1.
Darmstadt
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Darmstadt is a city in the state of Hesse in Germany, located in the southern part of the Rhine-Main-Area. Darmstadt has a population around 150,000, the Darmstadt Larger Urban Zone has 430,993 inhabitants. Darmstadt holds the official title City of Science as it is a centre of scientific institutions, universities. The existence of the elements were also confirmed at GSI Centre for Heavy Ion Research, nihonium, flerovium, moscovium, livermorium. Darmstadt is also the seat of the worlds oldest pharmaceutical company, Merck, Darmstadt was formerly the capital of a sovereign country, the Grand Duchy of Hesse and its successor, the Peoples State of Hesse, a federal state of Germany. As the capital of an increasingly prosperous duchy, the city gained some international prominence, in the 20th century, industry, as well as large science and electronics sectors became increasingly important, and are still a major part of the citys economy. It is also home to the football club SV Darmstadt 98, Darmstadt, Indiana was named after Darmstadt and for the former Royal Family. The name Darmstadt first appears towards the end of the 11th century, the origins of the name are unknown. Dar-mund in Middle Low German is translated as Boggy Headlands, even locals often believe, incorrectly, that the name derives from the Darmbach. In fact, the received its current name much later, after the city. Darmstadt was chartered as a city by the Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig the Bavarian in 1330, the city, then called Darmstait, became a secondary residence for the counts, with a small castle established at the site of the current, much larger edifice. When the house of Katzenelnbogen became extinct in 1479, the city was passed to the Landgraviate of Hesse, the city grew in population during the 19th century from little over 10,000 to 72,000 inhabitants. A polytechnical school, which became a Technical University now known as TU Darmstadt, was established in 1877. In the beginning of the 20th century, Darmstadt was an important centre for the art movement of Jugendstil, annual architectural competitions led to the building of many architectural treasures of this period. Also during this period, in 1912 the chemist Anton Kollisch, working for the pharmaceutical company Merck, Darmstadts municipal area was extended in 1937 to include the neighbouring localities of Arheilgen and Eberstadt, and in 1938 the city was separated administratively from the surrounding district. Darmstadt was the first city in Germany to force Jewish shops to close in early 1933, the shops were only closed for one day, for endangering communal order and tranquility. In 1942, over 3,000 Jews from Darmstadt were first forced into a camp located in the Liebigschule. Darmstadt was first bombed on 30 July 1940, and 34 other air raids would follow before the wars end, the old city centre was largely destroyed in a British bombing raid on 11 September 1944
2.
Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt
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The Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt was a State of the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by a younger branch of the House of Hesse. It was formed in 1567 following the division of the Landgraviate of Hesse between the four sons of Landgrave Philip I, the residence of the landgraves was in Darmstadt, hence the name. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the landgraviate was elevated to the Grand Duchy of Hesse following the Empires dissolution in 1806. His eldest brother William IV received the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, while the second son Louis IV obtained Hesse-Marburg, the Hesse-Rheinfels line became extinct on Philips death in 1583. Because the University of Marburg had become Calvinist under the rule of Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel, the inheritance conflict was continued in the broader contest of the Thirty Years War, in which Hesse-Kassel sided with the Protestant estates and Hesse-Darmstadt sided with the Habsburg emperor. The Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Rotenburg estates seceded from the opponents in 1622 and 1627, the conflict was finally settled on the eve of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, more than eighty years after the division of the estates. Large parts of the disputed Upper Hesse territory including Marburg fell to the elder Kassel line, while Hesse-Darmstadt retained Giessen, in 1736, the Landgraves of Hesse-Darmstadt inherited the estates of the extinct Counts of Hanau-Lichtenberg, again contested by their Kassel cousins. Hesse-Darmstadt gained a deal of territory by the secularizations and mediatizations authorized by the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss of 1803. List of rulers of Hesse Piotr Napierała, Hesja-Darmstadt w XVIII stuleciu, wielcy władcy małego państwa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, Poznań2009. ISBN 978-83-232-2007-7 Map of Hesse in 1789 - Northern Part Map of Hesse in 1789 - Southern Part
3.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
4.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
5.
