1.
Snack
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A snack is a portion of food, smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged foods and other processed foods. Traditionally, snacks are prepared from ingredients commonly available in the home, often cold cuts, fruits, leftovers, nuts, sandwiches, and the like are used as snacks. The Dagwood sandwich was originally the result of a cartoon characters desire for large snacks. With the spread of convenience stores, packaged snack foods became a significant business, snack foods are typically designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying. Processed snack foods, as one form of food, are designed to be less perishable, more durable. They often contain amounts of sweeteners, preservatives, and appealing ingredients such as chocolate, peanuts. Beverages, such as coffee, are not generally considered snacks though they may be consumed along with or in lieu of snack foods, a snack eaten shortly before going to bed or during the night may be called a night snack. In the United States, the first snack food was the peanut, peanuts first arrived from South America via slave ships, and became incorporated into African-inspired cooking on southern plantations. After the Civil War, the taste for peanuts spread north, along with popcorn, snacks bore the stigma of being sold by unhygienic street vendors. The middle-class etiquette of the Victorian era categorized any food that did not require proper usage of utensils as lower-class, pretzels were introduced to North America by the Dutch via New Amsterdam in the 17th century. In the 1860s, the snack was still associated with immigrants, unhygienic street vendors, due to loss of business during the Prohibition era, pretzels underwent rebranding to make them more appealing to the public. Packaging revolutionized snack foods, allowing sellers to reduce contamination risk while making it easy to advertise brands with a logo, pretzels boomed in popularity, bringing many other types of snack foods with it. By the 1950s, snacking had become a pastime, becoming an internationally recognized emblem of middle American life. Healthy snacks include those that have significant vitamins, are low in saturated fat and added sugars, a 2010 study showed that children in the United States snacked on average six times per day, approximately twice as often as American children in the 1970s. This represents consumption of roughly 570 calories more per day than U. S. children consumed in the 1970s, America, just one long snack bar. Wikibooks Cookbook – A collection of recipes from around the world
2.
Gashapon
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The terms gashapon or gachapon refer to a variety of vending machine-dispensed capsule toys popular in Japan and elsewhere. Gashapon is a Japanese onomatopoeia composed of two sounds, gasha for the sound of a crank on a toy vending machine, Gashapon may describe both the machines themselves and the toys obtained from them. Popular manufacturers of gashapon include Tomy, which uses the shortened term Gacha for their capsule machines, in the United States, Gashapon is a registered trademark of the Bandai Company, and gashapon are generally referred to as blind box sets. Gashapon machines are similar to the coin-operated toy vending machines seen outside of grocery stores and they are often constructed from high-grade PVC plastic, and contain more molding detail and intricately painted features. Many gashapon are considered collectors items, with rare ones fetching extremely high prices in secondhand markets, Gashapon toys are often licensed from popular characters in Japanese manga, video games or anime, or from the American entertainment industry. These highly detailed toys have found a following among all generations in Japan. It is not uncommon for sets marketed specifically for adults to feature risqué female figurines, virtually all gashapon are released in sets—each series will have a number of figures to collect. They are, by nature, a purchase, people insert coins. Such an amusement element may become frustrating, as one risks obtaining the same capsule repeatedly, enthusiastic collectors will buy sets from gashapon stores in places such as Tokyos Akihabara or Osakas Nipponbashi. Depending on the store, the sets are usually cheaper than buying them out of a machine. In recent years, the term gashapon has also come to refer to blind-box trading figures, another variety of gashapon is bottle cap figures. These small figures are mounted atop a plastic bottle cap, as might be found on a soda bottle. They are sold both in machine capsules and blind boxes, the caps are not fully functional as they do not have screw threads to secure them to the mouth of the bottle. Gashapon have also appeared in some Mario games such as Mario Party 5, melee where the player inserts a desired amount of coins and gets a trophy of a Nintendo-related nature in return. In both The Minish Cap and Super Smash Bros, melee, the more the player spends in one go, the higher the chance of getting a new item in return. The bonus stage in Sonic the Hedgehog 3 is also gashapon inspired and this is the same marketing tactic used by Kinder Surprise for the online surprises, except there is no online access involved. Many free-to-play MMOs and mobile games have inspired by gashapons. In the NES game Mega Man 4 there is an enemy named Gachappon which is a Gashapon vending machine modified to shoot energy shots, the Chip Trader from the Mega Man Battle Network series also functions similarly to gashapon machines
3.
Newspaper vending machine
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A newspaper vending machine or newspaper rack is a vending machine designed to distribute newspapers. Newspaper vending machines are used worldwide, especially in Germany and they are one of the main distribution methods for newspaper publishers. The coin operated newspaper vending machine was invented in 1947 by inventor George Thiemeyer Hemmeter, hemmeters company, the Serven Vendor Company, was based in Berkeley, California, and had been making rural mail tubes and honor racks. The new invention could be adjusted to accept coins of different denominations, the newspaper rack was able to be used with one hand, and took around 30 seconds to dispense a paper. Two models, one with a capacity for 1250 pages of newsprint, by 1987, over one million machines had been distributed. In 1983, the city of Lakewood, Ohio adopted an ordinance that gave the mayor of the city control of where newspaper racks could be placed. This is especially true for Sunday newspapers, which see machines go unfilled by some due to the bulk of those editions reducing the amount of copies that can possibly be sold. By 2009, various artists and inventors had begun working on re-purposing the boxes, newspaper vending machines have been criticized for occasionally failing to distribute a newspaper after it has been paid for. The newspaper vending machines has also criticized due to an issue in the design. Newspaper machines are frequently cited by economists when discussing utility value, due to their design, one could insert the requisite amount and remove more than one copy of the newspaper. However, a copy of a newspaper represents little value to the thief. Thus, the potential lost revenue due to stolen copies is mitigated by the low value that the person places on a second copy of a newspaper. This is obviously problematic when the copy of the newspaper in question could have potential value, such as on the day after an election, sports event
4.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
5.
Ticket machine
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A ticket machine, also known as a Ticket Vending Machine, is a vending machine that produces tickets. For instance, ticket machines dispense train tickets at railway stations, transit tickets at metro stations and tram tickets at some tram stops and in some trams. The typical transaction consists of a user using the interface to select the type and quantity of tickets and then choosing a payment method of either cash. The ticket or tickets are printed and dispensed to the user, to encourage usage of ticket machines and reduce the need for salespersons, machine prices may in some cases be lower than those at a ticket counter. In many countries where trains and urban transport tickets operate largely on the honor system and this is for the situation where one buys a ticket in advance and decides to use it later. Usually, the ticket is time-stamped to determine its validity period, a common problem is forgetting to validate and then being fined as if one had no ticket at all. Ticket machines that are out of service or accept exact change only result in losses for transport providers. Ticket machines on trams in Melbourne, for example, often run out of change when passengers use a ratio of $2 and 50c coins. Passengers do not need to buy tickets on trams when ticket machines run out of change, such machines are generally not used in the United States. Recently, however, a handful of rail systems like Metrolink have adopted the use of validation machines for at least some ticket types. Ticket machines are used in car parking, as well as those that issue free tickets — for example. Mechanical ticket machines were used by bus drivers and conductors since the late 1920s and their functions may include printing tickets, recording of sales and payments. Some manufacturers are TIM, Almex, Setright, AEG, CAMP, Gibson GFI Genfare, Parkeon, Xerox, since the 1980s, electronic computer terminals and printers are used. Handheld ticket machines are used on buses in India to sell tickets, validate smart cards and these machines replaced the earlier manual fare collection system where tickets were often punched to indicate journey and fare stages. List of tram and light-rail transit systems Self service Ticketing kiosk Winchester, Clarence, ed. Ticket and change machines, Railway Wonders of the World, pp
6.
