1.
Hotel Nacional de Cuba
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The Hotel Nacional de Cuba is a historic luxury hotel located on the Malecón in the middle of Vedado, Havana, Cuba. It stands on Taganana Hill a few metres from the sea, and offers a view of Havana Harbour, the seawall, the hotel was constructed in just fourteen months on the site of the Santa Clara Battery, which dates back to 1797. Part of the battery has been preserved in the hotels gardens, in 1933, after Fulgencio Batistas 4 September 1933 coup against the transitional government, it was the residence of Sumner Welles, a special envoy sent by U. S. Their eventual assault on the hotel, on October 2,1933, caused damage to the building, including shell and bullet holes. Chicago developer Arnold Kirkeby acquired the hotel in the early 1940s, francis Ford Coppola memorably dramatised the conference in his film The Godfather Part II. In the mid-1950s, Kirkeby Hotels sold the Nacional to New York developer William Zeckendorf, by 1955, Lansky had managed to persuade Batista to give him a piece of the Nacional. That same year Pan Ams Intercontinental Hotels Corporation bought the hotel from Zeckendorf, alphons Landa, prominent Washington attorney represented Pan Am and arranged for other clients and friends to acquire pieces of the hotel ownership at the same time. Dave Beck, President of the Teamsters and Roy Fruehauf of the Fruehauf Trailer Company were silent partners for at least 2 years, Fruehauf would sell his interest in the hotel in May 1957, other investors would lose everything when Castro came to power. Lansky planned to take a wing of the 10-storey hotel and create luxury suites for high-stakes gamblers, Batista endorsed Lanskys idea even though there were objections from American expatriates such as Ernest Hemingway. Under Lanskys impetus, a wing of the entrance hall was refurbished to include a bar, a restaurant, a showroom. It was operated by Lansky and his brother Jake, with Wilbur Clark as the front man, in 1956, singer Nat King Cole was contracted to perform in Cuba and wanted to stay at the Hotel Nacional de Cuba but was not allowed to because he was black. The hotel had earlier turned away Joe Louis, Marian Anderson, Jackie Robinson, Cole honored his contract, and the concert at the Tropicana was a huge success. The following year, he returned to Cuba for another concert, there is now a tribute to him in the form of a bust and a jukebox in the Hotel Nacional. The casino and clubs were an immediate success, according to an unpublished article sent to Cuban Information Archives around 1956-57, The bar was tended by local bartenders, and the casino managed by gentlemen from Las Vegas. By the spring of 1957 the casino, sublet by the hotel for a rent to Lansky, was bringing in as much cash as the biggest casinos in Las Vegas. In late 1958 the casino was sold to Michael McLaney and Carroll Rosenbloom, following the Cuban Revolution in January 1959, Havanas casinos were briefly shut down, but were quickly reopened after protests by casino workers left out of work. Fidel Castro nationalized the hotel on March 20,1960 and finally closed the casino in October 1960, jean-Paul Sartre visited Cuba in 1960 with his wife, the philosopher, Simone de Beauvoir staying in the hotel. They wanted to know about the process of those mythical heroes of Cuba
2.
Issaquah, Washington
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Issaquah is a city in King County, Washington, United States. The population was 30,434 at the 2010 census, according to the Washington State Office of Financial Management, Issaquah ranked 6th of 279 eligible incorporated communities in population growth between 2000 and 2005. Forbes. com ranked Issaquah the 2nd fastest-growing suburb in the state, Issaquah is an anglicized word for a local Native American name, meaning either the sound of birds, snake, or little stream. Squak Valley, a name for the area, also derives from this same Native-American name. In 1885, the unincorporated area was the scene of an attack on Chinese laborers who had come to pick hops from local fields. The city itself was incorporated on April 29,1892. Initially a small mining town, this town has changed noticeably both in its appearance and economic focus, Issaquah was originally developed to service the mining industry on nearby Squak and Cougar mountain, and began as the town of Gilman, Washington. As the mining deposits neared depletion in the late 1890s, other companies started to realize Issaquahs potential to support a lumber business. These companies exported timber from Issaquah and other small, local towns to Seattle and larger and these early boom industries, however, faded into a period of relative quiet by the time of the Great Depression. The town remained fairly placid through the decades, with The Boeing Company providing the majority of employment in the area. Microsoft and other industries moved into Redmond, Washington and other cities in the area. Both Boeing and Microsoft have significantly affected Issaquahs history, cultural development, in June 1996, Costco moved its global headquarters to Issaquah from nearby Kirkland, Washington. Other Issaquah employers include Siemens Medical Solutions Ultrasound Group, GoldSim Technology Group, Overtime Technologies, Boehms Candies, Issaquah is located 15 miles east-southeast of Seattle at the south end of Lake Sammamish. Neighboring cities include Bellevue, and Redmond, both 8 miles away, Issaquah resides within the Mountains to Sound Greenway. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 11.40 square miles. Issaquah is surrounded on three sides by the Issaquah Alps, Cougar Mountain on the west, Squak Mountain to the south, to the north of Issaquah is Lake Sammamish. They believe that these three mountains are the remains of an older mountain range long since eroded by earthquakes, volcanic action. According to a 2012 estimate, the income for a household in the city was $87,074
3.
Music box
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A music box or musical box is an automatic musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth of a steel comb. They were developed from musical snuff boxes of the 18th century, some of the more complex boxes also have a tiny drum and/or bells, in addition to the metal comb. The original snuff boxes were tiny containers which could fit into a waistcoat pocket. The music boxes could have any size from that of a hat box to a piece of furniture. They were usually powered by clockwork and originally produced by artisan watchmakers, for most of the 19th century, the bulk of music box production was concentrated in Switzerland, building upon a strong watchmaking tradition. The first music box factory was opened there in 1815 by Jérémie Recordon, there were also a few manufacturers in Bohemia and Germany. By the end of the 19th century, some of the European makers had opened factories in the United States, the cylinders were normally made of metal and powered by a spring. In some of the models, the cylinders could be removed to change melodies, thanks to an invention by Paillard in 1862. In some exceptional models, there were four springs, to provide continuous play for up to three hours, the very first boxes at the end of the 18th century made use of metal disks. The switchover to cylinders seems to have been complete after the Napoleonic wars, in the last decades of the 19th century, however, mass-produced models such as the Polyphon and others all made use of interchangeable metal disks instead of cylinders. The cylinder-based machines rapidly became a minority, instead, the cylinder worked by actuating bellows and levers which fed and opened pneumatic valves which activated a modified wind instrument or plucked the chords on a modified string instrument. Some devices could do both at the time and were often combinations of player pianos and music boxes, such as the Orchestrion. There were many variations of large machines, usually built for the affluent of the pre-phonograph 19th century. Some were called the Symphonium, others were called the Concert Regina Music Box machine, both variations were as tall as a grandfather clock and both used interchangeable large disks to play different sets of tunes. Both were spring-wound and driven and both had a bell-like sound, the machines were often made in England, Italy, and the US, with additional disks made in Switzerland, Austria, and Prussia. Early juke-box pay versions of them existed in places also. Marshs free Museum and curio shop in Long Beach, Washington has several still-working versions of them on public display, the Musical Museum, Brentford, London has a number of machines. The Morris Museum in Morristown, NJ, USA has a notable collection, in addition to video and audio footage of each piece, the actual instruments are demonstrated for the public daily on a rotational basis
4.
Vending machine
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The first modern vending machines were developed in England in the early 19th century and dispensed postcards. The earliest known reference to a machine is in the work of Hero of Alexandria. His machine accepted a coin and then dispensed holy water, when the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened a valve which let some water flow out, the pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counterweight snapped the lever up and turned off the valve. Coin-operated machines that dispensed tobacco were being operated as early as 1615 in the taverns of England, the machines were portable and made of brass. An English bookseller, Richard Carlile, devised a newspaper dispensing machine for the dissemination of banned works in 1822, simeon Denham was awarded British Patent no.706 for his stamp dispensing machine in 1867, the first fully automatic vending machine. The first modern coin-operated vending machines were introduced in London, England in the early 1880s, the machine was invented by Percival Everitt in 1883 and soon became a widespread feature at railway stations and post offices, dispensing envelopes, postcards, and notepaper. The Sweetmeat Automatic Delivery Company was founded in 1887 in England as the first company to deal primarily with the installation, the first vending machine in the U. S. was built in 1888 by the Thomas Adams Gum Company, selling gum on New York City train platforms. This idea spawned a new type of mechanical device known as the trade stimulators. Some products need to be prepared to become available, for example, tickets are printed or magnetized on the spot, and coffee is freshly concocted. One of the most common form of vending machine, the snack machine, the main example of a vending machine giving access to all merchandise after paying for one item is a newspaper vending machine found mainly in the U. S. and Canada. It contains a pile of identical newspapers, after a sale the door automatically returns to a locked position. The success of such machines is predicated on the assumption that the customer will be honest, and need only one copy. The profit margins in the candy business can be quite high – gumballs, for instance, can be purchased in bulk for 2 cents a piece. Gumballs and candy have a long shelf life, enabling vending machine operators to manage many machines without too much time or cost involved. In addition, the machines are inexpensive compared to soft drink or snack machines. Many operators donate a percentage of the profits to charity so that locations will allow them to place the machines for free, in the past, cigarettes were commonly sold in the United States through these machines, but this is increasingly rare due to concerns about underage buyers. Sometimes a pass has to be inserted in the machine to prove ones age before a purchase can be made, in the United Kingdom, legislation banning them outright came into effect on October 1,2011
5.
