1.
Romeo and Juliet
–
Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeares most popular plays during his lifetime and along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays, today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. The plot is based on an Italian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562, Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both but expanded the plot by developing a number of supporting characters, particularly Mercutio and Paris. Believed to have written between 1591 and 1595, the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597. The text of the first quarto version was of quality, however. Shakespeares use of his dramatic structure has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the character develops, Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet over the course of the play. Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times for stage, film, musical, during the English Restoration, it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant. David Garricks 18th-century version also modified several scenes, removing material then considered indecent, Performances in the 19th century, including Charlotte Cushmans, restored the original text and focused on greater realism. John Gielguds 1935 version kept very close to Shakespeares text and used Elizabethan costumes, the play, set in Verona, Italy, begins with a street brawl between Montague and Capulet servants who, like their masters, are sworn enemies. Prince Escalus of Verona intervenes and declares that further breach of the peace will be punishable by death, later, Count Paris talks to Capulet about marrying his daughter Juliet, but Capulet asks Paris to wait another two years and invites him to attend a planned Capulet ball. Lady Capulet and Juliets nurse try to persuade Juliet to accept Pariss courtship, meanwhile, Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo, Montagues son, about Romeos recent depression. Benvolio discovers that it stems from unrequited infatuation for a girl named Rosaline, one of Capulets nieces, persuaded by Benvolio and Mercutio, Romeo attends the ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline. However, Romeo instead meets and falls in love with Juliet, Juliets cousin, Tybalt, is enraged at Romeo for sneaking into the ball but is only stopped from killing Romeo by Juliets father, who does not wish to shed blood in his house. Romeo makes himself known to her and they agree to be married, with the help of Friar Laurence, who hopes to reconcile the two families through their childrens union, they are secretly married the next day. Tybalt, meanwhile, still incensed that Romeo had sneaked into the Capulet ball, Romeo, now considering Tybalt his kinsman, refuses to fight. Mercutio is offended by Tybalts insolence, as well as Romeos vile submission, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo attempts to break up the fight
Romeo and Juliet
–
An 1870 oil painting by
Ford Madox Brown depicting the play's famous balcony scene
Romeo and Juliet
–
L’ultimo bacio dato a Giulietta da Romeo by
Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1823.
Romeo and Juliet
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Title page of
Arthur Brooke 's poem, Romeus and Juliet.
Romeo and Juliet
–
Title page of the first edition
2.
Frank Dicksee
–
Sir Francis Bernard Dicksee KCVO PRA was an English Victorian painter and illustrator, best known for his pictures of dramatic literary, historical, and legendary scenes. He also was a painter of portraits of fashionable women. Dicksees father, Thomas Dicksee, was a painter who taught Frank as well as his sister Margaret from a young age, Dicksee enrolled in the Royal Academy in 1870 and achieved early success. He was elected to the Academy in 1891 and became its President in 1924 and he was knighted in 1925, and named to the Royal Victorian Order by King George V in 1927. Dicksee painted The Funeral of a Viking, which was donated in 1928 by Arthur Burton in memory of his mother to the Corporation of Manchester. Victorian critics gave it positive and negative reviews, for its perfection as a showpiece and for its dramatic and somewhat staged setting. The painting was used by Swedish Viking/Black metal band Bathory for the cover of their 1990 album, a book on Frank Dicksees life and work with a full catalogue of his known paintings and drawings by Simon Toll was published by Antique Collectors Club in January 2017
Frank Dicksee
–
Frank Bernard Dicksee
Frank Dicksee
–
The Two Crowns, 1900
Frank Dicksee
–
Chivalry, 1885
Frank Dicksee
–
Lady Palmer
3.
William Shakespeare
–
William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
William Shakespeare
–
The
Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed.
National Portrait Gallery, London.
William Shakespeare
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John Shakespeare's house, believed to be
Shakespeare's birthplace, in
Stratford-upon-Avon.
William Shakespeare
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Shakespeare's coat of arms, as it appears on the rough draft of the application to grant a coat-of-arms to John Shakespeare. It features a spear as a
pun on the family name.
William Shakespeare
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Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon.
4.
Capulet
–
Prince Escalus, the Prince of Verona, is the desperate resolver of the feuding families. He is based on the actual Scaligeri family which ruled Verona, Escalus is the voice of authority in Verona. He appears only three times within the text and only to administer justice following major events in the feud between the Capulet and Montague families and he first punishes Capulet and Montague for the quarrel between Tybalt, Benvolio, and a handful of servants. He returns too late to stop the fatal brawls between Tybalt and Mercutio and, subsequently, Tybalt and Romeo and he yells at Lord Montague for engaging in the feud, which really is the root cause which led to Tybalt killing Mercutio. So, according to him, he lost his dear kinsman because of Lord Montague, so by exiling Romeo, Escalus gives him a taste of Montagues own medicine, Prince Escalus returns in the final scene—V. He curses the feud that kills Romeo and Juliet whom he feels sad for. In the end, Prince Escalus becomes very happy that the feud has finally ended, Count Paris is a kinsman of Prince Escalus and seeks to marry Juliet. He is described as handsome, somewhat self-absorbed, and very wealthy, Paris makes his first appearance in Act I, Scene II, where he expresses his wish to make Juliet his wife and the mother of his children. Capulet demurs, citing his daughters young age as a reason, nevertheless, Capulet invites Paris to attend a family ball being held that evening and grants permission to woo and attract Juliet. Later in the play, however, Juliet refuses to become Paris joyful bride after her cousin Tybalt dies by her new husband Romeos hand and her parents threaten to disown her if she will not agree to the marriage. Then, while at Laurences cell at the church, Paris tries to woo her by saying that she is his wife. He kisses her and then leaves the cell, prompting Juliet to angrily threaten to kill herself with a knife and his final appearance in the play is in the cemetery where Juliet is laid to rest in the Capulet family tomb. Believing her to be dead, Count Paris has come to mourn her death in solitude and privacy and he professes his love to Juliet, saying he will nightly weep for her. Paris sees him and thinks he is trying to vandalize the tomb and they fight, and Romeo kills Paris. Romeo grants Paris dying wish to be placed next to Juliet in the tomb, Mercutio is the cousin of Prince Escalus and Count Paris, and is a close friend of Romeo and his cousin Benvolio. He supports and fights on the Montague side of the feud, the invitation to the Capulets party reveals that he has a brother named Valentine. Mercutio is apt to make long, drawn out speeches, and is thought to be reckless, a jester. Due to his reckless and flamboyant personality, Mercutio is one of Shakespeares most popular characters, Mercutio is the instigator of many fights with his rather mean spirited humor, and often insults Tybalt, a renowned swordsman
Capulet
–
Frederic Leighton's 1854 watercolour The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets
Capulet
–
Woodcut of fair Verona, where we lay our scene from the 1847 edition of The Illustrated Shakespeare
Capulet
–
Lady Capulet and the Nurse persuade Juliet to marry Paris
Capulet
–
Juliet or The Blue Necklace (1898) by
John William Waterhouse
5.