Drink
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A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain water, milk, juices, coffee, tea, in addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture and development for 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, the category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. When the human body becomes dehydrated it experiences the sensation of thirst and this craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to changes in the bodys electrolyte levels. The complete elimination of drinks, i. e. water, Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases, as mankind evolved, new techniques were discovered to create drinks from the plants that were native to their areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia, beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, tea likely originated in Yunnan, China during the Shang Dynasty as a medicinal drink. Drinking has been a part of socialising throughout the centuries. In Ancient Greece, a gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence, in Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly. Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons, in some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink, another tradition is that of the loving cup, at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty. In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in religious ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe
7.
Cigarette
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A cigarette, or cigaret, is a small cylinder of finely cut tobacco leaves rolled in thin paper for smoking. Most modern manufactured cigarettes are filtered, and also include reconstituted tobacco, the term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette, but can apply to similar devices other substances, such as cannabis. A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping. Cigars are typically composed entirely of whole-leaf tobacco, rates of cigarette smoking vary widely throughout the world and have changed considerably since cigarettes were first widely used in the mid-19th century. While rates of smoking have over time leveled off or declined in the developed world, Cigarettes carry serious health risks, which are more prevalent than with other tobacco products. Nicotine, the psychoactive chemical in tobacco and therefore cigarettes, is very addictive. About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease and lose on average 14 years of life, cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects, including low birth weight, fetal abnormalities, and premature birth. Second-hand smoke from cigarettes has been shown to be injurious to bystanders, Cigarettes produce an aerosol containing over 4,000 chemical compounds, including nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and other harmful substances. Over 50 of these are carcinogenic, the earliest forms of cigarettes were similar to their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes appear to have had antecedents in Mexico and Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds, the Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked tobacco and other psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America until recent times. The North American, Central American, and South American cigarette used various plant wrappers, when it was back to Spain, maize wrappers were introduced. The resulting product was called papelate and is documented in Goyas paintings La Cometa, La Merienda en el Manzanares, by 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it received the name cigarette, and in 1845, the French state tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them. The first patented cigarette machine was by Juan Nepomuceno Adorno of Mexico in 1847 and this was helped by the development of tobaccos suitable for cigarette use, and by the development of the Egyptian cigarette export industry. Cigarettes may have initially used in a manner similar to pipes, cigars. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have perceived as more agreeable. However, Moltke noticed in the 1830s that Ottomans inhaled the Turkish tobacco, the widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. At the start of the 20th century, the per capita consumption in the USA was 54 cigarettes
8.
Lottery
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A lottery is a form of legalized government gambling that involves the drawing of numbers for a prize. Lotteries are outlawed by some governments, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to some degree of regulation of lottery by governments. This remained so well after World War II. In the 1960s casinos and lotteries began to re-appear throughout the world as a means for governments to raise revenue without raising taxes, for example, the prize can be a fixed amount of cash or goods. In this format there is risk to the organizer if insufficient tickets are sold, more commonly the prize fund will be a fixed percentage of the receipts. A popular form of this is the 50–50 draw where the promise that the prize will be 50% of the revenue. Many recent lotteries allow purchasers to select the numbers on the lottery ticket, the purchase of lottery tickets cannot be accounted for by decision models based on expected value maximization. The reason is that lottery tickets cost more than the gain, as shown by lottery mathematics. Yet, lottery purchases can be explained by decision models based on expected utility maximization, more general models based on utility functions defined on things other than the lottery outcomes can also account for lottery purchase. In addition to the prizes, the ticket may enable some purchasers to experience a thrill. If the entertainment value obtained by playing is enough for a given individual. The first recorded signs of a lottery are keno slips from the Chinese Han Dynasty between 205 and 187 BC and these lotteries are believed to have helped to finance major government projects like the Great Wall of China. From the Chinese The Book of Songs comes a reference to a game of chance as the drawing of wood, from the Celtic era, the Cornish words teulel pren translates into to throw wood and means to draw lots. The Iliad of Homer refers to lots being placed into Agamemnons helmet to determine who would fight Hector, the first known European lotteries were held during the Roman Empire, mainly as an amusement at dinner parties. Each guest would receive a ticket, and prizes would often consist of items such as dinnerware. Every ticket holder would be assured of winning something and this type of lottery, however, was no more than the distribution of gifts by wealthy noblemen during the Saturnalian revelries. The earliest records of a lottery offering tickets for sale is the organized by Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar
9.
Credit card
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The card issuer creates a revolving account and grants a line of credit to the cardholder, from which the cardholder can borrow money for payment to a merchant or as a cash advance. A credit card is different from a card, where it requires the balance to be repaid in full each month. In contrast, credit cards allow the consumers a continuing balance of debt, a credit card also differs from a cash card, which can be used like currency by the owner of the card. Credit cards have a printed or embossed bank card number complying with the ISO/IEC7812 numbering standard, the card numbers prefix, called the Bank Identification Number, is the sequence of digits at the beginning of the number that determine the bank to which a credit card number belongs. This is the first six digits for MasterCard and Visa cards, the next nine digits are the individual account number, and the final digit is a validity check code. Both of these standards are maintained and further developed by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 17/WG1, Credit cards have a magnetic stripe conforming to the ISO/IEC7813. Many modern credit cards have a chip embedded in them as a security feature. In addition to the credit card number, credit cards also carry issue and expiration dates, as well as extra codes such as issue numbers. Not all credit cards have the sets of extra codes nor do they use the same number of digits. The concept of using a card for purchases was described in 1887 by Edward Bellamy in his utopian novel Looking Backward. Bellamy used the credit card eleven times in this novel, although this referred to a card for spending a citizens dividend from the government. Charge coins and other items were used from the late 19th century to the 1930s. They came in various shapes and sizes, with materials made out of celluloid, copper, aluminum, steel, each charge coin usually had a little hole, enabling it to be put in a key ring, like a key. These charge coins were given to customers who had charge accounts in department stores, hotels. A charge coin usually had the account number along with the merchants name. The charge coin offered a simple and fast way to copy a charge account number to the sales slip and this sped the process of copying, previously done by handwriting. It also reduced the number of errors, by having a form of numbers on the sales slip. Because the customers name was not on the coin, almost anyone could use it
10.