Player piano
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The rise of the player piano grew with the rise of the mass-produced piano for the home in the late 19th and early 20th century. Sales peaked in 1924, then declined as the improvement in phonograph recordings due to electrical recording methods developed in the mid-1920s. The idea of musical devices can be traced back many centuries. These devices were later extended to operate musical boxes, which contain a set of tuned metal teeth plucked by the player mechanism, an early musical instrument to be automated was the organ, which is comparatively easy to operate automatically. The power for the notes is provided by air from a system. The playing task is performed by a pinned barrel. The piano is an instrument, requiring each note to be struck with a different force to control the dynamics of the performance. The entire force required to sound the note must be given by the hitting the keys. It proved to be difficult for a device to combine a variable percussive force. Barrels do not provide a force, but a relatively gentle switching motion. Early barrel pianos moved the back and forwards continuously as the operator turned the handle. The hammers hit repeatedly until the pin was removed and this played the note, but at a fixed dynamic and with a tremolo action quite unlike a pianist. The development of the piano was the gradual overcoming of the various difficulties of controlled percussive striking. The earliest practical piano playing device was probably the Forneaux Pianista and this bellows struck the piano key and so played the note. The acceleration of developments leading to the player device started in the 1840s. The start of the period can probably be seen as the Centennial Exposition of 1876 in Philadelphia. At this exhibition were a number of automatic devices, including the Pianista. The earliest description of a piano playing device using perforated paper rolls was Claude Seytres French patent of 1842, the concept was sound, but the device described was impractical in the way it read the roll and operated the piano
6.
Music roll
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A music roll is a storage medium used to operate a mechanical musical instrument. They are used for the piano, mechanical organ, electronic carillon. The vast majority of music rolls are made of paper, other materials that have been utilized include thin card, thin sheet brass, composite multi-layered electro-conductive aluminium and paper roll and, in the modern era, thin plastic or PET film. The music data is stored by means of perforations, the mechanism of the instrument reads these as the roll unwinds, using a pneumatic, mechanical or electrical sensing device called a tracker bar, and the mechanism subsequently plays the instrument. After a roll is played, it is necessary for it to be rewound before it can be played again and this necessitates a break in a musical performance. To overcome this problem, some instruments were built with two player mechanisms allowing one roll to play while the other rewinds, a piano roll is a specific type of music roll, and is designed to operate an automatic piano like the player piano or the reproducing piano. Book music Piano roll Punched card Punched tape Jacquard loom Barbara Bryner, The piano roll, dept. of Music, University of Utah,2002. OCLC50482085 Karl Koenig Jazz in Print Pendragon Press,2002 pg.180
7.
Sound recording and reproduction
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Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording, prior to the development of analog recording, there were mechanical systems for reproducing instrumental music, such as wind-up music boxes and later, in the late 19th century, player pianos. Analog sound reproduction is the process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves. Digital recording and reproduction converts the sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of digitization. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a variety of media. Whereas successive copies of an analog recording tend to degrade in quality, as noise is added. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound, long before sound was first recorded on cylinders or records, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices. Fowler, this. cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century. The Banu Musa brothers also invented an automatic flute player, which appears to have been the first programmable machine, according to Fowler, the automata were a robot band that performed. more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection. In the 14th century, Flanders introduced a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder, similar designs appeared in barrel organs, musical clocks, barrel pianos, and musical boxes. A music box is a musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth of a steel comb. They were developed from musical snuff boxes of the 18th century, some of the more complex boxes also have a tiny drum and/or bells, in addition to the metal comb. The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books, the player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store an long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the rolls were hand-played, meaning that the roll represented the actual performance of an individual. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904, piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A1908 U. S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, the use of piano rolls began to decline in the 1920s although one type is still being made today. The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air was the phonautograph, the earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it
8.
Amplifier
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An amplifier, electronic amplifier or amp is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal. An amplifier functions by taking power from a supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape. In this sense, an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply based upon the properties of the input signal, an amplifier is effectively the opposite of an attenuator, while an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator provides loss. An amplifier can either be a piece of equipment or an electrical circuit contained within another device. Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are used in almost all electronic equipment. Amplifiers can be categorized in different ways, another is which quantity, voltage or current is being amplified, amplifiers can be divided into voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance amplifiers, and transresistance amplifiers. A further distinction is whether the output is a linear or nonlinear representation of the input, amplifiers can also be categorized by their physical placement in the signal chain. The first practical device that could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest. Vacuum tubes were used in almost all amplifiers until the 1960s–1970s when the transistor, invented in 1947, today most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications. Before the invention of electronic amplifiers, mechanically coupled carbon microphones were used as amplifiers in telephone repeaters. After the turn of the century it was found that negative resistance mercury lamps could amplify, the first practical electronic device that could amplify was the Audion vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912. The terms amplifier and amplification were first used for this new capability around 1915 when triodes became widespread, the amplifying vacuum tube revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of electronics, the technology of active electrical devices. It made possible long distance lines, public address systems, radio broadcasting, talking motion pictures, practical audio recording, radar, television. For 50 years virtually all electronic devices used vacuum tubes. Early tube amplifiers often had positive feedback, which could increase gain but also make the amplifier unstable, much of the mathematical theory of amplifiers was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories during the 1920s to 1940s. Other advances in the theory of amplification were made by Harry Nyquist, the vacuum tube was the only amplifying device for 40 years, and dominated electronics until 1947, when the first transistor, the BJT, was invented. Today most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes are used in some high power applications such as radio transmitters. All amplifiers have gain, a factor that relates the magnitude of some property of the output signal to a property of the input signal
9.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
10.
Juke joint
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Juke joint is the vernacular term for an informal establishment featuring music, dancing, gambling, and drinking, primarily operated by African American people in the southeastern United States. The term juke is believed to derive from the Gullah word joog or jug, a juke joint may also be called a barrelhouse. Classic juke joints found, for example, at rural crossroads, plantation workers and sharecroppers needed a place to relax and socialize following a hard week, particularly since they were barred from most white establishments by Jim Crow laws. Set up on the outskirts of town, often in buildings or private houses, juke joints offered food, drink. Owners made extra money selling groceries or moonshine to patrons, or providing cheap room, the origins of juke joints may be the community rooms that were occasionally built on plantations to provide a place for blacks to socialize during slavery. Although uncommon in populated areas, such places were often seen as necessary to attract workers to sparsely populated areas lacking bars and other social outlets. As well, much like on-base Officers Clubs, such Company-owned joints allowed managers to keep an eye on their underlings, constructed simply like a field hands shotgun-style dwelling, these may have been the first juke joints. During the prohibition in the United States it became common to see squalid independent juke joints at highway crossings and these were almost never called juke joint, but rather were named such as Lone Star or Colored Cafe. They were often only on weekends. Juke joints may represent the first private space for blacks, paul Oliver writes that juke joints were the last retreat, the final bastion for black people who want to get away from whites, and the pressures of the day. Jooks occurred on plantations, and classic juke joints found, for example, dancing was done to so-called jigs and reels, to music now thought of as old-timey or hillbilly. Through the first years of the century, the fiddle was by far the most popular instrument among both white and black Southern musicians. The banjo was popular before guitars became widely available in the 1890s, dance forms evolved from ring dances to solo and couples dancing. Some blacks opposed the amorality of the raucous jook crowd, until the advent of the Victrola, and juke boxes, at least one musician was required to provide music for dancing, but as many as three musicians would play in jooks. In larger cities like New Orleans, string trios or quartets were hired. Mance Lipscomb, Texas guitarist and singer, So far as what was called blues, that didnt come till round 1917. What we had in my coming up days was music for dancing, and it was of all different sorts. Musicians of that time had a degree of versatility that is now extremely rare, the outside yard was filled with trash. Inside they are dusty and squalid with the walls stained to shoulder height, jukes figure prominently in her studies of African American folklore
11.
Verb
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A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word that in syntax conveys an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. In the usual description of English, the form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected to encode tense, aspect, mood, a verb may also agree with the person, gender or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses, present, to indicate that an action is being carried out, past, to indicate that an action has been done, future, in languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument in person, number or gender. With the exception of the verb to be, English shows distinctive agreements only in the person singular, present tense form of verbs. The rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb, Latin and the Romance languages inflect verbs for tense–aspect–mood, and they agree in person and number with the subject. Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that accompany it, classified by the number of their valency arguments, usually three basic types are distinguished, intransitives, transitives, ditransitives and double transitive verbs. In addition, verbs can be nonfinite, namely, not inflected for tense, an intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object. Intransitive verbs may be followed by an adverb or end a sentence, for example, The woman spoke softly. The athlete ran faster than the official, a transitive verb is followed by a noun or noun phrase. These noun phrases are not called predicate nouns, but are called direct objects because they refer to the object that is being acted upon. For example, My friend read the newspaper, the teenager earned a speeding ticket. A way to identify a verb is to invert the sentence. For example, The newspaper was read by my friend, a speeding ticket was earned by the teenager. Ditransitive verbs precede either two noun phrases or a phrase and then a prepositional phrase often led by to or for. For example, The players gave their teammates high fives, the players gave high fives to their teammates. When two noun phrases follow a transitive verb, the first is an object, that which is receiving something, and the second is a direct object. Indirect objects can be noun phrases or prepositional phrases, double transitive verbs are followed by a noun phrase that serves as a direct object and then a second noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive phrase
12.
Noun
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A noun is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas. Linguistically, a noun is a member of a large, open part of whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause. Lexical categories are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions, the syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns are words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives. Word classes were described by Sanskrit grammarians from at least the 5th century BC, in Yāskas Nirukta, the noun is one of the four main categories of words defined. The Ancient Greek equivalent was ónoma, referred to by Plato in the Cratylus dialog, the term used in Latin grammar was nōmen. All of these terms for noun were also words meaning name, the English word noun is derived from the Latin term, through the Anglo-Norman noun. The word classes were defined partly by the forms that they take. In Sanskrit, Greek and Latin, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and inflected for case, because adjectives share these three grammatical categories, adjectives are placed in the same class as nouns. Similarly, the Latin nōmen includes both nouns and adjectives, as originally did the English word noun, the two types being distinguished as nouns substantive and nouns adjective, many European languages use a cognate of the word substantive as the basic term for noun. Nouns in the dictionaries of languages are demarked by the abbreviation s. or sb. instead of n. which may be used for proper nouns or neuter nouns instead. In English, some authors use the word substantive to refer to a class that includes both nouns and noun phrases. It can also be used as a counterpart to attributive when distinguishing between a noun being used as the head of a phrase and a noun being used as a noun adjunct. For example, the knee can be said to be used substantively in my knee hurts. Nouns have sometimes been defined in terms of the categories to which they are subject. Such definitions tend to be language-specific, since nouns do not have the categories in all languages. Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in contexts, in terms of their semantic properties. Nouns are described as words that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, however this type of definition has been criticized by contemporary linguists as being uninformative
13.