Kingdom of Bavaria
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The Kingdom of Bavaria was a German state that succeeded the former Electorate of Bavaria in 1805 and continued to exist until 1918. The Bavarian Elector Maximilian IV Joseph of the House of Wittelsbach became the first King of Bavaria in 1805 as Maximilian I Joseph, the crown would go on being held by the Wittelsbachs until the kingdom came to an end in 1918. Since the end of the kingdom and the empire in 1918, on 30 December 1777, the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession on the Electorate of Bavaria passed to Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Jülich, between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in a bad situation. Before the death of Charles Theodore the Austrians had again occupied the country, Maximilian IV Joseph, the new elector, succeeded to a difficult inheritance. By the Treaty of Lunéville Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrücken, the 1805 Peace of Pressburg allowed Maximilian to raise Bavaria to the status of a kingdom. Accordingly, Maximilian proclaimed himself king on 1 January 1806, the King still served as an Elector until Bavaria seceded from the Holy Roman Empire on 1 August 1806. The Duchy of Berg was ceded to Napoleon only in 1806, the new kingdom faced challenges from the outset of its creation, relying on the support of Napoleonic France. The kingdom faced war with Austria in 1808 and from 1810 to 1814, lost territory to Württemberg, Italy, in 1808, all relics of serfdom were abolished, which had left the old empire. In the same year, Maximilian promulgated Bavarias first written constitution, over the next five years, it was amended numerous times in accordance with Paris wishes. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812 about 30,000 Bavarian soldiers were killed in action, on 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by the Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede, finally in 1816, the Rhenish Palatinate was taken from France in exchange for most of Salzburg which was then ceded to Austria. It was the second largest and second most powerful state south of the Main, in Germany as a whole, it ranked third behind Prussia and Austria. On 1 February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed, and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform, on 26 May 1818, Bavarias second constitution was proclaimed. The Landtag would have two houses, a house comprising the aristocracy and noblemen, including the high-class hereditary landowners, government officials. The second house, a house, would include representatives of small landowners, the towns. The rights of Protestants were safeguarded in the constitution with articles supporting the equality of all religions, the initial constitution almost proved disastrous for the monarchy, with controversies such as the army having to swear allegiance to the new constitution. Within the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Palatinate enjoyed a legal and administrative position
6.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
7.
Grand Duchy of Hesse
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Hesse lost its independence when it joined the German Empire in 1871. Before 1866, its northern neighbour was its former sister Landgraviate, since 1803 an Electorate, of Hesse-Kassel – for this reason, Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of Napoleons Confederation of the Rhine during the Napoleonic Wars. Rapidly expanding during the mediatizations, Hesse-Darmstadt became an amalgamation of smaller German states, the legal patchwork of the state culminated in a decree issued on 1 October 1806 by Louis I. The old territorial estates were abolished, which altered Hesse-Darmstadt from a mosaic of patrimonial fragments into a centralized, during the Congress of Vienna it was forced to cede the Duchy of Westphalia, which Hesse-Darmstadt had received in 1803, to the Kingdom of Prussia. However, Hesse-Darmstadt received some territory on the bank of the Rhine. The Grand Duchy changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Hesse, in 1867, the northern half of the Grand Duchy became a part of the North German Confederation, while the half of the Grand Duchy south of the Main remained outside. In 1871, it became a constituent state of the German Empire, the last Grand Duke, Ernst Ludwig, was forced from his throne at the end of World War I, and the state was renamed the Peoples State of Hesse. After World War II, the majority of the state combined with Frankfurt am Main, the Waldeck area, excluded were the Montabaur district from Hessen-Nassau and that part of Hessen-Darmstadt on the left bank of the Rhine, which became part of the Rhineland-Palatinate state. Wimpfen—an exclave of Hessen-Darmstadt—became part of Baden-Württemberg, in the district of Sinsheim, after a plebiscite on 29 April 1951, Bad Wimpfen was transferred from Sinsheim district to Heilbronn District. This change to Heilbronn was carried out on 1 May 1952, the Grand Duchy of Hesse was divided into three provinces, Starkenburg, Right bank of the Rhine, south of the Main. Rhenish Hesse, Left bank of the Rhine, territory gained from the Congress of Vienna, upper Hesse, North of the Main, separated from Starkenburg by the Free City of Frankfurt. List of rulers of Hesse Line of succession to the former Hessian throne Hessenlager Constitution of Hesse Das Großherzogtum Hessen 1806–1918 Großherzogtum Hessen 1910
8.