Postcard
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A postcard or post card is a rectangular piece of thick paper or thin cardboard intended for writing and mailing without an envelope. Shapes other than rectangular may also be used, there are novelty exceptions, such as wood postcards, made of thin wood, and copper postcards sold in the Copper Country of the U. S. state of Michigan, and coconut postcards from tropical islands. In some places, one can send a postcard for a lower fee than for a letter, stamp collectors distinguish between postcards and postal cards. While a postcard is usually printed by a company, individual or organization. The worlds oldest postcard was sent in 1840 to the writer Theodore Hook from Fulham in London, the study and collecting of postcards is termed deltiology. Cards with messages had been created and posted by individuals since the beginning of postal services. The earliest known picture postcard was a design on card, posted in Fulham in London by the writer Theodore Hook to himself in 1840. He probably created and posted the card to himself as a joke on the postal service, since the image is a caricature of workers in the post office. In 2002 the postcard sold for a record £31,750, in Britain, postcards without images were issued by the Post Office in 1870, and were printed with a stamp as part of the design, which was included in the price of purchase. These cards came in two sizes, the larger size was found to be slightly too large for ease of handling, and was soon withdrawn in favour of cards 13mm shorter. The first known printed picture postcard, with an image on one side, was created in France in 1870 at Camp Conlie by Léon Besnardeau, Conlie was a training camp for soldiers in the Franco-Prussian war. While these are certainly the first known picture postcards, there was no space for stamps, in the following year the first known picture postcard in which the image functioned as a souvenir was sent from Vienna. The first advertising card appeared in 1872 in Great Britain and the first German card appeared in 1874, Cards showing images increased in number during the 1880s. Images of the newly built Eiffel Tower in 1889 and 1890 gave impetus to the postcard, Early postcards often showcased photography of nude women. These were commonly known as French postcards, due to the number of them produced in France. The first American postcard was developed in 1873 by the Morgan Envelope Factory of Springfield and these first postcards depicted the Interstate Industrial Exposition that took place in Chicago. Later in 1873, Post Master John Creswell introduced the first pre-stamped Postal Cards, Postcards were made because people were looking for an easier way to send quick notes. The first postcard to be printed as a souvenir in the United States was created in 1893 to advertise the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, initially, the United States government prohibited private companies from calling their cards postcards, so they were known as souvenir cards
11.
Hero of Alexandria
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Hero of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. He is considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity and his work is representative of the Hellenistic scientific tradition, Hero published a well recognized description of a steam-powered device called an aeolipile. Among his most famous inventions was a windwheel, constituting the earliest instance of wind harnessing on land and he is said to have been a follower of the atomists. Some of his ideas were derived from the works of Ctesibius, much of Heros original writings and designs have been lost, but some of his works were preserved in Arabic manuscripts. Hero described the construction of the aeolipile which was a reaction engine. It was created almost two millennia before the industrial revolution, another engine used air from a closed chamber heated by an altar fire to displace water from a sealed vessel, the water was collected and its weight, pulling on a rope, opened temple doors. Some historians have conflated the two inventions to assert that the aeolipile was capable of useful work. The first vending machine was one of his constructions, when a coin was introduced via a slot on the top of the machine. This was included in his list of inventions in his book Mechanics and Optics, when the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve which let some water flow out, the pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve. A windwheel operating an organ, marking the first instance of wind powering a machine in history, the sound of thunder was produced by the mechanically-timed dropping of metal balls onto a hidden drum. The force pump was used in the Roman world. A syringe-like device was described by Hero to control the delivery of air or liquids. In optics, Hero formulated the principle of the shortest path of light, If a ray of light propagates from point A to point B within the same medium, a standalone fountain that operates under self-contained hydrostatic energy A programmable cart that was powered by a falling weight. The program consisted of strings wrapped around the drive axle, Hero described a method for iteratively computing the square root of a number. Today, however, his name is most closely associated with Heros formula for finding the area of a triangle from its side lengths, the most comprehensive edition of Heros works was published in five volumes in Leipzig by the publishing house Teubner in 1903. The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity, A Study of the Literary Sources, madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press. Greek and Roman Artillery, Technical Treatises, Schellenberg, H. M. Anmerkungen zu Hero von Alexandria und seinem Werk über den Geschützbau, in, Schellenberg, H. M. / Hirschmann, V. E. / Krieckhaus, A
12.
Egypt (Roman province)
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The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai Peninsula. Aegyptus was bordered by the provinces of Creta et Cyrenaica to the West, the province came to serve as a major producer of grain for the empire and had a highly developed urban economy. Aegyptus was by far the wealthiest Eastern Roman province, in Alexandria, its capital, it possessed the largest port, and the second largest city, of the Roman Empire. As a province, Egypt was ruled by a uniquely styled Augustal prefect, the prefect was a man of equestrian rank and was appointed by the Emperor. The second prefect, Aelius Gallus, made an expedition to conquer Arabia Petraea. The Red Sea coast of Aegyptus was not brought under Roman control until the reign of Claudius, the third prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture. Petronius even led a campaign into present-day central Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe, failing to acquire permanent gains, in 22 BC he razed the city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north. From the reign of Nero onward, Aegyptus enjoyed an era of prosperity which lasted a century, under Trajan a Jewish revolt occurred, resulting in the suppression of the Jews of Alexandria and the loss of all their privileges, although they soon returned. Hadrian, who twice visited Aegyptus, founded Antinoöpolis in memory of his drowned lover Antinous, from his reign onward buildings in the Greco-Roman style were erected throughout the country. Under Antoninus Pius oppressive taxation led to a revolt in 139, of the native Egyptians and this Bucolic War, led by one Isidorus, caused great damage to the economy and marked the beginning of Egypts economic decline. Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war, declared emperor in 175. On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, Cassius was deposed and killed, a similar revolt broke out in 193, when Pescennius Niger was proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax. The Emperor Septimius Severus gave a constitution to Alexandria and the capitals in 202. There was a series of revolts, both military and civilian, through the 3rd century, under Decius, in 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution, but their religion continued to spread. This warrior queen claimed that Egypt was a home of hers through a familial tie to Cleopatra VII. She was well educated and familiar with the culture of Egypt, its religion, two generals based in Aegyptus, Probus and Domitius Domitianus, led successful revolts and made themselves emperors. Diocletian captured Alexandria from Domitius in 298 and reorganised the whole province and his edict of 303 against the Christians began a new era of persecution. This was the last serious attempt to stem the growth of Christianity in Egypt
13.
Holy water
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Holy water is water that has been blessed by a member of the clergy or a religious figure. The use for cleansing prior to a baptism and spiritual cleansing is common in several religions, the use of holy water as a sacramental for protection against evil is common among Anglicans and Roman Catholics. The use of water in the earliest days of Christianity is attested to only in somewhat later documents. The Apostolic constitutions, which go back to about the year 400 and it is plausible that in earliest Christian times water was used for expiatory and purificatory purposes in a way analogous to its employment in Jewish Law. However, Eastern Orthodox do perform the blessing, whether in a baptistry or an outdoor body of water. Sprinkling with holy water is used as a sacramental that recalls baptism, Holy water is kept in the holy water font, which is typically located at the entrance to the church. Smaller vessels, called stoups, are placed at the entrances of the church. In recent years, with the concerns over influenza, new holy water machines that work like a soap dispenser have become popular. In the Middle Ages the power of water was considered so great that in some places fonts had locked covers to prevent the theft of holy water for unauthorized magic practices. The Constitutions of Archbishop Edmund Rich prescribe that Fonts are to be kept under lock and key, similarly the chrism and sacred oil are kept locked up. In Catholicism, holy water, as well as used during the washing of the priests hands at mass, is not allowed to be disposed of in regular plumbing. Roman Catholic churches will usually have a basin that leads directly into the ground for the purpose of proper disposal. A hinged lid is kept over the water basin to distinguish it from a regular sink basin. Items that contained holy water are separated, drained of the holy water, Holy water fonts have been identified as a potential source of bacterial and viral infection. In the late 19th century, bacteriologists found staphylococci, streptococci, coli bacilli, Loefflers bacillus, in a study performed in 1995, thirteen samples were taken when a burn patient acquired a bacterial infection after exposure to holy water. The samples in that study were shown to have a range of bacterial species. During the swine flu epidemic of 2009, Bishop John Steinbock of Fresno, also in response to the swine flu, an automatic, motion-detecting holy water dispenser was invented and installed in an Italian church in 2009. As a reminder of baptism, Catholic Christians dip their fingers in the holy water and this ceremony dates back to the ninth century
14.