Shellac
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Shellac is a resin secreted by the female lac bug, on trees in the forests of India and Thailand. It is processed and sold as dry flakes and dissolved in ethanol to make liquid shellac, Shellac functions as a tough natural primer, sanding sealant, tannin-blocker, odour-blocker, stain, and high-gloss varnish. Shellac was once used in applications as it possesses good insulation qualities. Phonograph and 78 rpm gramophone records were made of it until vinyl long-playing records from the 1950s onwards, Shellac comes from shell and lac, a calque of French laque en écailles, lac in thin pieces, later gomme-laque, gum lac. Most European languages have borrowed the word for the substance from English or from the German equivalent Schellack. Shellac is scraped from the bark of the trees where the female lac bug, Kerria lacca, though these tunnels are sometimes referred to as cocoons, they are not literally cocoons in the entomological sense. This insect is in the superfamily as the insect from which cochineal is obtained. The insects suck the sap of the tree and excrete sticklac almost constantly, the least coloured shellac is produced when the insects feed on the kusum tree. The number of lac bugs required to produce 1 kilogram of shellac has variously been estimated as 50,000,200,000, or 300,000. The root word lakh is a South Asian unit for 100,000 and presumably refers to the numbers of insects that swarm on host trees. The raw shellac, which contains bark shavings and lac bugs removed during scraping, is placed in canvas tubes and this causes the shellac to liquefy, and it seeps out of the canvas, leaving the bark and bugs behind. The thick, sticky shellac is then dried into a sheet and broken into flakes, or dried into buttons, then bagged. The end-user then crushes it into a powder and mixes it with ethyl alcohol before use, to dissolve the flakes. Liquid shellac has a shelf life, so is sold in dry form for dissolution before use. Liquid shellac sold in stores is often marked with the production date. Some manufacturers have ceased labeling shellac with the date but the production date may be discernible from the production lot code. Alternatively, old shellac may be tested to see if it is still usable, Shellac that remains tacky for a long time is no longer usable. Storage life depends on temperature, so refrigeration extends shelf life
14.
Seeburg Corporation
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Seeburg was an American design and manufacturing company of automated musical equipment, such as orchestrions, jukeboxes, and vending equipment. The company went out of business in 1980, automated musical equipment, such as coin-operated phonographs and orchestrions, were manufactured under the J. P. Seeburg and Company name for most of its early years. Until 1956, the company was family-owned, the company was founded by Justus P. Sjöberg from Gothenburg, Sweden. He moved to the United States after graduating from Chalmers University of Technology, in the late 1940s, Seeburg manufactured its popular and distinctive trashcan-shaped series of jukeboxes. When they began to make jukeboxes, the 78 rpm record was standard and this changed with the Seeburg model M100A, which could play 50 records front and back for a total of 100 selections, an immense variety at the time. In 1950, Seeburg introduced the first commercial jukebox designed to play the then-new 45 rpm records and they later increased the number of records from 50 to 80, then 100 per machine. The classic M100C is featured early in the opening of the Happy Days TV series, the Seeburg Select-O-Matic record mechanism stores the records in a linear horizontal rack and plays them vertically clamped between two rotating cylinders. The selected record is pushed forward from behind, then clamped in the rotating cylinders, the tone arm is likewise oriented vertically and has a stylus on each side. The stylus is selected depending on which side of the record is being played, the earliest 45 RPM mechanism, the Select-O-Matic 100, held 50 records or 100 songs. Later models held 80 or 10045 RPM records, in machines manufactured during the 1950s, the entire mechanism was visible to the user. Later machines concealed the actual player in favor of musical graphics and lights, Seeburg also manufactured background music players, such as the Seeburg 1000, which used special 9-inch, 16⅔ rpm records. During the 1960s, Seeburg bought many other companies, including Williams, in 1965, the Seeburg Corporation announced that it was establishing a new music performance rights organisation to compete with ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC. The society was called Coin-Operated Phonograph Performance Society, the plan was for Seeburg to make recordings solely for play in jukeboxes. During the 1970s Seeburg was faced with debt and a market for their music products. The corporation headed into bankruptcy in 1979 and was broken up by 1980 and their jukebox production was re-organized into the Seeburg Phonograph Division, which the court closed in September,1979. The remaining production assets were acquired by Stern Electronics, who began producing Stern/Seeburg jukeboxes and this only lasted a few years, as Stern/Seeburg also was forced to close. The parts department stock was purchased by Los Angeles-based Jukeboxes Unlimited in September 1980, a few other attempts were made to use the Seeburg name, but all failed. A final effort was made to revive the company in March 1984 and this effort was called The Seeburg Phonograph Company and was composed of some of the original Seeburg employees
15.
Phonograph record
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The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. The phonograph disc record was the medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century. It had co-existed with the cylinder from the late 1880s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed, by the late 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the vinyl record left the mainstream in 1991. The phonograph record has made a resurgence in the early 21st century –9.2 million records were sold in the U. S. in 2014. Likewise, in the UK sales have increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014, as of 2017,48 record pressing facilities remain worldwide,18 in the United States and 30 in other countries. The increased popularity of vinyl has led to the investment in new, only two producers of lacquers remains, Apollo Masters in California, USA, and MDC in Japan. Vinyl records may be scratched or warped if stored incorrectly but if they are not exposed to heat or broken. The large cover are valued by collectors and artists for the space given for visual expression, in the 2000s, these tracings were first scanned by audio engineers and digitally converted into audible sound. Phonautograms of singing and speech made by Scott in 1860 were played back as sound for the first time in 2008, along with a tuning fork tone and unintelligible snippets recorded as early as 1857, these are the earliest known recordings of sound. In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, unlike the phonautograph, it was capable of both recording and reproducing sound. Despite the similarity of name, there is no evidence that Edisons phonograph was based on Scotts phonautograph. Edison first tried recording sound on a paper tape, with the idea of creating a telephone repeater analogous to the telegraph repeater he had been working on. The tinfoil was wrapped around a metal cylinder and a sound-vibrated stylus indented the tinfoil while the cylinder was rotated. The recording could be played back immediately, Edison also invented variations of the phonograph that used tape and disc formats. A decade later, Edison developed a greatly improved phonograph that used a wax cylinder instead of a foil sheet. This proved to be both a better-sounding and far more useful and durable device, the wax phonograph cylinder created the recorded sound market at the end of the 1880s and dominated it through the early years of the 20th century. Berliners earliest discs, first marketed in 1889, but only in Europe, were 12.5 cm in diameter, both the records and the machine were adequate only for use as a toy or curiosity, due to the limited sound quality
16.
Rock and roll
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While elements of rock and roll can be heard in blues records from the 1920s and in country records of the 1930s, the genre did not acquire its name until the 1950s. For the purpose of differentiation, this deals with the first definition. The beat is essentially a blues rhythm with an accentuated backbeat, classic rock and roll is usually played with one or two electric guitars, a double bass or string bass or an electric bass guitar, and a drum kit. Beyond simply a style, rock and roll, as seen in movies and on television, influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes. In addition, rock and roll may have contributed to the civil rights movement because both African-American and white American teens enjoyed the music and it went on to spawn various genres, often without the initially characteristic backbeat, that are now more commonly called simply rock music or rock. The term rock and roll now has at least two different meanings, both in common usage, the American Heritage Dictionary and the Merriam-Webster Dictionary both define rock and roll as synonymous with rock music. Encyclopædia Britannica, on the hand, regards it as the music that originated in the mid-1950s. In 1934, the song Rock and Roll by the Boswell Sisters appeared in the film Transatlantic Merry-Go-Round, in 1942, Billboard magazine columnist Maurie Orodenker started to use the term rock-and-roll to describe upbeat recordings such as Rock Me by Sister Rosetta Tharpe. By 1943, the Rock and Roll Inn in South Merchantville, in 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing this music style while popularizing the phrase to describe it. The origins of rock and roll have been debated by commentators. The migration of former slaves and their descendants to major urban centers such as St. The immediate roots of rock and roll lay in the rhythm and blues, then called race music, particularly significant influences were jazz, blues, gospel, country, and folk. The 1940s saw the use of blaring horns, shouted lyrics. In the same period, particularly on the West Coast and in the Midwest, similarly, country boogie and Chicago electric blues supplied many of the elements that would be seen as characteristic of rock and roll. Rock and roll arrived at a time of technological change, soon after the development of the electric guitar, amplifier and microphone. It was the realization that relatively affluent white teenagers were listening to music that led to the development of what was to be defined as rock. Because the development of rock and roll was a process, no single record can be identified as unambiguously the first rock. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis
17.