Lady Capulet
–
Prince Escalus, the Prince of Verona, is the desperate resolver of the feuding families. He is based on the actual Scaligeri family which ruled Verona, Escalus is the voice of authority in Verona. He appears only three times within the text and only to administer justice following major events in the feud between the Capulet and Montague families and he first punishes Capulet and Montague for the quarrel between Tybalt, Benvolio, and a handful of servants. He returns too late to stop the fatal brawls between Tybalt and Mercutio and, subsequently, Tybalt and Romeo and he yells at Lord Montague for engaging in the feud, which really is the root cause which led to Tybalt killing Mercutio. So, according to him, he lost his dear kinsman because of Lord Montague, so by exiling Romeo, Escalus gives him a taste of Montagues own medicine, Prince Escalus returns in the final scene—V. He curses the feud that kills Romeo and Juliet whom he feels sad for. In the end, Prince Escalus becomes very happy that the feud has finally ended, Count Paris is a kinsman of Prince Escalus and seeks to marry Juliet. He is described as handsome, somewhat self-absorbed, and very wealthy, Paris makes his first appearance in Act I, Scene II, where he expresses his wish to make Juliet his wife and the mother of his children. Capulet demurs, citing his daughters young age as a reason, nevertheless, Capulet invites Paris to attend a family ball being held that evening and grants permission to woo and attract Juliet. Later in the play, however, Juliet refuses to become Paris joyful bride after her cousin Tybalt dies by her new husband Romeos hand and her parents threaten to disown her if she will not agree to the marriage. Then, while at Laurences cell at the church, Paris tries to woo her by saying that she is his wife. He kisses her and then leaves the cell, prompting Juliet to angrily threaten to kill herself with a knife and his final appearance in the play is in the cemetery where Juliet is laid to rest in the Capulet family tomb. Believing her to be dead, Count Paris has come to mourn her death in solitude and privacy and he professes his love to Juliet, saying he will nightly weep for her. Paris sees him and thinks he is trying to vandalize the tomb and they fight, and Romeo kills Paris. Romeo grants Paris dying wish to be placed next to Juliet in the tomb, Mercutio is the cousin of Prince Escalus and Count Paris, and is a close friend of Romeo and his cousin Benvolio. He supports and fights on the Montague side of the feud, the invitation to the Capulets party reveals that he has a brother named Valentine. Mercutio is apt to make long, drawn out speeches, and is thought to be reckless, a jester. Due to his reckless and flamboyant personality, Mercutio is one of Shakespeares most popular characters, Mercutio is the instigator of many fights with his rather mean spirited humor, and often insults Tybalt, a renowned swordsman
Lady Capulet
–
Frederic Leighton's 1854 watercolour The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets
Lady Capulet
–
Woodcut of fair Verona, where we lay our scene from the 1847 edition of The Illustrated Shakespeare
Lady Capulet
–
Lady Capulet and the Nurse persuade Juliet to marry Paris
Lady Capulet
–
Juliet or The Blue Necklace (1898) by
John William Waterhouse
6.
Rosaline
–
Rosaline is an unseen character and niece of Capulet in William Shakespeares tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Although silent, her role is important, Romeo is at first deeply in love with Rosaline and expresses his dismay at her not loving him back. Romeo first spots Juliet while trying to catch a glimpse of Rosaline at a gathering hosted by the Capulet family, scholars generally compare Romeos short-lived love of Rosaline with his later love of Juliet. The poetry Shakespeare writes for Rosaline is much weaker than that for Juliet, scholars believe Romeos early experience with Rosaline prepares him for his relationship with Juliet. Later performances of Romeo and Juliet have painted different pictures of Romeo and Rosalines relationship, before Romeo meets Juliet, he loves Rosaline, Capulets niece and Juliets cousin. He describes her as beautiful, The all-seeing sun / neer saw her match since first the world begun. Rosaline, however, chooses to remain chaste, Romeo says, She hath forsworn to love, and in that vow / Do I live dead that live to tell it now. This is the source of his depression, and he makes his friends unhappy, Mercutio comments, That same pale, hard-hearted wench, Benvolio urges Romeo to sneak into a Capulet gathering where, he claims, Rosaline will look like a crow alongside the other beautiful women. Romeo agrees, but doubts Benvolios assessment, after Romeo sees Juliet his feelings suddenly change, Did my heart love till now. Forswear it, sight / For I neer saw true beauty till this night, because their relationship is sudden and secret, Romeos friends and Friar Laurence continue to speak of his affection for Rosaline throughout much of the play. Rosaline is a variant of Rosalind, a name of Old French origin, when it was imported into English it was thought to be from the Latin rosa linda. Romeo sees Rosaline as the embodiment of the rose because of her name, the name Rosaline commonly appears in Petrarchan sonnets, a form of poetry Romeo uses to woo Juliet and to describe both Rosaline and Juliet. Since Rosaline is unattainable, she is a subject for this style. By the time he meets Juliet his poetic ability has improved considerably, gender studies critics have argued that Rosalines name suggests that Romeo never really forgets her but rather replaces her with Juliet. Thus, when Juliet cries Whats in a name, a rose by any other name would smell as sweet, she is ironically expressing Romeos own view of her as a substitute for Rosaline. That is to say, Rosaline, replaced in name only by Juliet, is just as sweet to Romeo, gender critics also note that the arguments used to dissuade Romeo from pursuing Rosaline are similar to the themes of Shakespeares procreation sonnets. In these sonnets Shakespeare urges the man to find a woman with whom to procreate—a duty he owes to society, Rosaline, it seems, is distant and unavailable except in the mind, similarly bringing no hope of offspring. As Benvolio argues, she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate, Rosaline reveals similarities to the subject of the sonnets when she refuses to break her vow of chastity
Rosaline
–
Rosaline in
Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet, one of the few films to give her a visible role.
7.
Nurse (Romeo and Juliet)
–
The Nurse is a major character in William Shakespeares classic drama Romeo and Juliet. She is the servant, guardian of Juliet Capulet, and has been since Juliet was born. She had a daughter named Susan who died in infancy, as the primary person to like, she is therefore Juliets foremost confidante. She is one of the few people, along with Friar Laurence and her personal history outside of the Capulet estate is unknown, other than that she once had a husband and a daughter, both of whom are deceased. Juliet is considered by many, historians and fans alike, to be her daughter in many respects because she raised Juliet in Lady Capulets absence. The Nurse is a character in Arthur Brookes poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet and she is like family to the Capulets. The Nurse plays a role in the poem by Brooke. The Nurse is sent by Juliet in act two, scene four to seek out Romeo the night after their first kiss and exchange of vows, the Nurse finds Romeo and soon after returns to Juliet with news of Romeos continued affection. It is because of the Nurses approval that Juliet ultimately decides to go through with marrying Romeo, later, the Nurse is overcome with grief at the death of Tybalt, and she runs to Juliet and cries, Hes dead, hes dead, hes dead. We are undone, lady, we are undone, alack the day, hes gone, hes killed, hes dead. When Juliet learns that her parents expect her to marry Paris, even though Juliet was already married to Romeo, the Nurse felt that Juliet would never see her husband again. Following this, Juliet feels betrayed and decides never to any more of her secrets with the Nurse. The Nurse discovers Juliet under the spell of Friar Lawrences potion in act four, scene five, and she is, finally, present at the real deathbed of Romeo, Juliet, and Paris, though speechless. Indeed, she loses perhaps the dearest friends of anyone, having suffered through the deaths of her husband, Susan, Tybalt, Romeo, the nurse has the third largest number of lines in the original play, only the eponymous characters have more lines. In choosing forms, Shakespeare matches the poetry to the character uses it. Friar Lawrence, for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms, Friar Lawrence agrees to marry Romeo to Juliet in an attempt to mend the dispute between the two families, the Nurse sees their union as one of legitimate romance. Only to the nurse does Juliet confide her feelings about both Paris and Romeo, the formal language Juliet uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo. The Nurse also admits to being something of a fool, proclaiming, were not I thine only nurse, I would say thou hadst suckd wisdom from thy teat
Nurse (Romeo and Juliet)
–
The Nurse tries to convince Juliet to marry Paris.