Tavern
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A tavern is a place of business where people gather to drink alcoholic beverages and be served food, and in most cases, where travelers receive lodging. An inn is a tavern which has a license to put up guests as lodgers, the word derives from the Latin taberna whose original meaning was a shed, workshop, stall, or pub. In the English language, a tavern was once an establishment which served wine whilst an inn served beer, over time, the words tavern and inn became interchangeable and synonymous. In England, inns started to be referred to as houses or pubs. Wowser was a term for Christian moralists in Australia, especially activists in temperance groups such as the Womans Christian Temperance Union. Historian Stuart Macintyre argues, the achievements of the wowsers were impressive, until the late 18th century, the only places for common people to eat out were inns and taverns, not restaurants. This chaotic system was enforced by an army of tax collectors, the resultant opposition took many forms. Wine growers and tavern keepers concealed wine and falsified their methods of selling it to advantage of lower tax rates. The retailers also engaged in clandestine refilling of casks from hidden stocks, wine merchants stealthily circumvented inspection stations to avoid local import duties. When apprehended, some defrauders reacted with resignation, while others resorted to violence. Taverns symbolized opposition to the regime and to religion, in 1765 in Paris was founded the first restaurant in the modern sense of the term. However, the first Parisian restaurant worthy of the name was the one founded by Beauvilliers in 1782 in the Rue de Richelieu, Émile Zolas novel LAssommoir depicted the social conditions typical of alcoholism in Paris among the working classes. The drunk destroyed not only his own body, but also his employment, his family, the characters Gervaise Macquart and her husband Coupeau exemplified with great realism the physical and moral degradation of alcoholics. Zolas correspondence with physicians reveal he used authentic medical sources for his depictions in the novel. A common German name for German taverns or pubs is Kneipe, Drinking practices in 16th-century Augsburg, Germany, suggest that the use of alcohol in early modern Germany followed carefully structured cultural norms. Drinking was not a sign of insecurity and disorder, Taverns were popular places used for business as well as for eating and drinking - the London Tavern was a notable meeting place in the 18th and 19th centuries, for example. However, the tavern is no longer in popular use in the UK as there is no distinction between a tavern and an inn. Both establishments serve wine and beer/ale, the term pub is now used to describe these houses
15.
Brass
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Brass is a metal alloy made of copper and zinc, the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is an alloy, atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin, however, bronze and brass may also include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon. The term is applied to a variety of brasses. Modern practice in museums and archaeology increasingly avoids both terms for objects in favour of the all-embracing copper alloy. It is also used in zippers, Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials. Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc, the relatively low melting point of brass and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard, the density of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimetre. Today, almost 90% of all alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet, Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the form and size. The general softness of brass means that it can often be machined without the use of cutting fluid, aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of oxide to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent. Tin has an effect and finds its use especially in seawater applications. Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese make brass wear and tear resistant, to enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of around 2%. Since lead has a melting point than the other constituents of the brass. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available surface area which in turn affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface and these effects can lead to significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content
16.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
17.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
18.
Envelope
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An envelope is a common packaging item, usually made of thin flat material. It is designed to contain an object, such as a letter or card. Traditional envelopes are made from sheets of cut to one of three shapes, a rhombus, a short-arm cross, or a kite. These shapes allow for the creation of the structure by folding the sheet sides around a central rectangular area. In this manner, an enclosure is formed with an arrangement of four flaps on the reverse side. Although in principle the flaps can be held in place by securing the topmost flap at a single point and they are most commonly used for enclosing and sending mail through a prepaid-postage postal system. Window envelopes have a cut in the front side that allows the paper within to be seen. They are generally arranged so that the address printed on the letter is visible. The window is covered with a transparent or translucent film to protect the letter inside, as was first designed by Americus F. Callahan in 1901. In some cases, shortages of materials or the need to economize resulted in envelopes that had no film covering the window, one innovative process, invented in Europe about 1905, involved using hot oil to saturate the area of the envelope where the address would appear. The treated area became sufficiently translucent for the address to be readable, as of 2009 there is no international standard for window envelopes, but some countries, including Germany and the United Kingdom, have national standards. An aerogram is related to a lettersheet, both being designed to have writing on the inside to minimize the weight, if desired, a separate letter could be enclosed with postage remaining at one penny provided the combined weight did not exceed half an ounce. This was a legacy of the system of calculating postage. During the U. S. Civil War those in the Confederate States Army occasionally used envelopes made from wallpaper, due to financial hardship. A return envelope is a pre-addressed, smaller envelope included as the contents of an envelope and can be used for courtesy reply mail, metered reply mail. Some envelopes are designed to be reused as the return envelope, the direct mail industry makes extensive use of return envelopes as a response mechanism. Up until 1840, all envelopes were handmade, each being individually cut to the appropriate shape out of a rectangular sheet. In 1845 Edwin Hill and Warren de la Rue obtained a patent for a machine that not only cut out the envelope shapes
19.
Notebook
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A notebook is a small book or binder of paper pages, often ruled, used for purposes such as recording notes or memoranda, writing, drawing or scrapbooking. Paper notebooks can be distinguished by, Form factor Binding and cover material Pre-printed material on writing surfaces According to a legend, Thomas W. In about 1900, the latter evolved into the modern legal pad when a local judge requested for a margin to be drawn on the left side of the paper. This was the first legal pad, birchall of Birchalls, a Launceston, Tasmania-based stationery shop, decided that the cumbersome method of selling writing paper in folded stacks of quires was inefficient. As a solution, he glued together a stack of halved sheets of paper, supported by a sheet of cardboard, creating what he called the Silver City Writing Tablet. The only technical requirement for this type of stationery to be considered a legal pad is that it must have margins of 1.25 inches from the left edge of legal pad. Here, the margin, also known as lines, is room used to write notes or comments. Legal pads usually have a gum binding at the top as opposed to a spiral or stitched binding, principal types of binding are padding, perfect, spiral, comb, sewn, clasp, disc, and pressure, some of which can be combined. Binding methods can affect whether a notebook can lie flat when open, the cover material is usually distinct from the writing surface material, more durable, more decorative, and more firmly attached. It also is stiffer than the pages, even taken together, cover materials should not contribute to damage or discomfort. It is frequently cheaper to purchase notebooks that are spiral-bound, meaning that a spiral of wire is looped through large perforations at the top or side of the page, other bound notebooks are available that use glue to hold the pages together, this process is padding. Today, it is common for pages in such notebooks to include a line of perforations that make it easier to tear out the page. Spiral-bound pages can be out, but frequently leave thin scraggly strips from the small amount of paper that is within the spiral. Hard-bound notebooks include a sewn spine, and the pages are not easily removed, some styles of sewn bindings allow pages to open flat, while others cause the pages to drape. Variations of notebooks that allow pages to be added, removed, in each of these systems, the pages are modified with perforations that facilitate the specific binding mechanisms ability to secure them. Ring-bound and rod-bound notebooks secure their contents by threading perforated pages around straight or curved prongs, in the open position, the pages can be removed and rearranged. In the closed position, the pages are kept in order, disc-bound notebooks remove the open or closed operation by modifying the pages themselves. A page perforated for a binding system contains a row of teeth along the side edge of the page that grip onto the outside raised perimeter of individual discs
20.