Swing music
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Swing music, or simply swing, is a form of American music that dominated in the 1930s and 1940s. The name swing came from the swing feel where the emphasis is on the off–beat or weaker pulse in the music, Swing bands usually featured soloists who would improvise on the melody over the arrangement. The danceable swing style of big bands and bandleaders such as Benny Goodman was the dominant form of American popular music from 1935 to 1946, the verb to swing is also used as a term of praise for playing that has a strong groove or drive. Notable musicians of the era include Louis Armstrong, Cab Calloway, Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Glenn Miller, Count Basie, Woody Herman. Swing has roots in the late 1920s as larger ensembles began using written arrangements, a typical song played in swing style would feature a strong, anchoring rhythm section in support of more loosely tied wind and brass. The most common style consisted of having a soloist take center stage, Swing music began to decline in popularity during World War II because of several factors. By the late 1940s, swing had morphed into traditional pop music, or evolved into new styles such as jump blues, Swing music saw a revival in the late 1950s and 1960s with pop vocalists such as Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole, and Ella Fitzgerald. Swing blended with other genres to create new styles, in country music, artists such as Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican and Bob Wills introduced many elements of swing along with blues to create a genre called western swing. Gypsy swing is an outgrowth of Venuti and Langs jazz violin swing, in the 1970s, and 1980s, fans of big band music attended swing music performances at supper clubs. In the late-1980s a trendier, more urban-styled swing-beat emerged called new jack swing, in the late 1990s and into the 2000s there was a swing revival, led by Squirrel Nut Zippers, Brian Setzer, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, and Lavay Smith. In Canada, some of the early 2000s records by The JW-Jones Blues Band included swing revival elements, the 1920s saw parallel trends in jazz and popular music that would later converge into the swing style. New Orleans style jazz was based on a meter and contrapuntal improvisation led by a trumpet or cornet, typically followed by a clarinet. The rhythm section consisted of a tuba and drums, and sometimes a banjo, by the early 1920s guitars and pianos sometimes substituted for the banjo and a string bass sometimes substituted for the tuba. Further innovations in small ensemble playing led to development of the Chicago style identified with Louis Armstrong, a stint with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra familiarized him with arranged ensemble playing that differed from the New Orleans style, in which saxophones became the dominant sound among the reeds. Armstrong brought those back to his smaller ensembles, the soloist played over an ensemble relegated to a supporting role in the background. The string bass also lent itself to playing in a 4/4 rhythm rather than the 2/4 rhythm dictated by the tuba. The new format gave the soloist the opportunity to play with more rhythmic freedom, but playing with swing remained the province of the soloist, not the ensemble. The late 1920s saw increasingly sophisticated arrangements used by bigger ensembles, some arrangements used call-response between horn sections to build the melody
18.
The Kinks
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The Kinks were an English rock band formed in Muswell Hill, North London, in 1964 by brothers Ray and Dave Davies. They are regarded as one of the most important and influential bands of the era. The band emerged during the height of British rhythm and blues and Merseybeat and their third single, the Ray Davies-penned You Really Got Me, became an international hit, topping the charts in the United Kingdom and reaching the Top 10 in the United States. Between the mid-1960s and early 1970s, the released a string of hit singles, studio albums drew good reviews. Their music was influenced by a range of genres, including rhythm and blues, British music hall, folk. They gained a reputation for reflecting English culture and lifestyle, fuelled by Ray Davies observational writing style, in addition, groups such as Van Halen, the Jam, the Knack, the Pretenders and the Fall covered their songs, helping to boost the Kinks record sales. In the 1990s, Britpop acts such as Blur and Oasis cited the band as a major influence, the Kinks broke up in 1996, a result of the commercial failures of their last few albums and creative tension between the Davies brothers. Ray Davies and Dave Davies remained members throughout the groups 32-year run, longest-serving member Mick Avory was replaced by Bob Henrit, formerly of Argent, in 1984. Original bassist Pete Quaife was replaced by John Dalton in 1969, session keyboardist Nicky Hopkins accompanied the band in the studio for many of their recordings in the mid-to-late 1960s. In 1969 the band became an official five-piece when keyboardist John Gosling joined them, being replaced by Ian Gibbons in 1979, the group had five Top 10 singles on the US Billboard chart. Nine of their albums charted in the Top 40, in the UK, the group had seventeen Top 20 singles and five Top 10 albums. Four of their albums have been certified gold by the RIAA and have gone on to sell over 50 million albums worldwide, among numerous honours, they received the Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Service to British Music. In 1990, the four members of the Kinks were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The Davies brothers were born in suburban North London on Huntingdon Road, East Finchley and their parents, Frederick and Annie Davies, moved the family to 6 Denmark Terrace, Fortis Green, in the neighbouring suburb of Muswell Hill. At home they were immersed in a world of varied styles, from the music hall of their parents generation to the jazz and early rock. Both Ray and his brother Dave, younger by almost three years, learned to play guitar, and they played skiffle and rock and roll together. The brothers attended William Grimshaw Secondary Modern School, where formed a band. Their debut at a dance was well received, which encouraged the group to play at local pubs
19.
Sleepwalker (The Kinks album)
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Sleepwalker is the fifteenth studio album by the English rock group, The Kinks, released in 1977. It marked a return to straight-ahead, self-contained rock songs after several years of concept albums and it is the first album in what critics usually call the arena rock phase of the group, in which more commercial and mainstream production techniques would be employed. The album also marks the last appearance of bassist John Dalton, Dalton plays bass on all songs on the album save for Mr. Big Man. It was their first album for the Arista label, following the bands signing to Arista, plans for a new album began to emerge. Just prior to the recording, the bands Konk Studios was equipped with a new 24-track recorder. Davies said to Melody Maker in 1976 of the recording sessions for a new Kinks album, Yes, I am looking forward to it. Its a great studio, Im proud of it, beginning in May 1976, the band began rehearsing new material Ray Davies had penned, with twenty songs attempted by the band. Rejected song titles included Power of Gold, Stagefright, Restless, and Elevator Man, in September, more songs for the album are recorded, including Full Moon, Sleepwalker, Sleepless Night, and Life Goes On. Rejects Child Bride, Everything Is Alright, One Woman Man, in October, new versions of Juke Box Music and Life on the Road are recorded, as well as the new Stormy Sky. Another Misfits song, Black Messiah, is also attempted, but is held off the album, during this time, however, longtime bassist John Dalton left the band, citing his lack of family time, his stresses on the road and low pay as reasons. Overdubs by the remaining four-piece are added throughout the rest of October and November, to replace Dalton, ex-Blodwyn Pig bassist Andy Pyle was added to the group. The band then recorded Mr. Big Man in December, which, Sleepwalker was released during February 1977 in both the US and UK. Although the album, like all Kinks albums since 1967s Something Else by The Kinks, failed to chart in the UK, the album proved to be a success in the US, reaching #21 on the Billboard 200. That following March, the track of the album, backed with Full Moon, reached #48 in the US. Its follow-up single, Juke Box Music, failed to make an impact, critical reaction to the album was generally positive, an improvement on the bands previous reception during their theatrical incarnation. Sleepwalker was lauded by Billy Altman of Rolling Stone, who said, really is the groups strongest and most organised album in years. Giovanni Dadomo of Sounds was less approving, saying, its not the new album one always hopes for. All tracks written by Ray Davies, Big Man Technical Roger Wake - engineer James Wedge - photography Bob Heimall - design John Dyer - art direction Citations Sources Hinman, Doug
20.
Rock-Ola
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The Rock-Ola Manufacturing Corporation was founded in 1927 by Coin-Op pioneer David Cullen Rockola to manufacture slot machines, scales and pinball machines. The firm later produced parking meters, furniture, and firearms, the Rock-Ola Scale Company was founded in 1927 by David Cullen Rockola to manufacture coin-operated entertainment machines. During the 1920s, Rockola was linked with Chicago organized crime, mr. Rockola added the hyphen because people often mispronounced his name. The name was changed to Rock-Ola Manufacturing Corporation in 1932, the company successfully expanded its production line through the Great Depression to include furniture. Starting in 1935, Rock-Ola sold more than 400,000 jukeboxes under the Rock-Ola brand name, Rock-Ola became a prime contractor for production of the M1 carbine for the US Military during World War II. Rock-Ola machined receivers, barrels, bolts, firing pins, extractors, triggers, trigger housings, sears, operating slides, gas cylinders, and recoil plates. Rock-Ola used its furniture machinery to manufacture stocks and handguards for its own production and for other prime contractors, Rock-Ola delivered 228,500 military carbines at $58 each before contracts were cancelled on May 31,1944. Rock-Ola also produced approximately sixty presentation carbines as gifts to company executives, some of the presentation carbines had no serial numbers, while others were numbered in a special sequence preceded by EX. 7% of the 6,221,220 made. The relative rarity and the distinctive name increase the value of Rock-Ola carbines, in 1952, a Rock-Ola M1 carbine was the murder weapon used in the killing of a prominent British scientist and his family who were holidaying in France. Rock-Ola was also the maker of shuffleboard tables from 1948 to 1950, considered by collectors the Cadillac of shuffleboards due to their Art Deco styling with curving woodwork and lots of chrome, they are highly sought after by players. In the early 1980s, Rock-Ola produced video arcade machines, including Fantasy, Jump Bug, the most successful Rock-Ola arcade game was Nibbler. In 1977, Glenn Streeters Antique Apparatus Company engineered, refined and manufactured the first Nostalgic Jukeboxes with a modern Rowe mechanism 45 rpm, Antique Apparatus acquired the Rock-Ola Corporation and name in 1992. The company currently operates in Torrance, California manufacturing a variety of jukeboxes for both commercial and home entertainment, commercial jukeboxes feature touch screens, Peavey power amps and digital downloading of music and ad content, delivered by the AMI Network. Rock-Ola continues to manufacture Nostalgic style CD-jukeboxes and has also added state-of-the-art digital touch screen technology for the home market, the Rock-Ola line of Nostalgic Music Centers was introduced in 2006. Two new music center models, the Mystic and the Q, were introduced in 2008, Jukebox History 1934-1951 Jukebox History 1952-1998 Official website European Official website
21.
