free Access to Law Movement. Many law librarians and academics have commented on the system of legal information delivery - brought about by the rapid growth of the World Wide Web. Professor Bob Berring writes that the primacy of the old paper sets is fading, in theory, court decisions posted on the Web expand access to the law beyond the specialized law library collections used primarily by lawyers and judges. The general public can more readily find court opinions online, whether posted on Web-accessible databases, questions remain, however, on the need for a uniform and practical citation format for cases posted on the Web
36.
Llandaff Cathedral
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Llandaff Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Llandaff, Cardiff, Wales. It is the seat of the Bishop of Llandaff, head of the Church in Wales Diocese of Llandaff and it is dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul, and three Welsh saints, Dubricius, Teilo and Oudoceus. It is one of two cathedrals in Cardiff, the other being the Roman Catholic Cardiff Cathedral in the city centre, the current building was constructed in the 12th century over the site of an earlier church. Severe damage was done to the church in 1400 during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr, during the English Civil War when it was overrun by Parliamentarian troops, by 1717, the damage to the cathedral was so extensive that the church seriously considered removal of the see. Following further storms in the early 1720s, construction of a new cathedral began in 1734, designed by John Wood, the Elder. During the Cardiff Blitz of the Second World War in January 1941, the stonework which remains from the medieval period is primarily Somerset Dundry stone, though local blue lias constitutes most of the stonework done in the post-Reformation period. The work done on the church since World War II is primarily concrete and Pennant sandstone, in February 2007, the organ was damaged during a severe lightning strike, prompting a fundraiser of £1.5 million to raise money for an entirely new organ. Llandaff Cathedral was built on the site of an existing church, according to tradition, the community was established by Saint Dubricius at a ford on the River Taff and the first church was founded by Dubricius successor, Saint Teilo. These two are regarded as the patron saints, along with their successor Oudoceus. The original church is no longer extant, but a standing Celtic cross testifies to the presence of Christian worship at the site in pre-Norman times, the Normans occupied Glamorgan early in the Norman conquest, appointing Urban their first bishop in 1107. He began construction of the cathedral in 1120 and had the remains of Saint Dyfrig transferred from Bardsey, after the death of Urban, it is believed the work was completed some time in the last years of Bishop Nicholas ap Gwrgant, who died in 1183. The cathedral was dedicated to St Peter and St Paul, St Dubricius, St Teilo, Bishop Henry de Abergavenny organised the Llandaff Cathedral chapter circa 1214. He appointed fourteen prebends, eight priests, four deacons and two sub-deacons, de Abergavenny also made changes to Llandaffs episcopal seal, giving more detail to the figure of the bishop depicted on it and adding the phrase by the grace of God to its inscription. The west front dates from 1220 and contains a statue of St Teilo, by 1266, the structure that Urban began had been altered, the cathedral was dedicated again in 1266. The Lady Chapel was built by William de Braose, bishop from 1266 to 1287 and it was built at the rear of the church constructed by Urban and the old choir area was removed in order to build the chapel. From this time on, it seemed as if the cathedral was in a constant state of repair or alterations at a slow pace, after the Lady Chapel had been completed, the two bays of the north choir aisle were rebuilt. Severe damage was done to the church in 1400 during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr, the damage was extensive enough to cause Bishop Blethyn to notify his fellow clergymen in 1575 that he believed the cathedral to possibly be damaged beyond repair. Most of the damage was repaired, most notably by Bishop Marshall
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Lord Justice of Appeal
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Despite the title, and unlike the former Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, they are not necessarily peers. The number of Lord Justices of Appeal was fixed at five by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, applications for permission to appeal a ruling of an inferior court are heard by a single Lord or Lady Justice of Appeal. A full appeal is heard by three Court of Appeal judges in the Civil Division, in the Criminal Division, a single judge hears appeals against conviction with two other judges of the Court of Appeal Criminal Division. Appeals against sentence may be heard by a single Court of Appeal judge with another judge, in court, a Lord Justice of Appeal is referred to as My Lord or Your Lordship, and a Lady Justice of Appeal is referred to as My Lady or Your Ladyship. When there is already or has recently been a judge with the same surname as a new appointee. Many judges have done this, such as Lord Justice Lawrence Collins, when referring to a Lord or Lady Justice of Appeal in a legal context, the judge is identified by use of the surname, followed by the letters LJ. For example, Lord Justice Bloggs or Lady Justice Bloggs would be referred to as Bloggs LJ, where several judges are listed the double letters LJJ are used, for example, Bloggs, Smith and Jones LJJ. By convention judges of the Court of Appeal are appointed to the Privy Council, formerly, in all instances in court, a Court of Appeal judges apparel consisted of a black silk gown, court coat or waistcoat and a short bench wig. In cases heard by the Court of Appeal Criminal Division, this remains the court dress, in cases heard in the Civil Division, judges wear a one-piece, zip-up robe onto which are stitched vertical, gold, clerical bands and no wig. These bands are red for High Court judges and blue for District Judges, on ceremonial occasions more elaborate robes and wigs are worn
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