Stollwerck
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Stollwerck GmbH is a German chocolate manufacturer. It was founded in 1839 and expanded internationally in Europe and America, since 2011 it has belonged to Belgian firm Baronie Group. In 1839 the baker Franz Stollwerck started business in Cologne, Germany and he diversified into chocolate and other candy, having particular success with cough drops. Local pharmacists requested that he be prevented from selling such items in 1845. His business flourished in Germany and also he opened two houses in Cologne. One of these was converted into a music hall before becoming a chocolate. In 1871 his sons registered a separate company Gebrüder Stollwerck which merged back into the company in 1876. Stollwercks five sons expanded the business into a corporation with plants in Europe. The second youngest of the brothers, Ludwig Stollwerck was instrumental in introducing new technology including the first vending machines in 1887 and these were initially used to sell small samples of chocolate, but their immediate popularity meant they were soon used to sell entire bars. In 1893 Stollwerck was selling its chocolate in 15,000 vending machines and it set up separate companies in various territories to manufacture vending machines to sell not just chocolate, but cigarettes, matches, chewing gum and soap products. By 1890 its Cologne works alone had 1500 staff, Stollwerck turned their focus to exporting their products. Subsidiaries were formed in England, Belgium and Austria-Hungary, in 1894 Stollwerck founded Volkmann, Stollwerck & Company in the USA, in partnership with German businessman John Volkmann to produce vending machines in their factory in New York. By the early 1890s there were over 4,000 of its vending machines on New York train stations and it also became a leading manufacturer of cinematographs. In 1902 the company went public, but World War I brought Stollwercks rapid expansion to a halt, in 1927 Karl Stollwerck built the Stollwerck Mausoleum in Upper Bavaria, a rare combination of Protestant church and family burial chamber. Costly acquisitions and the recession of the Great Depression devastated Stollwercks finances. It had to be rescued by the Deutsche Bank in the 1930s, in the Second World War food rationing and the scarcity of cocoa drastically reduced the firms market. After the Second World War the firm was left with damaged factories and it restarted production in 1949 and fared moderately in the face of intense competition in the 1950s and 1960s. Stollwerck opened a factory in Székesfehérvár, Hungary in 1995
21.
Cadbury
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Cadbury, formerly Cadburys, is a British multinational confectionery company wholly owned by Mondelez International since 2010. It is the second-largest confectionery brand in the world after Wrigleys, Cadbury is internationally headquartered in Uxbridge, West London, and operates in more than 50 countries worldwide. It is famous for its Dairy Milk chocolate, the Creme Egg and Roses selection box, One of the best-known British brands, in 2013 The Daily Telegraph named Cadbury among Britains most successful exports. Cadbury was established in Birmingham, England in 1824, by John Cadbury who sold tea, coffee, Cadbury developed the business with his brother Benjamin, followed by his sons Richard and George. George developed the Bournville estate, a village designed to give the companys workers improved living conditions. Dairy Milk chocolate, introduced in 1905, used a higher proportion of milk within the recipe compared with rival products, by 1914, the chocolate was the companys best-selling product. Cadbury, alongside Rowntrees and Fry, were the big three British confectionery manufacturers throughout much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Cadbury was granted its first Royal Warrant from Queen Victoria in 1854. It has been a holder of a Royal Warrant from Elizabeth II since 1955, Cadbury merged with J. S. Fry & Sons in 1919, and Schweppes in 1969. Cadbury was a constant constituent of the FTSE100 on the London Stock Exchange from the indexs 1984 inception until the company was bought by Kraft Foods in 2010. In 1824, John Cadbury, a Quaker, began selling tea, coffee and drinking chocolate in Bull Street in Birmingham, England. From 1831 he moved into the production of a variety of cocoa and drinking chocolates, made in a factory in Bridge Street, in 1847, John Cadbury became a partner with his brother Benjamin and the company became known as Cadbury Brothers. The brothers opened an office in London, and in 1854 they received the Royal Warrant as manufacturers of chocolate, the company went into decline in the late 1850s. John Cadburys sons Richard and George took over the business in 1861, at the time of the takeover, the business was in rapid decline, the number of employees had reduced from 20 to 11, and the company was losing money. By 1866, Cadbury was profitable again, the brothers had turned around the business by moving the focus from tea and coffee to chocolate, and by increasing the quality of their products. The firms first major breakthrough occurred in 1866 when Richard and George introduced an improved cocoa into Britain, a new cocoa press developed in the Netherlands removed some of the unpalatable cocoa butter from the cocoa bean. The firm began exporting its products in the 1850s, in the 1880s the firm began to produce chocolate confectioneries. In 1878, the decided to build new premises in countryside four miles from Birmingham. The move to the countryside was unprecedented in business, better transport access for milk that was inward shipped by canal, and cocoa that was brought in by rail from London, Southampton and Liverpool docks was taken into consideration
22.
Clamp (tool)
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A clamp is a fastening device used to hold or secure objects tightly together to prevent movement or separation through the application of inward pressure. There are many types of available for many different purposes. Some are temporary, as used to position components while fixing them together, in the field of animal husbandry, using a clamp to attach an animal to a stationary object is known as rounded clamping. A physical clamp of this type is used to refer to an obscure investment banking term. Anything that performs the action of clamping may be called a clamp and these clamps are used to position components temporarily for various tasks, Band clamp or web clamp Bar clamp, F-clamp or sliding clamp Bench clamp The bench forms the fixed jaw. Forked clamp stainless steel for ST ground glass joints with/without setscrew, sizes for, ST14,19,24,29 änd 45. Gluing and Clamping, A Woodworker’s Handbook
23.
Currency detector
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A currency detector or currency validator is a device that determines whether banknotes or coins are genuine or counterfeit. The process involves examining the coins and/or notes that have been inserted, since the parameters are different for each coin or banknote, these detectors must be programmed for each item that they are to accept. In normal operation, if any item such as a coin, note, card or ticket is accepted, it is retained inside the machine, if the item is rejected, the machine returns the item to the customer. If a coin gets rejected, it falls into a tray or rolls out of a slot at the bottom where the customer can remove the coin. If a banknote, card or ticket is rejected, it is pushed out through the machine to allow the customer to remove it from the slot into which it was inserted. The basic principle for coin detection is to test the properties of the coin against known characteristics of acceptable coins. The detector evaluates the coin according to its weight, size, metal composition and/or magnetism, the next step is generally performed by the banknote-to-coins exchanger. Normal circulation coins eventually collect microscopic deposits of dirt, oil, when a coin acceptor is used long enough, thousands of coins rolling along a track will leave enough dirt, oil and grease to be visible. The coin acceptor must be cleaned on a frequent basis to prevent malfunction, coin acceptors are modular, so a dirty acceptor can be replaced with a clean unit, preventing downtime. The old unit is then cleaned and refurbished, some new types of coin acceptors are able to recognize the coins through training, so they will support any new types of coins or tokens when properly introduced. Vending and change machines use several techniques to check whether a note is genuine, toggling these settings and the sensitivity of each is programmed via means of dip switches on the internal circuitry. Optical sensing with a light detector called a photocell or a miniature digital camera is one of the main techniques that vending machines use. Many countries banknotes are pixelated—that is, they are out of small dots. The dots are spaced differently and have different sizes, depending on the note, the optical sensors can look for these different patterns to determine what sort of note has been inserted. Some paper money is also fluorescent, it glows when ultraviolet light is shined on it, some machines shine an ultraviolet light on the note and measure the glow to help determine the notes composition. The particles in the ink on many countries currency have ferromagnetic properties, magnetic composition comprises carbon nanofoam in an amount of from 0.1 to 45 percent by weight of the total composition. Notes are passed over a permanent magnet array and magnetized along their direction of travel, a magnetic sensor located several inches away with its sensitive axis parallel to the direction of travel can detect the remnant field of the ink particles. The purpose of the magnet in this case is to achieve a controlled orientation of the magnetic moments of the ink particles, resulting in a maximum
24.