Wurlitzer
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The Rudolph Wurlitzer Company, usually referred to as simply Wurlitzer, is an American company started in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1853 by German immigrant Rudolph Wurlitzer. In 1880 the company began manufacturing pianos, over time, Wurlitzer acquired a number of other companies which made a variety of loosely related products including kitchen appliances, carnival rides, player piano rolls, and radios. Wurlitzer also operated a chain of stores where the companys products were sold. Wurlitzers jukebox operations were sold and moved to Germany in 1973, the Wurlitzer piano and organ brands and U. S. manufacturing facilities were acquired by the Baldwin Piano & Organ Co. in 1988 and most piano manufacturing was moved overseas. The Baldwin Co. including its Wurlitzer assets, was acquired by the Gibson Guitar Corporation in about 1996. Baldwin ceased making Wurlitzer-brand pianos in 2009, Vending machines are still manufactured in Germany using the Wurlitzer name under Gibson ownership. The company ceased manufacturing jukeboxes in 2013, but still sells replacement parts, Wurlitzers rare and historic stringed instrument department was independently directed by Rudolph Wurlitzers grandson, Rembert Wurlitzer, from 1948 until his death in 1963. Remberts shop on 42d Street in New York City was an international center for rare. Wurlitzer was founded in Cincinnati in 1853 by German Franz Rudolph Wurlitzer from Schöneck and it was directed successively by his sons Howard, Rudolph, and Farny. In 1880 Wurlitzer started manufacturing its own pianos which the company sold through its retail outlets in Chicago, in 1896 Wurlitzer manufactured its first coin-operated pianos. In the late 1800s, fairs were very popular and, as crowds grew and mechanical rides began to appear, Eugene DeKleist of North Tonawanda, NY was an early builder of such organs for use in carousels. Wurlitzer bought into DeKleists North Tonawanda Barrel Organ Factory in 1897, eventually Wurlitzer bought out the entire operation and moved all Wurlitzer manufacturing operations from Ohio to New York. In 1909 the company began making innovative harps that were far more durable than European prototypes, the Mighty Wurlitzer theatre organ was introduced in late 1910 and became Wurlitzers most famous product. Wurlitzer theatre organs are installed all over the world in a variety of theatres, museums, churches, Wurlitzer also took over production of Lyric brand radios from the All American Mohawk Radio Company in Chicago. Lyric radios were a very high-end console radio which retailed for as much as $425 in 1929, in addition to business acquisitions, Wurlitzer also entered into several joint ventures with James Armitage, George Herschell, and other businessmen from the area. Amusement rides, particularly carousels, were assembled at the facility. Starting in about 1933, the Wurlitzer name gradually became more and more associated with jukeboxes than with actual musical instruments. In 1942, organ production at the North Tonawanda factory ceased, after the war, normal production efforts resumed but with more focus on radios, jukeboxes, and small electronic organs for private homes
22.
Happy Days
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Happy Days is an American television sitcom that aired first-run from January 15,1974, to September 24,1984, on ABC, with a total of 255 half-hour episodes spanning over eleven seasons. Created by Garry Marshall, the series presents a vision of life in the mid-1950s to mid-1960s United States. The series was produced by Miller-Milkis Productions and Henderson Productions in association with Paramount Television, Happy Days was one of the highest-rated shows of the 1970s. The earlier episodes revolve around Richie and his friends, Potsie Weber and Ralph Malph, in later seasons, other characters were introduced including Fonzies young cousin, Charles Chachi Arcola, who became a love interest for Joanie Cunningham. Each of the seasons of the series roughly tracks the eleven years from 1955 to 1965, inclusive. The show is the basis for the Happy Days musical touring the United States since 2008, the leather jacket worn by Winkler during the series was acquired by the Smithsonian Institution for the permanent collection at the National Museum of American History. With season four, Al Molinaro was added as Al Delvecchio, Al Molinaro also played Als twin brother Father Anthony Delvecchio, a Catholic priest. Al eventually married Chachis mother and Father Delvecchio served in the wedding of Joanie to Chachi in the series finale, the most major character changes occurred after season five with the addition of Scott Baio as Fonzies cousin, Charles Chachi Arcola. Originally, the character Spike was supposed to be the character who became Chachi, after Ron Howard left the series, Ted McGinley joined the cast as Roger Phillips, the new physical education teacher at Jefferson High and nephew to Howard and Marion. He took over from the departed Richie Cunningham character, acting as counterpoint to Fonzie, both actors were originally credited as guest stars but were promoted to the main cast during season ten after several series regulars left the show. The real focus of the series was now on the Joanie and Chachi characters, and often finding ways to incorporate Fonzie into them as a shoulder to cry on, advice-giver, and savior as needed. Billy Warlock joined the cast in season 10 as Rogers brother Flip and they were intended as replacements for Erin Moran and Scott Baio and were credited as part of the semi-regular cast. Both characters left with the return of Moran and Baio, following the cancellation of Joanie Loves Chachi, Al Molinaro also left Happy Days in season 10 for Joanie Loves Chachi. Pat Morita then returned to the cast as Arnold in his absence, in season 11, the story line of Richie and Lori Beth is given closure with the two-part episode Welcome Home. Richie returns home from the Army, but barely has time to unpack when he learns that his parents have lined up a job interview at the Milwaukee Journal for him. However, they are taken aback when he tells them he prefers to take his chances in California to become a Hollywood screenwriter. They remind him of his responsibilities and while Richie gives in, he becomes angry and discontent, after a confrontation that ends with a conversation with Fonzie, he decides to face his family and declare his intentions. While somewhat reluctant at first, they support him and bid Richie, Lori Beth, Richie Cunningham – The protagonist for the first seven years of the series
23.
Transistor radio
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A transistor radio is a small portable radio receiver that uses transistor-based circuitry. Their pocket size sparked a change in music listening habits. Before the transistor was invented, radios used vacuum tubes, although portable vacuum tube radios were produced, they were typically bulky and heavy. In the early 50s, though, models with tubes using one volt for the filament circuit and 67 volts for the circuit were produced. Bell Laboratories demonstrated the first transistor on December 23,1947, the scientific team at Bell Laboratories responsible for the solid-state amplifier included William Shockley, Walter Houser Brattain, and John Bardeen. After obtaining patent protection, the company held a conference on June 30,1948. There are many claimants to the title of the first company to produce practical transistor radios, Texas Instruments had demonstrated all-transistor AM radios as early as May 25,1954, but their performance was well below that of equivalent vacuum tube models. A workable all-transistor radio was demonstrated in August 1953 at the Düsseldorf Radio Fair by the German firm Intermetall and it was built with four of Intermetalls hand-made transistors, based upon the 1948 invention of the Transistron-germanium point-contact transistor by Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker. However, as with the early Texas Instruments units only prototypes were ever built, were the first to offer a production model starting in October 1954. The use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes as the elements meant that the device was much smaller, required far less power to operate than a tube radio. Since the transistor base current, its input impedance is low in contrast to the high input impedance of the vacuum tubes. It also allowed operation, since there were no filaments to heat up. By comparison, the radio could fit in a pocket and weighed half a pound or less. The now-familiar 9-volt battery was introduced for powering transistor radios, most radios included earphone jacks and came with single earphones that provided only mediocre-quality sound reproduction. Previously, Texas Instruments was producing instrumentation for the oil industry and locating devices for the U. S. Navy, the two companies worked together on the TR-1, looking to grow revenues for their respective companies by breaking into this new product area. In May 1954, Texas Instruments had designed and built a prototype and was looking for a radio manufacturer to develop. None of the major radio makers including RCA, Philco, and Emerson were interested. The President of I. D. E. A. at the time, Ed Tudor, jumped at the opportunity to manufacture the TR-1, predicting sales of the transistor radios at 20 million radios in three years
24.
Compact Cassette
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The Compact Cassette or Musicassette, also commonly called cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. It was released by Philips in 1962, having developed in Hasselt. Compact cassettes come in two forms, either already containing content as a cassette, or as a fully recordable blank cassette. Its uses ranged from portable audio to home recording to data storage for early microcomputers, the first cassette player designed for use in car dashes was introduced in 1968. Between the early 1970s and the early 2000s, the cassette was one of the two most common formats for prerecorded music, first alongside the LP record and later the compact disc. Compact Cassettes contain two miniature spools, between which a magnetically coated, polyester-type plastic film is passed and wound and these spools and their attendant parts are held inside a protective plastic shell. This reversal is achieved either by flipping the cassette, or by having the machine itself change the direction of tape movement. In 1935, decades before the introduction of the Compact Cassette, AEG released the first reel-to-reel tape recorder and it was based on the invention of the magnetic tape by Fritz Pfleumer, which used similar technology but with open reels. These instruments were expensive and relatively difficult to use and were therefore used mostly by professionals in radio stations. In 1958, following four years of development, RCA Victor introduced the stereo, quarter-inch, reversible, however, it was a large cassette, and offered few pre-recorded tapes. Despite the multiple versions, it failed, consumer use of tape only took off in the early 1960s, after playback machines reached a comfortable, user-friendly design. This was achieved primarily by the introduction of transistors which replaced the bulky, fragile, reel-to-reel tape then became more suitable to household use, but still remained an esoteric product. The team at Philips was led by Lou Ottens in Hasselt, Philips was competing with Telefunken and Grundig in a race to establish its cassette tape as the worldwide standard, and it wanted support from Japanese electronics manufacturers. However, the Philips Compact Cassette became dominant as a result of Philips decision to license the format free of charge, Philips also released the Norelco Carry-Corder 150 recorder/player in the US in November 1964. By 1966 over 250,000 recorders had been sold in the US alone, by 1968,85 manufacturers had sold over 2.4 million players. By the end of the 1960s, the business was worth an estimated 150 million dollars. In the early years sound quality was mediocre, but it improved dramatically by the early 1970s when it caught up with the quality of 8-track tape, the Compact Cassette went on to become a popular alternative to the 12-inch vinyl LP during the late 1970s. The mass production of blank Compact Cassettes began in 1964 in Hanover, prerecorded music cassettes were launched in Europe in late 1965
25.
Compact disc
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Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres, they are used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. At the time of the introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much space as a thousand CDs. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs, by 2007,200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time. American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s, although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published in 1980, after their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984, by 1988 CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company. In 1974, L. However, due to the performance of the analog format
26.
MP3
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Compared to CD quality digital audio, MP3 compression commonly achieves 75 to 95% reduction in size. MP3 files are thus 1/4 to 1/20 the size of the digital audio stream. This is important for both transmission and storage concerns, the basis for such comparison is the CD digital audio format which requires 1411200 bit/s. A commonly used MP3 encoding setting is CBR128 kbit/s resulting in file size 1/11 of the original CD-quality file, the MP3 lossy compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a continuous sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is referred to as perceptual coding or psychoacoustics. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce the precision of less audible to human hearing. MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group as part of its MPEG-1 standard, the first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hanover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio, which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992. A backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio extension with lower sample and bit rates was published in 1995, MP3 is a streaming or broadcast format meaning that individual frames can be lost without affecting the ability to decode successfully delivered frames. Storing an MP3 stream in a file enables time-shifted playback, the MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency, in 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy and this work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths. A wide variety of compression algorithms were reported in IEEEs refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. The genesis of the MP3 technology is described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years. The immediate predecessors of MP3 were Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain, the first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder in hardware, was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips. Another predecessor of the MP3 format and technology is to be found in the perceptual codec MUSICAM based on an integer arithmetics 32 sub-bands filterbank, driven by a psychoacoustic model. It was primarily designed for Digital Audio Broadcasting and digital TV and this codec incorporated into a broadcasting system using COFDM modulation was demonstrated on air and on the field together with Radio Canada and CRC Canada during the NAB show in 1991. F. As a doctoral student at Germanys University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on music compression in the early 1980s
27.