8.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
–
Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
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The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
–
Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
9.
Protagonist
–
A protagonist is the main character in any story, such as a literary work or drama. The protagonist is at the center of the story, typically makes the key decisions, the protagonist usually affects the main characters circumstances as well, as they are often the primary actor propelling the story forward. If a story contains a subplot, or is a made up of several stories. The word protagonist is used notably in stories and forms of literature and culture that contain stories, in those forms the protagonist may simply be the leading actor, or the principal character in the story. The antagonist will provide obstacles and complications and create conflict that test the protagonist, thus revealing the strengths, the earliest known examples of protagonist are dated back to Ancient Greece. At first dramatic performances involved merely dancing and recitation by the chorus, but then in Poetics, Aristotle describes how a poet named Thespis introduced the idea of having one actor step out and engage in a dialogue with the chorus. This was the invention of tragedy, which occurred about 536 B. C, then the poet Aeschylus, in his plays, introduced a second actor, inventing the idea of dialogue between two characters. Sophocles then wrote plays that required a third actor, euripides play Hippolytus may be considered to have two protagonists. The protagonist of the first half is Phaedra, who dies partway through the play and her stepson, the titular Hippolytus, assumes the dominant role in the second half of the play. In Ibsen’s play The Master Builder, the protagonist is the architect Halvard Solness, the young woman, Hilda Wangel, whose actions lead to the death of Solness, is the antagonist. In Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is the protagonist and he is actively in pursuit of his relationship with Juliet, and the audience is invested in that story. The character of Tybalt opposes Romeo’s desires, he is the antagonist, in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, Prince Hamlet, who seeks revenge for the murder of his father, is the protagonist. The antagonist would be the character who most opposes Hamlet, Claudius, in the novel The Catcher in the Rye, the character Holden Caulfield is the protagonist. He is the character, and the reader is invested in his story. Sometimes, a work will have a false protagonist, who may seem to be the protagonist, the character Marion in Alfred Hitchcocks film Psycho is an example. A novel that contains a number of narratives may have a number of protagonists, alexander Solzhenitsyns The First Circle, for example, depicts a variety of characters imprisoned and living in a gulag camp. Leo Tolstoys War and Peace, depicts fifteen major characters involved in or affected by a war
Protagonist
–
In
Shakespeare 's
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Hamlet is the protagonist. He is set in a tragic situation, where the ghost of his dead father urges him to take revenge on his uncle, who had murdered the father. Portrait of Hamlet by William Morris Hunt, oil on canvas, circa 1864.
10.
Tragedy
–
Tragedy is a form of drama based on human suffering that invokes an accompanying catharsis or pleasure in audiences. In the wake of Aristotles Poetics, tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, in the modern era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre. Drama, in the sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialisation from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects against models of tragedy, taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation. The word tragedy appears to have used to describe different phenomena at different times. It derives from Classical Greek τραγῳδία, contracted from trag-aoidiā = goat song, scholars suspect this may be traced to a time when a goat was either the prize in a competition of choral dancing or was that around which a chorus danced prior to the animals ritual sacrifice. In another view on the etymology, Athenaeus of Naucratis says that the form of the word was trygodia from trygos and ode. There is some dissent to the origins of tragedy, mostly based on the differences between the shapes of their choruses and styles of dancing. A common descent from pre-Hellenic fertility and burial rites has been suggested, friedrich Nietzsche discussed the origins of Greek tragedy in his early book The Birth of Tragedy. Here, he suggests the name originates in the use of a chorus of goat-like satyrs in the original dithyrambs from which the genre developed. Scott Scullion writes, There is abundant evidence for tragoidia understood as song for the prize goat, and as prize was established the billy goat, the clearest is Eustathius 1769.45, They called those competing tragedians, clearly because of the song over the billy goat. Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the culture of the city-state. Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE, no tragedies from the 6th century and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in the 5th century have survived. We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, Athenian tragedies were performed in late March/early April at an annual state religious festival in honor of Dionysus. The presentations took the form of a contest between three playwrights, who presented their works on three successive days, each playwright offered a tetralogy consisting of three tragedies and a concluding comic piece called a satyr play. The four plays sometimes featured linked stories, only one complete trilogy of tragedies has survived, the Oresteia of Aeschylus. The Greek theatre was in the air, on the side of a hill. Performances were apparently open to all citizens, including women, the theatre of Dionysus at Athens probably held around 12,000 people
Tragedy
–
Aristotle's Tragic Plot Structure
Tragedy
–
Literature
Tragedy
–
Mask of
Dionysus. Greek,
Myrina, 2nd century BCE.
Tragedy
–
Scene from the tragedy Iphigenia in Tauris by Euripides. Roman fresco in Pompeii.
11.