Crank (mechanism)
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A crank is an arm attached at a right angle to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or vice versa, the arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, the end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is usually constrained to move in a linear sliding motion. The term often refers to a crank which is used to manually turn an axle, as in a bicycle crankset or a brace. In this case a persons arm or leg serves as the connecting rod, there is usually a bar perpendicular to the other end of the arm, often with a freely rotatable handle or pedal attached. Familiar examples include, Mechanical pencil sharpener Fishing reel and other reels for cables, wires, ropes, manually operated car window The carpenters brace is a compound crank. The crank set that drives a handcycle through its handles, the crankset that drives a bicycle via the pedals. Treadle sewing machine Almost all reciprocating engines use cranks to transform the motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The cranks are incorporated into a crankshaft, the displacement of the end of the connecting rod is approximately proportional to the cosine of the angle of rotation of the crank, when it is measured from top dead center. The mechanical advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the rod and the torque on the shaft, varies throughout the cranks cycle. The relationship between the two is approximately, τ = F r sin where τ is the torque and F is the force on the connecting rod. But in reality, the torque is maximum at crank angle of less than α = 90° from TDC for a force on the piston. One way to calculate this angle is to find out when the Connecting rod smallend speed becomes the fastest in downward direction given a steady crank rotational velocity. 17615° after TDC. Then, using the sine law, it is found that the crank to connecting rod angle is 88. 21738°. When the crank is driven by the rod, a problem arises when the crank is at top dead centre or bottom dead centre. At these points in the cycle, a force on the connecting rod causes no torque on the crank. Therefore, if the crank is stationary and happens to be at one of two points, it cannot be started moving by the connecting rod. The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary handmill which appeared in 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland
25.
Touchscreen
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A touchscreen is a input and output device normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information processing system. A user can give input or control the processing system through simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special stylus and/or one or more fingers. Some touchscreens use ordinary or specially coated gloves to work while others may only work using a special stylus/pen, the user can use the touchscreen to react to what is displayed and to control how it is displayed, for example, zooming to increase the text size. The touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather using a mouse, touchpad. Touchscreens are common in such as game consoles, personal computers, tablet computers, electronic voting machines, point of sale systems. They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals and they also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants and some e-readers. The popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touchscreens for portable. The application of technology for air traffic control was described in an article published in 1968. Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe, engineers from CERN, developed a transparent touchscreen in the early 1970s, then manufactured by CERN, it was put to use in 1973. A resistive touchscreen was developed by American inventor George Samuel Hurst, the first version was produced in 1982. This arrangement can sense any fingertip-sized opaque object in close proximity to the screen, a similar touchscreen was used on the HP-150 starting in 1983, this was one of the worlds earliest commercial touchscreen computers. HP mounted their infrared transmitters and receivers around the bezel of a 9 Sony Cathode Ray Tube, in 1984, Fujitsu released a touch pad for the Micro 16, to deal with the complexity of kanji characters, which were stored as tiled graphics. In 1985, Sega released the Terebi Oekaki, also known as the Sega Graphic Board, for the SG-1000 video game console and it consisted of a plastic pen and a plastic board with a transparent window where the pen presses are detected. It was used primarily for a software application. A graphic touch tablet was released for the Sega AI Computer in 1986, touch-sensitive Control-Display Units were evaluated for commercial aircraft flight decks in the early 1980s. In 1985, the University of Toronto group including Bill Buxton developed a tablet that used capacitance rather than bulky camera-based optical sensing systems. In 1986, the first graphical point of sale software was demonstrated on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer and it featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface. In 1987, Casio launched the Casio PB-1000 pocket computer with a touchscreen consisting of a 4x4 matrix, until 1988 touchscreens had the bad reputation of being imprecise
26.
Change machine
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A change machine is a machine that accepts large denominations of currency and returns an equal amount of currency in smaller bills or coins. Typically these machines are used to provide coins in exchange for paper currency, in the US, these devices are typically seen in the vicinity of machines that will not accept paper currency. This can be in a facility that has parking meters, in laundromats, or near vending machines that lack bill validators. Before the advent of coinless slot machines, casinos would sometimes have change machines that would accept paper currency, a similar arrangement has often been found at video arcades. In some cases, a machine may subtract a small amount as a surcharge for the transaction, automated cash handling Manual fare collection#Coin dispenser Money changer
27.
Currency
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A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
28.
Cigarette machine
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A cigarette machine is a vending machine that takes cash in payment for packs of cigarettes. Vending machines often dispense packs containing 16 or 18 cigarettes, although the dimensions of the packaging are the same as the equivalent pack containing 20, in order to aid the restriction of sale of tobacco to minors, cigarette machines are regulated in many countries. Since July 2008, companies may face prosecution if found selling tobacco to anyone under the age,20 years old. To avoid this, Japan has introduced a government registered electronic card, called Taspo. To get a Taspo card, the purchaser must present their passport or ID to any government-authorized business offering the service, the system compares facial characteristics including bone structure, sags, and crows feet against a record of more than 100,000 people
29.
Czech Republic
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The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs
30.
Taspo
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Following its introduction, the card is necessary in order to purchase cigarettes from vending machines in Japan. The name Taspo is a portmanteau for tobacco passport, the group announced plans for development of the Tobacco Card in 2001. The stated aim is to reduce smoking by underaged people, testing began the following year, and a second round of testing followed in 2004. Details of the card were announced in 2005, the card incorporates an integrated circuit that contains information about the age of the holder. Card issuance is restricted so that adults aged 20 and over may acquire the cards. The cards are contactless, so that machines will be able to read them without contact. The cards are able to value, giving purchasers the option to pay by card or by cash. Users are able to add more value at vending machines, consumers can apply for the cards by filling out a form available at tobacco retailers and mailing it, along with a copy of a verifiable identification document and a facial photo to TIOJ. No fees are required to obtain the card, cardholders can cancel lost or stolen cards by contacting TIOJ to remotely disable the cards use at vending machines. The final pilot program began in March 2008, and was phased in after that, smoking in Japan Taspo official website Tobacco Institute of Japan Zenkoku Tabakoya Japan Vending Machine Manufacturers Association
31.