Restaurant
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A restaurant, or an eatery, is a business which prepares and serves food and drinks to customers in exchange for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on the premises, but many also offer take-out and food delivery services. In Western countries, most mid- to high-range restaurants serve alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, some restaurants serve all the major meals, such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Other restaurants may serve a single meal or they may serve two meals or even a kids meal. Restaurants may be classified or distinguished in different ways. The primary factors are usually the food itself, the cuisine and/or the style of offering, beyond this, restaurants may differentiate themselves on factors including speed, formality, location, cost, service, or novelty themes. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing, in the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal or formal wear. Typically, at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, after eating, the customers then pay the bill. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant, customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at the end of the meal. Buffet restaurants typically still have waiters to serve drinks and alcoholic beverages, fast food restaurants are also considered a restaurant. The travelling public has long been catered for with ships messes and railway restaurant cars which are, in effect, many railways, the world over, also cater for the needs of travellers by providing railway refreshment rooms, a form of restaurant, at railway stations. In the 2000s, a number of travelling restaurants, specifically designed for tourists, have been created and these can be found on trams, boats, buses, etc. A restaurants proprietor is called a restaurateur /ˌrɛstərəˈtɜːr/, like restaurant, professional cooks are called chefs, with there being various finer distinctions. Most restaurant will have various waiting staff to serve food, beverages and alcoholic drinks, including busboys who remove used dishes and cutlery. In finer restaurants, this may include a host or hostess, a maître dhôtel to welcome customers and to them. A new route to becoming a restauranter, rather than working ones way up through the stages, is to operate a food truck, once a sufficient following has been obtained, a permanent restaurant site can be opened. This trend has become common in the UK and the US, a chefs table is a table located in the kitchen of a restaurant, reserved for VIPs and special guests. Patrons may be served a themed tasting menu prepared and served by the head chef, Restaurants can require a minimum party and charge a higher flat fee
28.
Diner
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A diner is a small fast food restaurant that is found in the American Northeastern United States and Midwest, as well as in other states, Canada, and parts of Western Europe. Diners offer a range of foods, mostly American, a distinct exterior structure, a casual atmosphere, a long counter with bar stools where patrons eat their meals. Diners frequently stay open 24 hours a day, especially in cities, bar patrons seeking a post-last call venue to socialize and get food and shift workers leaving their factories historically provided a key part of the customer base. From the 1920s to the 1940s, diners were usually prefabricated in factories, as a result, old diners were typically narrow and small, because they had to fit onto a rail car or truck for delivery to the restaurant site. Some vintage diners have been expanded over the years, by building additions into the prefab structure, in the 2010s, many new diners are built on site instead. Diners were historically small businesses operated by the owner, in the 2010s, some diners are operated by chains. Diners typically serve American food such as hamburgers, french fries, club sandwiches, much of the food is grilled, as early diners were based around a grill. Coffee is the ubiquitous beverage at diners, even if it is not always of high quality, diners often serve hand-blended milkshakes and desserts such as pies, which are typically displayed in a glass case. Classic American diners often have a layer of stainless steel siding—a feature unique to diner architecture. In some cases, diners share nostalgic, retro style features also found in some restored drive-ins, some car culture enthusiasts also enjoy going to diners, such as hot rod and vintage muscle car fans. The first diner was created in 1872 by Walter Scott, who sold out of a horse-pulled wagon to employees of the Providence Journal, in Providence. Scotts diner can be considered the first diner with “walk up” service, commercial production of lunch wagons began in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1887, by Thomas Buckley. Buckley was successful and became known for his White House Cafe wagons, charles Palmer received the first patent for the diner, which he billed as a Night-Lunch Wagon. He built his fancy night cafes and night lunch wagons in the Worcester area until 1901. Built by the J. B. Judkins coach company, who had built custom car bodies, two Sterling Streamliners remain in operation, the Salem Diner at its original location in Salem, Massachusetts and the Modern Diner in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. As the number of seats increased, wagons gave way to pre-fabricated buildings made by many of the manufacturers who had made the wagons. Like the lunch wagon, a stationary diner allowed one to set up a service business quickly using pre-assembled constructs. Until the Great Depression, most diner manufacturers and their customers were located in the Northeast, after World War II, as the economy returned to civilian production and the suburbs boomed, diners were an attractive small business opportunity
29.
Barracks
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A barrack or barracks is a building or group of buildings built to house soldiers. The word may apply to separate housing blocks or to complete complexes, the main object of barracks is to separate soldiers from the civilian population and reinforce discipline, training, and esprit de corps. They have been called discipline factories for soldiers, Early barracks such as those of the Roman Praetorian Guard were built to maintain elite forces. There are a number of remains of Roman army barracks in frontier forts such as Vercovicium, from these and from contemporary Roman sources we can see that the basics of life in a military camp have remained constant for thousands of years. Large, permanent barracks were developed in the 18th century by the two dominant states of the period, France the caserne and Spain the cuartel. The English term ‘barrack’, on the hand, derives from the Spanish word for a temporary shelter erected by soldiers on campaign. Early barracks were multi-story blocks, often grouped in a quadrangle around a courtyard or parade ground, a good example is Berwick Barracks, which was among the first in England to be purpose-built and begun in 1717 to the design of the distinguished architect Nicholas Hawksmoor. The pavilion plan concept of design was influential in barrack planning after the Crimean War. The first large-scale training camps were built in the Kingdom of France, the British Army built Aldershot camps from 1854. By the First World War, infantry, artillery, and cavalry regiments had separate barracks and these were inadequate for the enormous armies mobilized after 1914. Hut camps were developed using variations of the eponymous Nissen hut, in many military forces, NCOs and enlisted personnel will frequently be housed in barracks for service or training. Junior enlisted and sometimes junior NCOs will often receive less space and may be housed in bays, while senior NCOs, the term Garrison town is a common expression for any town that has military barracks, i. e. a permanent military presence nearby. Barracks blockhouses were used to house troops in forts in Upper Canada, the Stone Frigate, completed in 1820, served as barracks briefly in 1837–38, and was refitted as a dormitory and classrooms to house the Royal Military College of Canada by 1876. The Stone frigate is a stone building originally designed to hold gear. The majority of the Portuguese Army bases is referred as a quartel, in a barracks, each of the dormitory buildings is referred as a caserna. Most of them are regimental barracks, constituting the fixed component of the Army system of forces and being responsible for the training, sustenance, in addition to the regimental administrative, logistic and training bodies, each barracks can lodge one or more operational units. Many of the Portuguese regimental barracks are of the CANIFA model, the CANIFA barracks were designed to lodge 1,000 or more soldiers. Nevertheless, some soldiers lodgings were built in Britain at this time, the first recorded use of the word barracks in this context was for the Irish Barracks, built in the precinct of the Tower of London in 1669
30.
Amusement arcade
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In some countries, some types of arcades are also legally permitted to provide gambling machines such as slot machines or pachinko machines. Games are usually housed in cabinets, the term used for ancestors of these venues in the beginning of 20th century was penny arcades. Video games were introduced in amusement arcades in the late 1970s and were most popular during the age of arcade video games. Arcades became popular with children and particularly adolescents, which led parents to be concerned that video game playing might cause them to skip school, a penny arcade can be any type of venue for coin-operated devices, usually for entertainment. The term came into use about 1905-1910, the name derives from the penny, once a staple coin for the machines. Coin operated shooter games Penny arcades later led to the creation of video arcades in the 1970s, Arcades catering for video games began to gain momentum in the late 1970s with games such as Space Invaders and Galaxian and became widespread in 1980 with Pac-Man, Centipede and others. The central processing unit in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier games such as Ataris Pong. This emphasis on the gameplay explains why many of these continue to be enjoyed as of 2014. The golden age of arcade games in the 1980s became a peak era of video arcade game popularity, innovation. Color arcade games became more prevalent and video arcades themselves started appearing outside their traditional bowling-alley, designers experimented with a wide variety of game genres, while developers still had to work within strict limits of available processor-power and memory. The era saw the spread of video arcades across North America, Western Europe. The number of arcades in North America, for example. Beginning with Space Invaders, video games also started to appear in supermarkets, restaurants, liquor stores, gas stations. This boom came to an end in the mid-1980s, in what has been referred to as the great coin-op video crash of 1983, on November 30,1982, Jerry Parker, the Mayor of Ottumwa, Iowa, declared his city the Video Game Capital of the World. This initiative resulted in many firsts in video game history, playing a central role in arcade history, Ottumwa saw the birth of the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard and the U. S. National Video Game Team, two organizations that still exist today. These systems essentially provided arcade-only consoles where the video game ROM could be swapped easily to replace a game and this allowed easier development and replacement of games, but it also discouraged the hardware innovation necessary to stay ahead of the technology curve. In fact, several arcade systems such as Segas NAOMI board are arcade versions of home systems, the arcade industry entered a major slump in mid-1994. In the late 1990s, a bar opened in the new Crown Casino complex in Melbourne, Barcode was a games bar with the latest arcade games, the classics, pool tables, air hockey and pinball machines which you could play while consuming alcohol
31.