Hesse
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Hesse or Hessia is a federal state of the Federal Republic of Germany, with just over six million inhabitants. The state capital is Wiesbaden, the largest city is Frankfurt am Main, the English name Hesse originates in the Hessian dialects. The variant Hessia comes from the medieval Latin Hassia, the German term Hessen is used by the European Commission because their policy is to leave regional names untranslated. The term Hesse ultimately derives from a Germanic tribe called the Chatti, an inhabitant of Hesse is called a Hessian. The synthetic element hassium, number 108 on the table, is named after the state of Hesse. As early as the Paleolithic period, the Central Hessian region was inhabited, due to the favorable climate of the location, people lived there about 50,000 years ago during the last glacial period, as burial sites show from this era. Finds of paleolitical tools in southern Hesse in Rüsselsheim suggest Pleistocene hunters about 13,000 years ago, the Züschen tomb is a prehistoric burial monument, located between Lohne and Züschen, near Fritzlar, Hesse, Germany. Classified as a grave or a Hessian-Westphalian stone cist, it is one of the most important megalithic monuments in Central Europe. Dating to the fourth millennium BC, it belongs to the Late Neolithic Wartberg culture. An early Celtic presence in what is now Hesse is indicated by a mid-fifth-century BC La Tène style burial uncovered at Glauberg, the region was later settled by the Germanic Chatti tribe around the first century BC, and the name Hesse is a continuation of that tribal name. The ancient Romans had a camp in Dorlar, and in Waldgirmes directly on the eastern outskirts of Wetzlar was a civil settlement under construction. Presumably, the government for the occupied territories of the right bank of Germania was planned at this location. The governor of Germania, at least temporarily, likely had resided here, the settlement appears to have been abandoned by the Romans after the devastating Battle of the Teutoburg Forest failed in the year 9 AD. The Chatti were also involved in the Revolt of the Batavi in 69 AD, Hessia occupies the northwestern part of the modern German state of Hesse, its borders were not clearly delineated. Its geographic center is Fritzlar, it extends in the southeast to Hersfeld on the Fulda river, in the north to past Kassel and up to the rivers Diemel, to the west, it occupies the valleys of the rivers Eder and Lahn. It measured roughly 90 kilometers north-south, and 80 north-west, the area around Fritzlar shows evidence of significant pagan belief from the first century on. Excavations have produced a horse burial and bronze artifacts, a possible religious cult may have centered on a natural spring in Geismar, called Heilgenbron, the name Geismar itself may be derived from that spring. By 650, the Franks were establishing themselves as overlords, which is suggested by evidence of burials
9.
University of Bonn
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The University of Bonn is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the successor of earlier academic institutions. The University of Bonn offers a number of undergraduate and graduate programs in a range of subjects. Its library holds more than five million volumes, the University of Bonn has 544 professors and 32,500 students. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016 and the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2015 ranked the University of Bonn as one of the 100 best universities in the world. The universitys forerunner was the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn which was founded in 1777 by Maximilian Frederick of Königsegg-Rothenfels, in the spirit of the Enlightenment the new academy was nonsectarian. The academy had schools for theology, law, pharmacy and general studies, in 1784 Emperor Joseph II granted the academy the right to award academic degrees, turning the academy into a university. The academy was closed in 1798 after the bank of the Rhine was occupied by France during the French Revolutionary Wars. The Rhineland became a part of Prussia in 1815 as a result of the Congress of Vienna, shortly after the seizure of the Rhineland, on 5 April 1815, King Frederick William III of Prussia promised the establishment of a new university in the new Rhine province. At this time there was no university in the Rhineland, as all three universities that existed until the end of the 18th century were closed as a result of the French occupation, the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn was one of these three universities. The other two were the Roman Catholic University of Cologne and the Protestant University of Duisburg, the new Rhein University was then founded on 18 October 1818 by Frederick William III. It was the sixth Prussian University, founded after the universities in Greifswald, Berlin, Königsberg, Halle, the new university was equally shared between the two Christian denominations. This was one of the reasons why Bonn, with its tradition of a university, was chosen over Cologne. Apart from a school of Roman Catholic theology and a school of Protestant theology, inititally 35 professors and eight adjunct professors were teaching in Bonn. The university constitution was adopted in 1827, in the spirit of Wilhelm von Humboldt the constitution emphasized the autonomy of the university and the unity of teaching and research. Similar to the University of Berlin, which was founded in 1810, only one year after the inception of the Rhein University the dramatist August von Kotzebue was murdered by Karl Ludwig Sand, a student at the University of Jena. The Carlsbad Decrees, introduced on 20 September 1819 led to a crackdown on universities, the dissolution of the Burschenschaften. One victim was the author and poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, who, only after the death of Frederick William III in 1840 was he reinstated in his professorship
10.