Condom
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A condom is a sheath-shaped barrier device used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy or a sexually transmitted infection. There are both male and female condoms, with proper use—and use at every act of intercourse—women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2% per-year pregnancy rate. With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18% per-year and their use greatly decreases the risk of gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, hepatitis B, and HIV/AIDS. They also to a lesser extent protect against genital herpes, human papillomavirus, the male condom should be rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and works by blocking semen from entering the body of a sexual partner. Male condoms are made from latex and less commonly from polyurethane or lamb intestine. Male condoms have the advantages of ease of use, easy to access, in those with a latex allergy a polyurethane or other synthetic version should be used. Female condoms are made from polyurethane and may be used multiple times. Condoms as a method of preventing STIs have been used since at least 1564, rubber condoms become available in 1855 followed by latex condoms in the 1920s. They are on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0.03 to 0.08 USD each. In the United States condoms usually cost less than 1.00 USD, globally less than 10% of those using birth control are using the condom. Rates of condom use are higher in the developed world, in United Kingdom the condom is the second most common method of birth control while in the United States it is the third most common. About six to nine billion are sold a year, the effectiveness of condoms, as of most forms of contraception, can be assessed two ways. Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently, actual use, or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users, including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse. Rates are generally presented for the first year of use, most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates, but some studies use decrement tables. The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied, the perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2% per year. Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception for greater protection, Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections. They have been shown to be effective in reducing rates in both men and women. Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch, the 2000 NIH review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of gonorrhea for men
32.
Public health
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It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
33.
Hong Kong
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Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour, literally means Little Hong Kong)—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
34.
Bulk vending
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Bulk vending is the sale of unsorted confections, nuts, gumballs, toys and novelties selected at random and dispensed generally through non-electrically operated vending machines. Bulk vending is a segment of the vending industry from full line vending — i. e. the snack and soda vending industries — and involves different products. Bulk vending represents less than 1% of the vending industry. Bulk vending dates back at least to the late 19th century, Vending machines were widely used in Europe before they became popular in the United States. In the early 1880s, the first commercial coin-operated vender was introduced in London, in 1888, the Thomas Adams Gum Co. introduced bulk venders to America, using the machines to sell Tutti frutti gum on elevated subway platforms in New York City. In 1897, the Pulver Manufacturing Company added animated figures to its gum machines, in 1907, the round, candy-coated gumball, a staple product in modern vending machines, was introduced. In 1948, Oak Manufacturing opened its doors, it would one of the largest equipment manufacturers in the industry. In 1963, Josef Schwarzli founded Beaver Machine Corporation, designing and manufacturing his own equipment that is sold today into over 100 different countries worldwide. Folz purchased his first vending machine, Folz Vending was the largest operator of bulk vending equipment in the United States, for a short time, manufacturers installed viewfinders in bulk vending machines to display the next item to be vended. Vendors organized to found the National Bulk Vendors Association, which lobbied against the taxes. Operation of bulk vending equipment is fairly straightforward for the consumer, involving placing the appropriate coin or coins in the machine. Depending on the design of the machine, though – which usually involves a wheel making a turn with every vend – it may already be too late to ensure that the next vend bears fruit. A distinguishing feature of bulk vending is that the items are dispensed at random, Bulk vending is a hands-on business requiring research and planning, as well as sales ability and investment of time, to be successful. Many of the considerations that apply to other small businesses, such as accounting, income taxation, liability insurance. On the other hand, some aspects, such as fixed costs, the gross margins in the bulk candy business can be quite high – gumballs, for instance, can be purchased in bulk for 2 cents apiece and sold for 25 cents. In addition, the machines are inexpensive compared to soda or snack machines. Both the machines and product are relatively portable, and the machines are easier to service than in other types of vending. A lot of machine designs are only by gravity and the mechanical energy supplied by turning the handle
35.
Gumball machine
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A gumball machine is a toy or commercial device, a type of bulk vending machine, which dispenses gumballs, usually for a small fee. Originally one penny, the standard cost of one gumball in the United States is now one quarter, although there were vending machines for stick or block shaped gum as early as 1888, the first machines to carry actual gumballs were not seen until 1907. Patented in 1923, the Norris Manufacturing Company produced their Master line of chrome gumball machines during the 1930s and these machines could accept either pennies or nickels. Founded in 1934, the Ford Gum and Machine Company of Akron, the Ford brand of gumball machines had a distinct shiny chrome color, sales of gum from Ford gumball machines went to local service organizations such as the Lions Club and Kiwanis International. Generally, a gumball machine consists of a sphere which is filled with gumballs. It has a top on top of it with a keyhole in top of it so that the top can be removed. Most gumball machines have a mechanism for dispensing the gumball. However, some machines have more elaborate methods. Most of them utilize the energy of the gumballs location above the base, by, for instance, causing it to roll down a spiral ramp. The most elaborate mechanisms also use electricity to power various forms of transit for the gumball on its way to dispensation, as well as ramps and drops
36.
Chewing gum
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Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed. Modern chewing gum is composed of gum base, sweeteners, softeners/ plasticizers, flavors, colors, and, typically, a hard or powdered polyol coating. The cultural tradition of chewing gum seems to have developed through a convergent evolution process, each of the early precursors to chewing gum were derived from natural growths local to the region and were chewed purely out the instinctual desire to masticate. Early chewers did not necessarily desire to derive benefits from their chewable substances. Chewing gum in many forms has existed since the Neolithic period,6, 000-year-old chewing gum made from birch bark tar, with tooth imprints, has been found in Kierikki in Finland. The tar from which the gums were made is believed to have antiseptic properties and it is chemically similar to petroleum tar and is in this way different from most other early gum. The Aztecs, as the ancient Mayans before them, used chicle, forms of chewing gums were also chewed in Ancient Greece. The Ancient Greeks chewed mastic gum, made from the resin of the mastic tree, mastic gum, like birch bark tar, has antiseptic properties and is believed to have been used to maintain oral health. Both chicle and mastic are tree resins, many other cultures have chewed gum-like substances made from plants, grasses, and resins. Although chewing gum can be traced back to civilizations around the world, the American Indians chewed resin made from the sap of spruce trees. The New England settlers picked up this practice, and in 1848, John B. Curtis developed, in this way, the industrializing West, having forgotten about tree gums, rediscovered chewing gum through the First Americans. Around 1850 a gum made from wax, which is a petroleum product, was developed. To sweeten these early gums the chewer would often use of a plate of powdered sugar. William Semple filed a patent on chewing gum, patent number 98,304. The first flavored chewing gum was created in the 1860s by John Colgan, Colgan mixed with powdered sugar the aromatic flavoring tolu, a powder obtained from an extract of the balsam tree, creating small sticks of flavored chewing gum he named Taffy Tolu. Colgan also lead the way in the manufacturing and packaging of chicle-based chewing gum, derived from Manilkara chicle, chicle did not succeed as a replacement for rubber, but as a gum, which was cut into strips and marketed as Adams New York Chewing Gum in 1871. Black Jack, which is flavored with licorice, Chiclets, Chewing gum gained worldwide popularity through American GIs in WWII, who were supplied chewing gum as a ration and traded it with locals. Synthetic gums were first introduced to the U. S. after chicle no longer satisfied the needs of making chewing gum
37.