House of Capulet
–
Prince Escalus, the Prince of Verona, is the desperate resolver of the feuding families. He is based on the actual Scaligeri family which ruled Verona, Escalus is the voice of authority in Verona. He appears only three times within the text and only to administer justice following major events in the feud between the Capulet and Montague families and he first punishes Capulet and Montague for the quarrel between Tybalt, Benvolio, and a handful of servants. He returns too late to stop the fatal brawls between Tybalt and Mercutio and, subsequently, Tybalt and Romeo and he yells at Lord Montague for engaging in the feud, which really is the root cause which led to Tybalt killing Mercutio. So, according to him, he lost his dear kinsman because of Lord Montague, so by exiling Romeo, Escalus gives him a taste of Montagues own medicine, Prince Escalus returns in the final scene—V. He curses the feud that kills Romeo and Juliet whom he feels sad for. In the end, Prince Escalus becomes very happy that the feud has finally ended, Count Paris is a kinsman of Prince Escalus and seeks to marry Juliet. He is described as handsome, somewhat self-absorbed, and very wealthy, Paris makes his first appearance in Act I, Scene II, where he expresses his wish to make Juliet his wife and the mother of his children. Capulet demurs, citing his daughters young age as a reason, nevertheless, Capulet invites Paris to attend a family ball being held that evening and grants permission to woo and attract Juliet. Later in the play, however, Juliet refuses to become Paris joyful bride after her cousin Tybalt dies by her new husband Romeos hand and her parents threaten to disown her if she will not agree to the marriage. Then, while at Laurences cell at the church, Paris tries to woo her by saying that she is his wife. He kisses her and then leaves the cell, prompting Juliet to angrily threaten to kill herself with a knife and his final appearance in the play is in the cemetery where Juliet is laid to rest in the Capulet family tomb. Believing her to be dead, Count Paris has come to mourn her death in solitude and privacy and he professes his love to Juliet, saying he will nightly weep for her. Paris sees him and thinks he is trying to vandalize the tomb and they fight, and Romeo kills Paris. Romeo grants Paris dying wish to be placed next to Juliet in the tomb, Mercutio is the cousin of Prince Escalus and Count Paris, and is a close friend of Romeo and his cousin Benvolio. He supports and fights on the Montague side of the feud, the invitation to the Capulets party reveals that he has a brother named Valentine. Mercutio is apt to make long, drawn out speeches, and is thought to be reckless, a jester. Due to his reckless and flamboyant personality, Mercutio is one of Shakespeares most popular characters, Mercutio is the instigator of many fights with his rather mean spirited humor, and often insults Tybalt, a renowned swordsman
House of Capulet
–
Frederic Leighton's 1854 watercolour The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets
House of Capulet
–
Woodcut of fair Verona, where we lay our scene from the 1847 edition of The Illustrated Shakespeare
House of Capulet
–
Lady Capulet and the Nurse persuade Juliet to marry Paris
House of Capulet
–
Juliet or The Blue Necklace (1898) by
John William Waterhouse
12.
House of Montague
–
Prince Escalus, the Prince of Verona, is the desperate resolver of the feuding families. He is based on the actual Scaligeri family which ruled Verona, Escalus is the voice of authority in Verona. He appears only three times within the text and only to administer justice following major events in the feud between the Capulet and Montague families and he first punishes Capulet and Montague for the quarrel between Tybalt, Benvolio, and a handful of servants. He returns too late to stop the fatal brawls between Tybalt and Mercutio and, subsequently, Tybalt and Romeo and he yells at Lord Montague for engaging in the feud, which really is the root cause which led to Tybalt killing Mercutio. So, according to him, he lost his dear kinsman because of Lord Montague, so by exiling Romeo, Escalus gives him a taste of Montagues own medicine, Prince Escalus returns in the final scene—V. He curses the feud that kills Romeo and Juliet whom he feels sad for. In the end, Prince Escalus becomes very happy that the feud has finally ended, Count Paris is a kinsman of Prince Escalus and seeks to marry Juliet. He is described as handsome, somewhat self-absorbed, and very wealthy, Paris makes his first appearance in Act I, Scene II, where he expresses his wish to make Juliet his wife and the mother of his children. Capulet demurs, citing his daughters young age as a reason, nevertheless, Capulet invites Paris to attend a family ball being held that evening and grants permission to woo and attract Juliet. Later in the play, however, Juliet refuses to become Paris joyful bride after her cousin Tybalt dies by her new husband Romeos hand and her parents threaten to disown her if she will not agree to the marriage. Then, while at Laurences cell at the church, Paris tries to woo her by saying that she is his wife. He kisses her and then leaves the cell, prompting Juliet to angrily threaten to kill herself with a knife and his final appearance in the play is in the cemetery where Juliet is laid to rest in the Capulet family tomb. Believing her to be dead, Count Paris has come to mourn her death in solitude and privacy and he professes his love to Juliet, saying he will nightly weep for her. Paris sees him and thinks he is trying to vandalize the tomb and they fight, and Romeo kills Paris. Romeo grants Paris dying wish to be placed next to Juliet in the tomb, Mercutio is the cousin of Prince Escalus and Count Paris, and is a close friend of Romeo and his cousin Benvolio. He supports and fights on the Montague side of the feud, the invitation to the Capulets party reveals that he has a brother named Valentine. Mercutio is apt to make long, drawn out speeches, and is thought to be reckless, a jester. Due to his reckless and flamboyant personality, Mercutio is one of Shakespeares most popular characters, Mercutio is the instigator of many fights with his rather mean spirited humor, and often insults Tybalt, a renowned swordsman
House of Montague
–
Frederic Leighton's 1854 watercolour The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets
House of Montague
–
Woodcut of fair Verona, where we lay our scene from the 1847 edition of The Illustrated Shakespeare
House of Montague
–
Lady Capulet and the Nurse persuade Juliet to marry Paris
House of Montague
–
Juliet or The Blue Necklace (1898) by
John William Waterhouse
13.
Blood feud
–
Feuds begin because one party perceives itself to have been attacked, insulted or wronged by another. Intense feelings of resentment trigger the initial retribution, which causes the party to feel equally aggrieved. The dispute is subsequently fuelled by a cycle of retaliatory violence. This continual cycle of provocation and retaliation makes it difficult to end the feud peacefully. Feuds frequently involve the original family members and/or associates, can last for generations. They can be interpreted as an outgrowth of social relations based in family honor. Until the early period, feuds were considered legitimate legal instruments and were regulated to some degree. For example, Serb culture calls this krvna osveta, meaning blood revenge, in the English-speaking world, vendetta is sometimes extended to mean any other long-standing feud, not necessarily involving bloodshed. Sometimes, it is not mutual, but rather refers to a series of hostile acts waged by one person against another without reciprocation. Blood feuds were common in societies with a rule of law. An entire family is considered responsible for any one of them has done. Sometimes two separate branches of the family have even come to blows, or worse, over some dispute. The practice has mostly disappeared with more centralized societies where law enforcement, in Homeric ancient Greece, the practice of personal vengeance against wrongdoers was considered natural and customary, Embedded in the Greek morality of retaliation is the right of vengeance. Feud is a war, just as war is a series of revenges. In the ancient Hebraic context, it was considered the duty of the individual, the executor of the law of blood-revenge who personally put the initial killer to death was given a special designation, goel haddam, the blood-avenger or blood-redeemer. Six Cities of Refuge were established to provide protection and due process for any unintentional manslayers, the avenger was forbidden from harming the unintentional killer if the killer took refuge in one of these cities. According to historian Marc Bloch, The Middle Ages, from beginning to end, the onus, of course, lay above all on the wronged individual, vengeance was imposed on him as the most sacred of duties. The solitary individual, however, could do but little, moreover, it was most commonly a death that had to be avenged
Blood feud
–
A
kasbah in the Dades valley,
High Atlas. Historically, tribal feuding and banditry were a way of life for the
Berbers of Morocco. [
citation needed] As a result, hundreds of ancient kasbahs were built.
Blood feud
–
Vatheia, a typical Maniot village famous for its towers
Blood feud
–
The defensive towers built by feuding clans of
Svaneti, in the
Caucasus mountains
Blood feud
–
A fortified tower used as refuge for men involved in a blood feud who are vulnerable to attack. Thethi, northern
Albania.
14.