Self-service laundry
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A self-service laundry, coin laundry or coin wash is a facility where clothes are washed and dried. They are known in the United Kingdom as launderettes or laundrettes, george Edward Pendray created the word laundromat for Westinghouse. Some laundries employ staff to service for the customers. Minimal service centres may provide an attendant behind a counter to provide change, sell washing powder. Others allow customers to drop off clothing to be washed, dried and this is often referred to as Fluff & Fold, Wash-n-Fold, Drop Off, bachelor bundles, a service wash or full-service wash. Some staffed laundry facilities also provide dry cleaning pick-up and drop-off, there are over 35,000 laundries throughout the United States. Similar services exist in the United Kingdom where the terms service wash or full-service wash are also in use, the evolution of self-serve laundry services have been seen in some fluff and fold services provided by various laundromats. These services provide the end user with washing, drying, some services offer free pickup and delivery, as well as complimentary laundry bags as part of their customer appreciation. Additionally, dry-cleaning services have been known to utilize the pickup, washateria is an alternate name for laundromat, especially in Texas. The first washateria so named was opened in 1934 in Fort Worth, though steam-powered laundry machines were invented in the 19th century, their cost put them out of reach of many. John F. Cantrell and others began renting short-term use of their machines, most laundromats and washaterias in the US are fully automated and coin-operated and generally unmanned, with many operating 24 hours a day. The United States Census Bureau estimates that there are 11,000 of this style of laundromats in the US, employing 39,000 people, the first UK launderette was opened on 9 May 1949 in Queensway. UK launderettes are mainly fully automated, coin-operated and are either manned or unmanned, some may be manned during fewer hours than the operating time each week. They are generally only in urban and suburban areas and have been common features of urban life since the 1960s. In the last two decades there has been a decline in the number of launderettes, to approximately 3000 nationally, rapidly rising utility charges, premises rent and a lower purchase cost of domestic machines have been noted as principal reasons for the recent decline. High initial launch costs, specifically for commercial washing machines and dryers, have also commented on as reasons for fewer new entrants into the market. Furthermore, machine updates can be expensive, which has held back premises investment. Most UK households have bedding which are far above the capacity of domestic machines, many of the manned operations in the UK have added value services such as ironing, dry cleaning and service washes, which prove popular to busy professionals, students, and senior citizens
32.
Seeburg 1000
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It provided a service similar to that of Muzak. The Seeburg 1000 phonograph was introduced in 1959 as model BMS1, the system replaced the Seeburg Library Unit, which served the same purpose but played standard 45 rpm records. The Seeburg 1000 is enclosed in a metal cabinet 22 inches wide by 14 inches tall by 12 inches deep, a later version is housed in a windowless, blue- and grey-painted metal box. This version contains only the mechanism, without any amplifier or timer built in. The player is capable of playing both sides of up to 28 records and repeating the process indefinitely, the records are stacked on the spindle with the first side to be played on the bottom of the stack. A special tone arm, with two needles, is used to both sides of each record. A rotating base plate below the records prevents damage to the playing surface while re-stacking the records. A similar weight on top of the stack ensures stable playback of the side of the topmost record. A release button in the top of the spindle permits the operator to retract the record-holding claws to remove the record stack, the BMS1000 was so called because it played both sides of 25 records, each side containing 20 songs. The phonographs used the old Pickering Red-head stereo cartridge, introduced on Seeburg jukeboxes in late 1958 for the 1959 model year. Although the mono Seeburg jukeboxes used 1 mil styluses and the stereo Seeburgs used.7 mil styluses, the systems used a.5 mil stylus. The BMS phonographs were non-selectable and only played these proprietary formatted 9 records with 2 center holes - sequentially, in 1963, Seeburg introduced the next generation BMS, the BMS2. This phonograph has been nicknamed the Microwave in recent years due to its resemblance to the kitchen appliance, there was a lighted window where one could see the records playing, and the chrome speaker grille and trim made the little phonograph noteworthy. These BMS2s were also the first Seeburgs to use transistorized amplifiers, BMS phonographs lacking a power amplifier or internal speaker could have an optional preamplifier. Early preamps were tube- type and transistorized, in 1963 the Seeburg BMCA1 Companion Audio speaker/4-watt amp unit became available, using both tubes and transistors. If more power or an amp was needed Seeburg had the HFA4-56, a Seeburg Background Music record is a vinyl record of a non-standard 9 inch -diameter size with a 2 inch center hole. The recording is monaural, with a speed of 16⅔ rpm. A0.5 mil diamond stylus is used for reproduction, each side contains approximately 40 minutes of music
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
Phonograph
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The phonograph is a device invented in 1877 for the mechanical recording and reproduction of sound. In its later forms it is called a gramophone. To recreate the sound, the surface is rotated while a playback stylus traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it. In later electric phonographs, the motions of the stylus are converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. The phonograph was invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, while other inventors had produced devices that could record sounds, Edisons phonograph was the first to be able to reproduce the recorded sound. His phonograph originally recorded sound onto a sheet wrapped around a rotating cylinder. A stylus responding to sound vibrations produced an up and down or hill-and-dale groove in the foil, in the 1890s, Emile Berliner initiated the transition from phonograph cylinders to flat discs with a spiral groove running from the periphery to near the center. Later improvements through the years included modifications to the turntable and its system, the stylus or needle. The disc phonograph record was the dominant audio recording format throughout most of the 20th century, from the mid-1980s on, phonograph use on a standard record player declined sharply because of the rise of the cassette tape, compact disc and other digital recording formats. Records are still a favorite format for some audiophiles and DJs, vinyl records are still used by some DJs and musicians in their concert performances. Musicians continue to release their recordings on vinyl records, the original recordings of musicians are sometimes re-issued on vinyl. Usage of terminology is not uniform across the English-speaking world, in more modern usage, the playback device is often called a turntable, record player, or record changer. When used in conjunction with a mixer as part of a DJ setup, the term phonograph was derived from the Greek words φωνή and γραφή. The similar related terms gramophone and graphophone have similar root meanings, the roots were already familiar from existing 19th-century words such as photograph, telegraph, and telephone. In British English, gramophone may refer to any sound-reproducing machine using disc records, the term phonograph was usually restricted to machines that used cylinder records. Gramophone generally referred to a wind-up machine, after the introduction of the softer vinyl records, 33 1⁄3-rpm LPs and 45-rpm single or two-song records, and EPs, the common name became record player or turntable. Often the home record player was part of a system that included a radio and, later, from about 1960, such a system began to be described as a hi-fi or a stereo. In American English, phonograph, properly specific to machines made by Edison, was used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s to include cylinder-playing machines made by others
35.
Direct-drive turntable
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A direct-drive turntable is one of the three main phonograph designs currently being produced. The other styles are the belt-drive turntable and the idler-wheel type, each name is based upon the type of coupling used between the platter of the turntable and the motor. In a direct-drive turntable the motor is located directly under the center of the platter and is connected to the platter directly, the first commercially available direct-drive turntable, the model SP-10, was introduced by the Technics division of Matsushita in 1969. Technics also introduced the first direct-drive tangential-arm turntable, the model SL-10, direct-drive turntables may suffer from vibration due to the motor. This is less of an issue for belt-drive turntables, however, in recent years, shock-absorbing material, placed between the motor and platter, has been used to cut back on vibrations. The torque on direct-drive turntables is usually higher than on belt drive models. This means the speed is less susceptible to outside forces. Higher torque also means the platter will accelerate to its proper speed faster so less distortion is heard when the record begins to play, some direct-drive turntables further reduce the separation of motor and platter by using the platter itself as the rotor in the turntables synchronous motor. This means that there is no motor, per se, in the turntable - the platter is entirely driven by the field induced by the turntables stator. In all turntables a motor spins a metal disk at a constant speed, on top of the rotating disk is a mat and on top of the mat records are placed to be played. In the past rubber mats were used to hold the record in place so that it would not rotate independently of the platter, nowadays slipmats are used to reduce the friction between the spinning platter and record, and is often made of a felt-like material. This way a DJ can scratch the record while the platter continues to spin underneath, in direct-drive turntables, the slipmat also helps isolate the record from motor vibrations that would be picked up by the stylus. Many turntables also include a control, for fine tuning to the correct speed, used in conjunction with a strobe light. From the late 1990s onwards manufacturers such as Vestax started to other electronic controls such as reverse. DJs and turntablists use all the functions to assist them in musical performances
36.
Belt-drive turntable
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The design of the belt-drive turntable allows the use of a less expensive motor than the direct-drive turntable. Also, the elastomeric belt absorbs motor vibrations which would otherwise be picked up by the stylus, rotational stability is a key goal for turntable design that produces quality output. Many belt-drive turntables with multiple speeds have mechanical devices or rely on manual effort to move the belt between different-sized pulleys on the motor shaft, due to difficulties in designing multiple-speed synchronous motors whose speed can be controlled electronically, such turntables frequently have DC servomotors. The disadvantage of DC servomotors is that they rotate in steps rather than continuously – the resulting cogging can add noise during playback, helical armature motors can be used to overcome this. Problems with belt instability and deterioration in the past have largely solved by use of modern elastic polymers. Since the 1970s, DC motors have declined in popularity, high end audiophile turntable designs use the synchronous motor, due to the existence of instabilities of mains electricity, manufacturers might try to ensure pitch stability by generating its own sinusoidal waveform to power their AC motor. Other methods at achieving stability include using optical sensors on the platter which feed back to the electronics, some manufacturers use mass to deal with the problem. Heavy platters, which have higher inertia, are less susceptible to minute speed variations. However, mass stores energy that may be difficult to control, heavier platter also increases wear on the bearing. Others, such as the Linn Sondek LP12, have a suspension, the three-point suspended sub-chassis was a design by renowned audio pioneer Edgar Villchur. It became the basis upon which his company created the Acoustic Research XA turntable that was launched in 1961, the principle behind it is that the turntable is an inert platform that allows the stylus to track the surface of the record accurately whilst being protected from external vibrations. The platter, sub-chassis, armboard and tonearm mechanically form a closed loop, the motor, mounted on the top plate, drives the turntable platter via a belt. The compression spring system of the XA was much improved upon, the main platter bearing may be upright or inverted, it is mounted on the sub-chassis along with the arm fixture. Bearings generally use an oil film to lubricate between a metal ball-bearing and the thrust-plate of the bearings housing, more esoteric designs use an air bearing, where the spindle is supported by a high pressure flow of air. The tonearm is usually sold separately, allowing for buyer choice and this creates an undesirable slurring of the record. Furthermore, over time the belt can wear or lose elasticity. In addition, belt-drive turntables have much lower torque, the belt can also slip off the motor and/or platter spindle, dJs who scratch or mix generally prefer to use direct-drive turntables
37.