Full-line vending
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A full-line vending business sets up several types of vending machines that sell a wide range of products, such as soft drinks and snacks. Soda is usually sold in 12 fl. oz. and 20 oz. in the United States and some times Australia, or 330ml and 500ml in Europe, Canada, snacks, bags of chips and similar edibles are usually about 1-3 oz. In most cases, managers and staff of individual stores objected to this, as a result, this trend began to reverse. Most full line vending operators are independent and are small operations, for operators, soda/snack machines have the advantage that many locations recognize the need for such machines. Many locations will, in fact, take the initiative to contact a vending company to request installation of a machine, moreover, companies recognize the difficulty in moving these machines and are less likely to request removal, unless the operator does a poor job of servicing the machine. Almost all soda and snack machines have vend counters that track how many items are sold, the machines themselves, being large and heavy, are difficult to steal without drawing attention, compared to most bulk vending machines. Soda and snack machines are relatively expensive, unless they are obtained through a third-party vending program, compared to bulk vending machines, full line vending machines take a long time to service – as much as an hour for a soda machine that is low on inventory. The product also tends to take up more space, breakdowns are difficult to repair, due to the complexity of the machines, do-it-yourself repairs may void the warranty. The machines are difficult to move, this task may require the help of professional movers, moreover, some locations expect a commission. There are many types of machines available, one type is the combo machine that sells both sodas and snacks. These combo machines have the disadvantage of not holding much of any product, most operators use separate snack and soda machines. Finding a good location can be difficult, since many already have vending machines, dont want one. An operator may end up paying the owner a 10% commission. Vendors occasionally enroll in a charity program, in which the vendor makes a monthly charity donation in exchange for displaying stickers supporting the chosen charity. Some vending machines are too heavy to carry special equipment and/or helpers. As with bulk vending, turnover of accounts requires a repeat of the process of finding a location, snacks and soda also have lower gross margins than bulk candy. Attention must be paid to the dates on potato chips, sodas. The flexibility of a bank in handling coins is an important consideration when choosing the business financial institution, a bank may not want a bucket of coins, so it may be necessary to find another bank or use machinery to organize coins into rolls
38.
Kiosk
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A kiosk is a small, separated garden pavilion open on some or all sides. Kiosks were common in Persia, the Indian subcontinent, and in the Ottoman Empire from the 13th century onward, today, there are many kiosks in and around the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, and they are still a relatively common sight in Balkan states. The word is now applied to small booths offering goods and services, in the Western hemisphere and in English-speaking countries, a kiosk is also a booth with an open window on one side. Some vendors operate from kiosks, selling small, inexpensive consumables such as newspapers, magazines, lighters, street maps, cigarettes, Live and frozen bait and confections. An information kiosk dispenses free information in the form of maps, pamphlets, an electronic kiosk houses a computer terminal that often employs custom kiosk software designed to function while preventing users from accessing system functions. Indeed, kiosk mode describes such a mode of software operation, computerized kiosks may store data locally, or retrieve it from a computer network. Some computer kiosks provide a free, informational public service, while others serve a commercial purpose, touchscreens, trackballs, computer keyboards, and pushbuttons are all typical input devices for interactive computer kiosk. Touchscreen kiosks are used as industrial appliances, reducing lines, eliminating paper, improving efficiency. Their uses are unlimited from refrigerators to airports, health clubs, movie theaters, a kiosk is an open summer-house or pavilion usually having its roof supported by pillars with screened or totally open walls. As a building type, it was first introduced by the Seljuks as a building attached to the main mosque. This architectural concept gradually evolved into a small yet grand residence used by Ottoman sultans, the most famous examples of which are quite possibly the Tiled Kiosk and Baghdad Kiosk. The former was built in 1473 by Mehmed II at the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, the Baghdad Koshk was also built at the Topkapı Palace in 1638-39, by Sultan Murad IV. The building is domed, offering direct views onto the gardens. European monarchs adopted the building type, stanisław Leszczyński, king of Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV, built kiosks for himself based on his memories of his captivity in Turkey. Todays conservatories incorporate many Muslim elements, although modern art forms have shifted from the art forms that were used in earlier times. The complete letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Clarendon Press, media related to Kiosks at Wikimedia Commons
39.
Stamp vending machines in the United Kingdom
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Most SVMs were positioned in public places to provide a useful service to customers when other sources of postage stamps, such as Post Offices were closed. The term is applied to the entire object as found attached to a pillar box or sited in a wall. The name Stamp Vending Machine only applies to the internal mechanism, many postal administrations around the world have used automatic stamp vending machines including the United States, where private manufacturers began vending stamps from coils in 1908. Most countries of the Commonwealth of Nations have issued stamps for use in Stamp Vending Machines, including Hong Kong, New Zealand, as a matter of fact, many countries still use stamp vending machines. For instance, in Europe, France and Germany do, a set of buttons on both sides of the screen allows to select the desired option. The process can involve several steps and these machines normally accept coins, and in France also debit cards. The French machine, located in post offices, can let the weight the envelope so that the exact correct fare may be selected. The German machines, located either inside or outside post offices, dont feature a scale, the German machine doesnt give change in coins, but issues extra stamps with the remaining value. The French machines, however, do give exact change, in the UK, the earliest SVM was tested in the last years of the 19th Century, but there are no drawings or records appertaining to it and it was quickly withdrawn. Dickie licensed the rights to his new machine outside the British Empire to Kermode & Co. SVM mechanisms and cases are described by the UK Post Office using, rather confusingly, thus a machine may be described in the format of a Type B4 mechanism in a Case Type K. The earliest ‘A’ type vending machine was completely mechanical, deriving power to drive the mechanism from the insertion of a suitable coin. Initially the machines were set to dispense only ½d and 1d stamps and these proved to be quite successful and were in continuous production until 1924, when the improved Type ‘B’ machine was introduced. Type A machines feature elaborate cast brass fronts with the coin value raised against a design in the casting. Type ‘B’ could accept ½ d, 1d or 3d coins and would in exchange, a number after the letter B denotes a particular pattern or variation in design for the machine. The coin value is indicated on a metal plate near the coin slot as the value and coin size were now variable at the time of manufacture. The K4 design of the classic British red telephone box, introduced in 1925, five of the original fifty K4s remain standing today and was described as an automated mini-Post Office. Following quickly from the Type’B’ designs came other combinations of coin-operated machine, in Type ‘C’, two ½d stamps were issued in exchange for one penny coin, whilst in Type ‘D’, one 2d stamp is vended in exchange for two penny coins
40.
Postage stamp
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Postage stamp may also refer to a formatting artifact in the display of film or video, Windowbox. A postage stamp is a piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are printed on special paper, show a national designation and a denomination on the front. They are sometimes a source of net profit to the issuing agency, stamps are usually rectangular, but triangles or other shapes are occasionally used. The stamp is affixed to an envelope or other postal cover the customer wishes to send, the item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark, sometimes known as a cancellation mark, is usually applied in overlapping manner to stamp and cover. This procedure marks the stamp as used to prevent its reuse, in modern usage, postmarks generally indicate the date and point of origin of the mailing. The mailed item is delivered to the address the customer has applied to the envelope or parcel. Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s, before then, ink and hand-stamps, usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840, there are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, concurrently with the first stamps, the UK offered wrappers for mail. S. Postal service for priority or express mailing, the postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries, as postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps. The postage for the item was prepaid by the use of a hand-stamp to frank the mailed item. Though this stamp was applied to a letter instead of a piece of paper it is considered by many historians as the worlds first postage stamp. Rowland Hill The Englishman Sir Rowland Hill began interest in postal reform in 1835, in 1836, a Member of Parliament, Robert Wallace, provided Hill with numerous books and documents, which Hill described as a half hundred weight of material. Hill commenced a study of these documents, leading him to the 1837 publication of a pamphlet entitled Post Office Reform its Importance
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