The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet
–
The Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Juliet is a narrative poem, first published in 1562 by Arthur Brooke, which was the key source for William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Little is known about Arthur Brooke and he was admitted as a member of Inner Temple on 18 December 1561 under the sponsorship of Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton. He drowned in 1563 by shipwreck while crossing to help Protestant forces in the French Wars of Religion, london, Chatto and Windus, New York, Duffield and company,1908. It was played in 1975 in the city of Chatham in Ontario, Arthur Brookes Romeus and Juliet Complete original text, with a glossary and a search engine. Essay, How Romeus Became Romeo Comparing Brookes work with Shakespeares
The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet
–
Frontispiece of The Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Juliet.
15.
Philip H. Calderon
–
Philip Hermogenes Calderon RA was an English painter of French birth and Spanish ancestry who initially worked in the Pre-Raphaelite style before moving towards historical genre. He was Keeper of the Royal Academy in London, Calderon was born in Poitiers, France. His father, Reverend Juan Calderón was a professor of Spanish literature, Calderon planned to study engineering, but he became so interested in drawing technical figures and diagrams that he changed his mind and devoted his time to art. In 1850, he trained at Leighs art school, London and his first successful painting was called By the waters of Babylon, which was followed by a much more popular one called Broken Vows. From the beginning he was inspired by the Pre-Raphaelites, and some of his work showed the detail, deep colors, the artist Henry Stacy Marks was his friend and brother-in-law, and Calderon exhibited his portrait at the Royal Academy in 1872. Historical, biblical, and literary themes were common in Calderons later work, many of his pieces show women wearing rich, silky clothing in gently colored landscapes. His Morning features a copper-haired maiden watching a sunrise and his Juliet shows Shakespeares Juliet seated on her balcony gazing at the stars. His later paintings adopt more classical style, comparable to Edward Poynter, Calderon became Keeper of the Royal Academy in 1887, and from then on worked to support the teaching of anatomy based on nude models at the Royal Academy Schools. It depicted the saint bending nude over an altar watched by monks, volume 2 The modern school of art, volume 2 pp. 212–20. P. H. Calderon online Biography and paintings Calderon biography Biography and paintings s, Calderon, Philip Hermogenes
Philip H. Calderon
–
Philip Hermogenes Calderon
Philip H. Calderon
–
Ruth, Boas and Naomi
Philip H. Calderon
–
Broken Vows (1856;
Tate Britain, London).
Philip H. Calderon
–
Philip Hermogenes Calderon - The Vine
16.
Romeo (character)
–
Romeo Montague is one of the title characters in William Shakespeares tragedy Romeo and Juliet. He serves as the male protagonist. Romeo, the son of Montague and his wife, secretly loves and marries Juliet, forced into exile by his slaying of Juliets cousin, Tybalt, in a duel, Romeo commits suicide upon hearing falsely of Juliets death. This story was adapted by Luigi da Porto as Giulietta e Romeo, although both Salernitano and da Porto claimed that their stories had historical basis, there is little evidence that this is the case. Romeo, a child like Juliet, is one of the most important characters of the play. His role as a lover has led the word Romeo to become a synonym for a passionate male lover in various languages. Although often treated as such, it is not clear that Montague is a surname in the modern sense, the earliest tale bearing a resemblance to Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet is Xenophon of Ephesus Ephesiaca, whose hero is a Habrocomes. The two sources which Shakespeare most likely consulted are Brookes translation of de Porta and William Painters The goodly historye of the true, how to read a Shakespeare play. Romeo and Juliet, A Guide to the Play, negotiating Shakespeares language in Romeo and Juliet, reading strategies from criticism, editing and the theatre. Complete listing of all of Romeos lines
Romeo (character)
–
The balcony scene in Romeo and Juliet as depicted by
Ford Madox Brown in an 1870 painting
17.
Verona
–
Verona is a city on the Adige river in Veneto, Italy, with approximately 265,000 inhabitants and one of the seven provincial capitals of the region. It is the second largest city municipality in the region and the third largest in northeast Italy, the metropolitan area of Verona covers an area of 1,426 km2 and has a population of 714,274 inhabitants. Three of Shakespeares plays are set in Verona, Romeo and Juliet, The Two Gentlemen of Verona and it is unknown if Shakespeare ever visited Verona or Italy at all, but his plays have lured many visitors to Verona and surrounding cities many times over. The city has been awarded World Heritage Site status by UNESCO because of its structure and architecture. According to a theory that considers the geographical position of the city, Verona is short for Versus Romae which means In the direction of Rome because as italian people say All roads lead to Rome. The exclamation Vae Romae if understood in Latin means Alas Rome, in fact, to express distress or denounce a disgrace ancient Romans used the Latin interjection vae. So, you explain the famous poem by William Shakespeare There is no world without Verona walls, But purgatory, torture. Hence-banished is banishd from the world, And worlds exile is death, the writer would express a Roman concept through its character named Romeo, a name that invokes Rome, according to which the city of Verona was a boundary between the Roman world and barbaric one. Verona was a place of passage and to horses, for those who wanted to go and had walked the Via Claudia Augusta. So the expression Vae Romae Alas Rome would indicate spirit of the place, another theory is that it is connected to the river. Vera was a name of the river Adige before the adoption of the current name, as in many similar instances in Europe the name of the town is formed with the addition of suffix -ona which means settlement over. The city was sometimes known as Welsch-Bern in German. The precise details of Veronas early history remain a mystery, one theory is it was a city of the Euganei, who were obliged to give it up to the Cenomani. With the conquest of the Valley of the Po the Veronese territory became Roman, Verona became a Roman colonia in 89 BC, and then a municipium in 49 BC when its citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe Poblilia or Publicia. The city became important because it was at the intersection of several roads, stilicho defeated Alaric and his Visigoths here in 403. But, after Verona was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 489, theoderic the Great was said to have built a palace there. It remained under the power of the Goths throughout the Gothic War, except for a day in 541. The defections that took place among the Byzantine generals with regard to the booty made it possible for the Goths to regain possession of the city, in 552 Valerian vainly endeavored to enter the city, but it was only when they were fully overthrown that the Goths surrendered it
Verona
–
A collage of the city of Verona, Clockwise from top left to right: View of Piazza Bra from Verona Arena, House of Juliet, Verona Arena, Ponte Pietra at sunset, Statue of Madonna Verona's fountain in Piazza Erbe, View of Piazza Erbe from Lamberti Tower
Verona
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Verona
–
Statue of
Dante Alighieri in Verona
Verona
–
Panoramic view of the city from Castel San Pietro
18.