Phonograph cylinder
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Phonograph cylinders are the earliest commercial medium for recording and reproducing sound. In the 1910s, the disc record system triumphed in the marketplace to become the dominant commercial audio medium. The phonograph was invented by Thomas Edison and his team on July 18,1877 and his first successful recording and reproduction of intelligible sounds, achieved early in the following December, used a thin sheet of tin foil wrapped around a hand-cranked grooved metal cylinder. Tin foil was not a recording medium for either commercial or artistic purposes. Edison moved on to developing a practical incandescent electric light and the improvements to sound recording technology were made by others. After this system was demonstrated to Edisons representatives, Edison quickly resumed work on the phonograph and he settled on a thicker all-wax cylinder, the surface of which could be repeatedly shaved down for reuse. Both the Graphophone and Edisons Perfected Phonograph were commercialized in 1888, eventually, a patent-sharing agreement was signed and the wax-coated cardboard tubes were abandoned in favor of Edisons all-wax cylinders as an interchangeable standard format. Beginning in 1889, prerecorded wax cylinders were marketed and these have professionally made recordings of songs, instrumental music or humorous monologues in their grooves. Each cylinder can easily be placed on and removed from the mandrel of the used to play them. Unlike later, shorter-playing high-speed cylinders, early recordings were usually cut at a speed of about 120 rpm. They were made of a soft wax formulation and would wear out after they were played a few dozen times. The buyer could then use a mechanism which left their surfaces shaved smooth so new recordings could be made on them, Cylinder machines of the late 1880s and the 1890s were usually sold with recording attachments. In the earliest stages of phonograph manufacturing various competing incompatible types of recordings were made. A standard system was decided upon by Edison Records, Columbia Phonograph, the standard cylinders are about 4 inches long, 2¼ inches in diameter, and play about two minutes of music or other sound. Over the years the type of wax used in cylinders was improved and hardened so that cylinders could be played with good quality over 100 times, in 1902 Edison Records launched a line of improved hard wax cylinders marketed as Edison Gold Molded Records. The impressive mention of gold referred only to the extremely thin gold coating deposited onto the wax cylinder to make it electrically conductive. Originally all cylinders sold had to be recorded live on the softer brown wax which wore out in as few as twenty playings, later cylinders were reproduced either mechanically or by linking phonographs together with rubber tubes. Although not completely satisfactory, the result was enough to be sold
38.
LP record
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The LP is an analog sound storage medium, a vinyl record format characterized by a speed of 33 1⁄3 rpm, a 12 or 10 inch diameter, and use of the microgroove groove specification. Introduced by Columbia in 1948, it was adopted as a new standard by the entire record industry. Apart from a few relatively minor refinements and the important later addition of stereophonic sound, the new product was a 12- or 10-inch fine-grooved disc made of vinyl and played with a smaller-tipped microgroove stylus at a speed of 33 1⁄3 rpm. Each side of a 12-inch LP could play for more than 20 minutes, although the LP was suited to classical music because of its extended continuous playing time, it also allowed a collection of ten or more pop music recordings to be put on a single disc. The use of the word album persisted for the one-disc LP equivalent, the prototype of the LP was the soundtrack disc used by the Vitaphone motion picture sound system, developed by Western Electric and introduced in 1926. For soundtrack purposes, the less than five minutes of playing time of side of a conventional 12-inch 78 rpm disc was not acceptable. The sound had to play continuously for at least 11 minutes, long enough to accompany a full 1, the disc diameter was increased to 16 inches and the speed was reduced to 33 1⁄3 revolutions per minute. Unlike their smaller LP descendants, they were made with the same large standard groove used by 78s, unlike conventional records, the groove started at the inside of the recorded area near the label and proceeded outward toward the edge. Like 78s, early soundtrack discs were pressed in an abrasive shellac compound, syndicated radio programming was distributed on 78 rpm discs beginning in 1928. The desirability of a longer continuous playing time soon led to the adoption of the Vitaphone soundtrack disc format, 16-inch 33 1⁄3 rpm discs playing about 15 minutes per side were used for most of these electrical transcriptions beginning about 1930. Transcriptions were variously recorded inside out like soundtrack discs or with an outside start, some transcriptions were recorded with a vertically modulated hill and dale groove. This was found to allow deeper bass and also an extension of the frequency response. Neither of these was necessarily an advantage in practice because of the limitations of AM broadcasting. Today we can enjoy the benefits of those higher-fidelity recordings, even if the radio audiences could not. Initially, transcription discs were pressed only in shellac, but by 1932 pressings in RCA Victors vinyl-based Victrolac were appearing, by the late 1930s, vinyl was standard for nearly all kinds of pressed discs except ordinary commercial 78s, which continued to be made of shellac. Use of the LPs microgroove standard began in the late 1950s, the King Biscuit Flower Hour is a late example, as are Westwood Ones The Beatle Years and Doctor Demento programs, which were sent to stations on LP at least through 1992. RCA Victor introduced a version of a long-playing record for home use in September 1931. These Program Transcription discs, as Victor called them, played at 33 1⁄3 rpm and used a somewhat finer and they were to be played with a special Chromium Orange chrome-plated steel needle
39.
Production of phonograph records
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For the first several decades of disc record manufacturing, sound was recorded directly on to the master disc at the recording studio. From about 1950 on it became usual to have the performance first recorded on tape, which could then be processed and/or edited. A record cutter would engrave the grooves into the master disc, early versions of these master discs were soft wax, and later a harder lacquer was used. The mastering process was something of an art as the operator had to manually allow for the changes in sound which affected how wide the space for the groove needed to be on each rotation. Sometimes the engineer would sign his work, or leave humorous or cryptic comments in the groove area. The original soft master, known as a lacquer, was silvered using the process as the silvering of mirrors. To prepare the master for making copies, soft masters made of wax were coated with fine graphite, later masters made of lacquer were sprayed with a saponin mix, rinsed, and then sprayed with stannous chloride, which sensitized the surface. After another rinse, they were sprayed with a mix of the silver solution and this coating provided the conductive layer to carry the current for the subsequent electroplating, commonly with a nickel alloy. In the early days of microgroove records, nickel plating was only brief and this was followed by copper plating, which was both quicker and simpler to manage at that time. Later with advent of nickel plating solutions, all matrices were plated with solid nickel. Most factories transferred the master matrix after a flash of nickel from a slow warm nickel electroplating bath at around 15 amperes to a hot 130 degree nickel plating bath. In this, the current would be raised at intervals until it reached between 110 A and 200 A, depending on the standard of the equipment and the skill of the operators. This and all subsequent metal copies were known as matrices, when this metal master was removed from the lacquer, it would be a negative master or master matrix, since it was a negative copy of the lacquer. In the earliest days the negative master was used as a mold to press records sold to the public, after removing the silver deposit and passifying, the metal master was then electroplated to create metal positive matrices, or mothers. From these positives, stampers would be formed, prior to plating either the nickel master or nickel mother, it needed to be passified to prevent the next matrix from adhering to the mother. There were several methods used, EMI favoured the fairly difficult albumin soaking method whereas CBS Records, soaking in a dichromate solution was another popular method, however, this method risked contaminating the nickel solution with chrome. The electrolytic method was similar to the standard electrolytic cleaning method except the cycles were reversed finishing the process with the matrix as the anode and this also cleaned the surface of the matrix about to be copied. After separating from the master, a new mother was polished with an abrasive to remove the microscopic horns at the top of the grooves
40.
National Archives and Records Administration
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The NARA also transmits votes of the Electoral College to Congress. The chief administrator of NARA is the Archivist of the United States, the Archivist of the United States is the chief official overseeing the operation of the National Archives and Records Administration. The Archivist not only maintains the official documentation of the passage of amendments to the U. S, Constitution by state legislatures, but has the authority to declare when the constitutional threshold for passage has been reached, and therefore when an act has become an amendment. The Office of the Federal Register publishes the Federal Register, Code of Federal Regulations and it also administers the Electoral College. Since 1964, the NHPRC has awarded some 4,500 grants, the Office of Government Information Services is a Freedom of Information Act resource for the public and the government. Congress has charged NARA with reviewing FOIA policies, procedures and compliance of Federal agencies, NARAs mission also includes resolving FOIA disputes between Federal agencies and requesters. Originally, each branch and agency of the U. S. government was responsible for maintaining its own documents, Congress established the National Archives Establishment in 1934 to centralize federal record keeping, with the Archivist of the United States as chief administrator. The National Archives was incorporated with GSA in 1949, in 1985 it became an independent agency as NARA, connor, began serving in 1934, when the National Archives was established by Congress. As a result of a first Hoover Commission recommendation, in 1949 the National Archives was placed within the newly formed General Services Administration. The Archivist served as an official to the GSA Administrator until the National Archives. An audit indicated that more than one third withdrawn since 1999 did not contain sensitive information, the program was originally scheduled to end in 2007. In 2011, a retired employee pleaded guilty to stealing original sound recordings from the archives, Archival Recovery Teams investigate the theft of records. NARAs holdings are classed into record groups reflecting the governmental department or agency from which they originated, Records include paper documents, microfilm, still pictures, motion pictures, and electronic media. Archival descriptions of the permanent holdings of the government in the custody of NARA are stored in the National Archives Catalog. The archival descriptions include information on traditional paper holdings, electronic records, as of December 2012, the catalog consisted of about 10 billion logical data records describing 527,000 artifacts and encompassing 81% of NARAs records. There are also 922,000 digital copies of already digitized materials, most records at NARA are in the public domain, as works of the federal government are excluded from copyright protection. However, records from other sources may still be protected by copyright or donor agreements and its Information Security Oversight Office monitors and sets policy for the U. S. governments security classification system. Many of NARAs most requested records are used for genealogy research
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National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
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