Social status
–
Social status is the position or rank of a person or group, within the society. Status can be determined in two ways, one can earn their social status by their own achievements, which is known as achieved status. Alternatively, one can be placed in the system by their inherited position. An embodied status is one that is generated by physical characteristics located within our physical selves, the status that is the most important for an individual at a given time is called master status. Ascribed statuses can also be defined as those that are fixed for an individual at birth, ascribed statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, race, ethnic group and family background. For example, a born into a wealthy family characterized by traits such as popularity, talents. Therefore, they are given and taught many social roles as they are positioned into a family becoming equipped with all these traits. Achieved status means also what the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, Social status is used in many parts of the world. Hierarchy can be conveyed and detected through voice, Status refers to the relative rank that an individual holds, this includes attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honor or prestige. Status has two different types that come along with it, achieved, and ascribed, the word status refers to social stratification on a vertical scale. In society, pariah status groups are regarded with disdain or treated as outcasts by the majority of the population, the term derives from the Paraiyar, members of which are treated as outcasts in Hindu society. In modern societies, occupation is thought of as the main determinant of status. Achieved status is when people are placed in the structure based on their individual merits or achievements. This status can be achieved through education, occupation, and marital status and their place within the stratification structure is determined by societys bar, which often judges them on success, success being financial, academic, political and so on. America most commonly uses this form of status with jobs, the higher you are in rank the better off you are and the more control you have over your co-workers. In pre-modern societies, status differentiation is widely varied, in some cases it can be quite rigid and class based, such as with the Indian caste system. In other cases, status exists without class and/or informally, as is true with some Hunter-Gatherer societies such as the Khoisan, in these cases, status is limited to specific personal relationships. For example, a Khoisan man is expected to take his wifes mother quite seriously, all societies have a form of social status
Social status
–
Sociology
Social status
–
Social status is often associated with clothing and possessions. Compare the foreman with a horse and high hat with the
inquilino in picture. Image from 19th century rural Chile.
19.
Physical attractiveness
–
Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a persons physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either, there are many factors which influence one persons attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all cultures, as well as aspects that are culturally and socially dependent. In many cases, humans subconsciously attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, from research done in the United States and United Kingdom, it was found that the association between intelligence and physical attractiveness is stronger among men than among women. A persons physical characteristics can signal cues to fertility and health, attending to these factors increases reproductive success, furthering the representation of ones genes in the population. The perception of attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, symmetry may be evolutionarily beneficial as a sign of health because asymmetry signals past illness or injury. One study suggested people were able to gauge beauty at a level by seeing only a glimpse of a picture for one-hundredth of a second. Other important factors include youthfulness, skin clarity and smoothness of skin, however, there are numerous differences based on gender. Grammer and colleagues have identified eight pillars of beauty, youthfulness, symmetry, averageness, sex-hormone markers, body odor, motion, skin complexion, such studies consistently find that activity in certain parts of the orbitofrontal cortex increases with increasing attractiveness of faces. The same study finds that for faces and bodies alike, the part of the orbitofrontal cortex responds with greater activity to both very attractive and very unattractive pictures. Women, on average, tend to be attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso. Women also tend to be attracted to men who are taller than they are. With regard to male-male-attractiveness, one source reports that the most important factor that attracts gay men to other males is the physical attractiveness. The degree of differences between male and female anatomical traits is called sexual dimorphism, Female respondents in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle were significantly more likely to choose a masculine face than those in menses and luteal phases. However, womens likeliness to exert effort to view male faces does not seem to depend on their masculinity and it is suggested that the masculinity of facial features is a reliable indication of good health, or, alternatively, that masculine-looking males are more likely to achieve high status. However, the correlation between attractive facial features and health has been questioned, sociocultural factors, such as self-perceived attractiveness, status in a relationship and degree of gender-conformity, have been reported to play a role in female preferences for male faces. In men, facial masculinity significantly correlates with facial symmetry—it has been suggested that both are signals of developmental stability and genetic health, in a cross-country study involving 4,794 women in their early twenties, a difference was found in womens average masculinity preference between countries. The study reasoned that the advantage for masculine male faces must have been due to some factor that is not directly tied to female perceptions of male facial attractiveness
Physical attractiveness
–
Venus de Milo at the
Louvre has been described as a "classical vision of beauty". However, one expert claimed her "almost matronly representation" was meant to convey an "impressive appearance" rather than "ideal female beauty".
Physical attractiveness
–
Ishtar, Mesopotamian goddess of sexual love and war. The goddess has been associated with sexuality, love, and fertility.
Physical attractiveness
–
Adonis restored and completed by
François Duquesnoy, formerly in the collection of
Cardinal Mazarin (
Louvre Museum).
Physical attractiveness
–
The
Mannerist movement was not afraid to exaggerate body proportions for an effect considered attractive;
Juno in a niche,
engraving by
Jacopo Caraglio, probably of a drawing by
Rosso Fiorentino, 1526
20.
Destiny
–
Destiny, sometimes referred to as fate is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a future, whether in general or of an individual. Although often used interchangeably, the fate and destiny have distinct connotations. Traditional usage defines fate as a power or agency that predetermines, Fate defines events as ordered or inevitable and unavoidable. This is a based on the belief that there is a fixed natural order to the universe, and in some conceptions. Classical and European mythology feature personified fate spinners, known as the Moirai in Greek mythology, the Parcae in Roman mythology, and they determine the events of the world through the mystic spinning of threads that represent individual human fates. Fate is often conceived as being divinely inspired, fatalism refers to the belief that events fixed by fate are unchangeable by any type of human agency. In other words, humans can not alter their own fates or the fates of others, the Roman image of Fortuna, with the wheel she blindly turned, was retained by Christian writers, revived strongly in the Renaissance and survives in some forms today. Philosophy on the concepts of destiny and fate has existed since the Hellenistic period with such as the Stoics. The Stoics believed that human decisions and actions ultimately went according to a plan devised by a god. They claimed that humans theoretically have free will, their souls. The Epicureans challenged the Stoic beliefs by denying the existence of this divine fate and they believed that men’s actions were voluntary so long as they were rational. In daily language, destiny and fate are synonymous, but with regard to 19th century philosophy, but this concept may have even other senses, although he, in various places, saw the will to power as a strong element for adaptation or survival in a better way. Nietzsche eventually transformed the idea of matter as centers of force into matter as centers of will to power as mankind’s destiny to face with amor fati. The expression Amor fati is used repeatedly by Nietzsche as acceptation-choice of the fate, influential philosophers like Robert Kane, Thomas Nagel, Roderick Chisholm, and A. J. Ayer have written about this notion, the idea of a god controlled destiny plays an important role in numerous religions. Followers of Ancient Greek religion regarded not only the Moirai but also the gods, particularly Zeus, as responsible for deciding and carrying out destiny, respectively. Those who followed Gnosticism believed in fate as something strict and unchangeable, resulting in only for the “chosen ones. ”Followers of Christianity consider God to be the only force with control over one’s fate
Destiny
–
Fate, by
Alphonse Mucha
21.
Bandello
–
Matteo Bandello was an Italian writer, mostly known for his novellas. Matteo Bandello was born at Castelnuovo Scrivia, near Tortona, c and he received a good education, and entered the church, but does not seem to have been very interested in theology. For many years he lived at Mantua and Castel Goffredo, and superintended the education of the celebrated Lucrezia Gonzaga, in whose honour he composed a long poem. The decisive Battle of Pavia, as a result of which Lombardy was taken by the emperor, compelled Bandello to flee, his house at Milan was burnt and he took refuge with Cesare Fregoso, an Italian general in the French service, whom he accompanied into France. He was later raised to the bishopric of Agen, a town in which he resided for many years before his death in 1562. Bandello wrote a number of poems, but his fame rests entirely on his collection of Novelle, or tales. They belong to the genre as Boccaccio’s Decameron and Marguerite de Navarre’s Heptameron. The common origin of all is to be found in the old French fabliaux, though some well-known tales are evidently Eastern. Bandello’s novellas are thought the best of those written in imitation of the Decameron, another of his stories includes The countess of Cellant, a distortion of Challand, a northwest region of Italy. The only nearly complete translation of Bandellos tales into English is The novels of Matteo Bandello, the Payne translation is a mixture of 19th and 16th century idioms. Examples of the include a thou wilt instead of if you will, wheneas instead of when, methinketh instead of I think. On most occasions, the language is clear and of literary value. For example, instead of saying Now I would gladly hear your advice on this matter, there is a second book of Bandello in an English translation by Percy Pinkerton and containing twelve tales. This translation uses a more modern mode of expression, the vast majority of the stories derive from those Bandello heard from contemporaries, reported as real life events. Some derive from English history, such as the chronicle of Mary Douglas, niece to King Henry VIII of England and Henry VIIIs six wives, some from Spanish history, such as Alfonso X. All of them were told to him by men, but a minority of dedicatory prefaces are offered to women. Bandello writes that the prefaces to the nobility or to worthy persons are useful to him as a shield in case someone becomes offended by one of the stories and is tempted to attack him. He shows psychological insight into jealousy, in particular the description of two types of men, the first from feelings of inadequacy and the second from feelings of the fickleness of women
Bandello
–
Matteo Bandello
Bandello
–
Castel Goffredo, palace Gonzaga-Acerbi.
22.
Western European marriage pattern
–
In 1965, John Hajnal discovered that Europe is divided into two areas characterized by a different patterns of nuptiality. Also, a significant proportion of women married after their twenties, the pattern of late and non-universal marriage restricted fertility massively, especially when it was coupled with very low levels of childbirth out of wedlock. Birth control took place by delaying marriage more than suppressing fertility within it, a womans life-phase from menarche to the birth of her first child was unusually long, averaging ten years. This marriage pattern varied across time and space and class, noblewomen certainly married early, in the 15th century, the average Italian bride was 18 and married a groom 10–12 years her senior. Julius Caesar, writing in the first century B, anglo-Saxon kinship terms were generally very basic, the same word is used for the titles of nephew and grandson, likewise for the term for granddaughter and niece. Based on this, the nuclear household seems to be the norm, the rise of Christianity created more incentives to keep families nuclear, the Church instituted marriage laws and practices that undermined large kinship groups. From as early as the century, the Church discouraged any practice that enlarged the family, like adoption, polygamy, taking concubines, divorce. The church also clipped the ability of parents to retain kinship ties through arranged marriages by forbidding unions in which the bride did not clearly agree to the union. Therefore, a man and a woman could agree to each other at even the minimum age of consent- fourteen years for men, twelve years for women-. But this doctrine led to the problem of clandestine marriage, performed without witness or connection to public institution, patriarchy remained in some form or another, including the necessity of the dowry by young women. The average age at first marriage had risen again by late sixteenth century. A large majority of English brides in this time were at least 19 years of age when they married, and only one bride in a thousand was thirteen years of age or younger. William Shakespeares drama Romeo and Juliet puts Juliets age at just short of fourteen years, therefore,18 came to be considered the earliest reasonable age for motherhood and 20 and 30 the ideal ages for women and men, respectively, to marry. Demographic transition Hajnal line Marriage Medieval singlewomen Nuclear family Extended family Kinship
Western European marriage pattern
–
To the west of the
Hajnal line, shown in red, the Western European marriage pattern arose. The blue lines mark areas of Western Europe that did not conform to Western Europe's marriage pattern
23.
Sir Thomas More
–
Sir Thomas More, venerated by Roman Catholics as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was also a councillor to Henry VIII, and Lord High Chancellor of England from October 1529 to 16 May 1532 and he also wrote Utopia, published in 1516, about the political system of an imaginary ideal island nation. More opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther, More also opposed the Kings separation from the Catholic Church, refusing to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. After refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy, he was convicted of treason, of his execution, he was reported to have said, I die the Kings good servant, but Gods first. Pope Pius XI canonised More in 1935 as a martyr, Pope John Paul II in 2000 declared him the heavenly Patron of Statesmen and Politicians. Since 1980, the Church of England has remembered More liturgically as a Reformation martyr, the Soviet Union honoured him for the Communist attitude toward property rights expressed in Utopia. From 1490 to 1492, More served John Morton, the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor of England, Morton enthusiastically supported the New Learning, and thought highly of the young More. Believing that More had great potential, Morton nominated him for a place at the University of Oxford, More began his studies at Oxford in 1492, and received a classical education. Studying under Thomas Linacre and William Grocyn, he became proficient in both Latin and Greek, More left Oxford after only two years—at his fathers insistence—to begin legal training in London at New Inn, one of the Inns of Chancery. In 1496, More became a student at Lincolns Inn, one of the Inns of Court, where he remained until 1502, according to his friend, theologian Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, More once seriously contemplated abandoning his legal career to become a monk. Between 1503 and 1504 More lived near the Carthusian monastery outside the walls of London, although he deeply admired their piety, More ultimately decided to remain a layman, standing for election to Parliament in 1504 and marrying the following year. In spite of his choice to pursue a career, More continued ascetic practices for the rest of his life, such as wearing a hair shirt next to his skin. A tradition of the Third Order of Saint Francis honours More as a member of that Order on their calendar of saints, More married Jane Colt in 1505. She was five years younger than her husband, quiet and good-natured, Erasmus reported that More wanted to give his young wife a better education than she had previously received at home, and tutored her in music and literature. The couple had four children before Jane died in 1511, Margaret, Elizabeth, Cicely, going against friends advice and common custom, within thirty days More had married one of the many eligible women among his wide circle of friends. He certainly expected a mother to care of his little children and, as the view of his time considered marriage as an economic union, he chose a rich widow. More was not viewed as being in haste to remarry for the gratification of sexual pleasure, as Alice was older than he, and their marriage was possibly not consummated. The speed of the marriage was so unusual that More had to get a dispensation of the banns, Alice More lacked Janes docility, Mores friend Andrew Ammonius derided Alice as a hook-nosed harpy
Sir Thomas More
–
Sir Thomas More, by
Hans Holbein the Younger, 1527
Sir Thomas More
–
Medallion of Thomas More
Sir Thomas More
–
Rowland Lockey after
Hans Holbein the Younger, The Family of Sir Thomas More, c. 1594
Sir Thomas More
–
Study for a portrait of Thomas More's family, c. 1527, by
Hans Holbein the Younger
24.
Utopia (book)
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Utopia is a work of fiction and political philosophy by Thomas More published in 1516 in Latin. The book is a frame narrative primarily depicting an island society and its religious. Many aspects of Mores description of Utopia are reminiscent of life in monasteries, the title De optimo rei publicae deque nova insula Utopia literally translates, Of a republics best state and of the new island Utopia. It is variously rendered as any of the following, The original name was even longer, Libellus vere aureus, nec minus salutaris quam festivus, de optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia. This translates, A truly golden little book, no less beneficial than entertaining, of a republics best state and of the new island Utopia. Utopia is derived from the Greek prefix ou-, meaning not, in early modern English, Utopia was spelled Utopie, which is today rendered Utopy in some editions. A common misunderstanding has that Utopia is derived from eu-, good, in English, Utopia is pronounced exactly as Eutopia. This is something that More himself addresses in an addendum to his book Wherfore not Utopie, but rather rightely my name is Eutopie, More chose these letters, which are communications between actual people, to further the plausibility of his fictional land. In the same spirit, these also include a specimen of the Utopian alphabet. The letters also explain the lack of travel to Utopia, during the first mention of the land. The first book tells of the traveller Raphael Hythlodaeus, to whom More is introduced in Antwerp, and it explores the subject of how best to counsel a prince. The first discussions with Raphael allow him to some of the modern ills affecting Europe such as the tendency of kings to start wars. He also criticises the use of execution to punish theft, saying thieves might as well murder whom they rob, to remove witnesses, if the punishment is going to be the same. More tries to convince Raphael that he could find a job in a royal court, advising monarchs. Raphael sees himself in the tradition of Plato, he knows that for good governance, Utopia is placed in the New World and More links Raphaels travels in with Amerigo Vespuccis real life voyages of discovery. He suggests that Raphael is one of the 24 men Vespucci, in his Four Voyages of 1507, says he left for six months at Cabo Frio, Raphael then travels further and finds the island of Utopia, where he spends five years observing the customs of the natives. According to More, the island of Utopia is The island was originally a peninsula, each city is divided into four equal parts. The capital city, Amaurot, is located directly in the middle of the crescent island, each city has 6000 households, consisting of between 10 and 16 adults
Utopia (book)
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Illustration for the 1516 first edition of Utopia.
Utopia (book)
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A
woodcut by
Ambrosius Holbein, illustrating a 1518 edition. In the lower left, Raphael describes the island Utopia.
Utopia (book)
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Map by
Ortelius, ca. 1595.
25.
Elizabethan England
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The Elizabethan era is the epoch in English history marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Historians often depict it as the age in English history. In terms of the century, the historian John Guy argues that England was economically healthier, more expansive. This golden age represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music, the era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home and it was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland. The Elizabethan Age may be viewed especially highly when considered in light of the failings of the periods preceding Elizabeths reign, the Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end under the weight of Spanish domination of the peninsula, France was embroiled in its own religious battles due to significant Spanish intervention, that would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes. The one great rival was Spain, which England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 and this drained both the English Exchequer and economy that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths prudent guidance. English commercial and territorial expansion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of London the year following Elizabeths death, economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade, persistent theft of Spanish treasure, and the African slave trade. The Victorian era and the early 20th century idealised the Elizabethan era, the Encyclopædia Britannica maintains that he long reign of Elizabeth I, 1558–1603, was Englands Golden Age. Merry England, in love with life, expressed itself in music and literature, in architecture and this idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn, in response and reaction to this hyperbole, modern historians and biographers have tended to take a more dispassionate view of the Tudor period. Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense during the period, having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and this general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments that Golden Age advocates have stressed. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, high officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic. That would be a prelude to the recovery of England for Catholicism. In 1570, the Ridolfi plot was thwarted, in 1584, the Throckmorton Plot was discovered, after Francis Throckmorton confessed his involvement in a plot to overthrow the Queen and restore the Catholic Church in England
Elizabethan England
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Queen Elizabeth
Elizabethan England
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The National Armada memorial in
Plymouth using the Britannia image to celebrate the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (William Charles May, sculptor, 1888)
Elizabethan England
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Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Plenty. Detail from The Family of Henry VIII: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession, c. 1572, attributed to
Lucas de Heere.
Elizabethan England
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The Spanish Armada fighting the English navy at the
Battle of Gravelines in 1588.
26.
Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare)
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Anne Hathaway was the wife of William Shakespeare, the English poet, playwright and actor. They were married in 1582, when he was 18 and she was 25 years old and she outlived her husband by seven years. Hathaway is believed to have grown up in Shottery, a village just to the west of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England. She is assumed to have grown up in the farmhouse that was the Hathaway family home and her father, Richard Hathaway, was a yeoman farmer. He died in September 1581 and left his daughter the sum of ten marks or £6 13s 4d to be paid at the day of her marriage. In her fathers will, her name is listed as Agnes, Hathaway married Shakespeare in November 1582 while already pregnant with the couples first child, to whom she gave birth six months later. Hathaway was 25 years old, Shakespeare was only 18, there is, however, no other evidence for this inference. Frank Harris, in The Man Shakespeare, argued that these documents are evidence that Shakespeare was involved two women. He had chosen to one, Anne Whateley, but when this became known he was immediately forced by Hathaways family to marry their pregnant relative. However, according to Stanley Wells, writing in the Oxford Companion to Shakespeare, germaine Greer argues that the age difference between Shakespeare and Hathaway is not evidence that he was forced to marry her, but that he was the one who pursued her. Women such as the orphaned Hathaway often stayed at home to care for younger siblings, furthermore, a handfast or probationary marriage and pregnancy were frequent precursors to legal marriage at the time. Shakespeare was bound to marry Hathaway, having made her pregnant and it is nearly certain that the respective families of the bride and groom had known one another. Three children were born to Hathaway and her husband, Susanna in 1583, Hamnet died at 11 years old during one of the frequent outbreaks of the bubonic plague and was buried in Stratford upon Avon on 11 August 1596. This passage has been interpreted in different ways. One view is that Whittington may have lent Anne the money, more likely, however, it may have been uncollected wages, or savings held in safekeeping, since the will also lists debts owed to him from her brothers in the same amount. In 1607, Hathaways daughter Susanna married the doctor, John Hall, giving birth to Hathaways and Shakespeares granddaughter, Elizabeth. Judith married Thomas Quiney, who was a vintner and tavern owner from a family, in February 1616 when she was 31. Soon afterwards, on 25 March 1616, Shakespeare modified his will for Judith to inherit £300 in her own name, leaving Quiney out of the will and giving most of his property to Susanna and her husband
Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare)
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This drawing by Sir Nathaniel Curzon, dated 1708, purports to depict Anne Hathaway.
Samuel Schoenbaum writes that it is probably a tracing of a lost Elizabethan portrait, but there is no existing evidence that the portrait actually depicted Hathaway.
Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare)
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Hathaway family cottage near Stratford
Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare)
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Inscribed brass on Anne Shakespeare's tombstone in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-upon-Avon
Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare)
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A nineteenth-century German engraving depicting Shakespeare as a family man surrounded by his children, who listen entranced to his stories. Anne is portrayed at the right as an idealised housewife, sewing a garment.
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