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
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Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg is a public research university in the cities of Erlangen and Nuremberg in Bavaria, Germany. In Germany, traditional liberal arts universities do not usually have a school or department. However, FAU does have an engineering faculty. FAU is the second largest state university in the state Bavaria and it has 5 faculties,23 departments/schools,30 clinical departments,19 autonomous departments,656 professors,3,404 members of academic staff and roughly 13,000 employees. In winter semester 2014/15 around 39,085 students enrolled in the university in 239 fields of study, with about 2/3 studying at the Erlangen campus and these statistics put FAU in the list of top 10 largest universities in Germany. In 2013,5251 students graduated from the university and 663 doctorates and 50 post-doctoral theses were registered, moreover, FAU received 171 million Euro external funding in the same year, making it one of the strongest third-party funded universities in Germany. In 2006 and 2007, as part of the national excellence initiative, FAU is also a member of DFG and the Top Industrial Managers for Europe network. The university was founded in 1742, in Bayreuth by Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Christian Frederick Charles Alexander, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach provided significant support to the early university. From the beginning, the university was a Protestant institution, during the Nazi era, the university was one of the first that had a majority of Nazi supporters in the student council. In 1961, the college in Nuremberg was merged with the university in Erlangen. An engineering school was inaugurated in 1966, in 1972, the school of education in Nuremberg became part of the university. Below is a timeline of FAU from its inception to its present form, 1700–1704. 1743, Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, issues an edict whereby the university founded in Bayreuth is transferred to Erlangen. It has the four faculties of Protestant Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine,1769, The University at Erlangen is given the new name of Friedrich-Alexander-Universität in honour of Alexander, Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth. 1818, The library of the University of Altdorf, dissolved in 1809, is moved to Erlangen,1824, The first hospital is built. 1825, The University moves into the Schloss,1927, Science is taken out of the Faculty of Arts thus creating the new Faculty of Science. 1961, The FAU acquires a further faculty through merger with the Nuremberg College of Economics, the Universitys name is now Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg. 1966, Faculty of Engineering is established,1972, The Teacher Training College in Nuremberg is incorporated into the Faculty of Education
11.
Liebig's law of the minimum
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Liebigs law of the minimum, often simply called Liebigs law or the law of the minimum, is a principle developed in agricultural science by Carl Sprengel and later popularized by Justus von Liebig. It states that growth is controlled not by the amount of resources available. The law has also applied in biological populations and ecosystem models for factors such as sunlight or mineral nutrients. This concept was applied to plant or crop growth, where it was found that increasing the amount of plentiful nutrients did not increase plant growth. Only by increasing the amount of the limiting nutrient was the growth of a plant or crop improved. This principle can be summed up in the aphorism, The availability of the most abundant nutrient in the soil is only as good as the availability of the least abundant nutrient in the soil. Or, to put it plainly, A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Liebigs Law has been extended to biological populations, for example, the growth of an organism such as a plant may be dependent on a number of different factors, such as sunlight or mineral nutrients. The availability of these may vary, such that at any time one is more limiting than the others. Liebigs Law states that only occurs at the rate permitted by the most limiting. For instance, in the equation below, the growth of population O is a function of the minimum of three Michaelis-Menten terms representing limitation by factors I, N and P. D O d t = O The use of the equation is limited to a situation there are steady state conditions. Neoclassical economic theory has sought to refute the issue of resource scarcity by application of the law of substitutability, technological innovation implies that humans are able to use technology to fill the gaps in situations where resources are imperfectly substitutable. A market-based theory depends on proper pricing, where resources such as clean air and water are not accounted for, there will be a market failure. These failures may be addressed with Pigovian taxes and subsidies, such as a carbon tax, while the theory of the law of substitutability is a useful rule of thumb, some resources may be so fundamental that there exist no substitutes. For example, Isaac Asimov noted, We may be able to substitute nuclear power for coal power, but for phosphorus there is neither substitute nor replacement. Where no substitutes exist, such as phosphorus, recycling will be necessary, dobenecks used the image of a barrel—often called Liebigs barrel—to explain Liebigs law. Just as the capacity of a barrel with staves of unequal length is limited by the shortest stave, if a system satisfies the law of the minimum then adaptation will equalize the load of different factors because the adaptation resource will be allocated for compensation of limitation
12.
Condenser (laboratory)
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A condenser is an apparatus or item of equipment used to condense. While condensers can be applied at various scales, in the research, training, or discovery laboratory, in simplest form, such a condenser consists of a single glass tube with outside air providing cooling. Depending on the application and the scale of the process, different types of condensers, since at least the 19th century, scientists have sought creative designs to maximize the surface area of vapor-liquid contact and heat exchange. Many types of laboratory condensers—simpler Liebig and Allihn, coiled Graham types, simple and Dimroth types of cold finger condensers, likewise, the configurations of laboratory apparatus involving condensers are many and varied, to cover low and high boiling solvents, simple and complex separations, etc. The direction of vapor and condensate flows in the laboratory condenser chosen for each of these may vary, as do the optimal flow direction for the cooling fluid, etc. Condensers can be applied at various scales, from micro-scale to process-scale, using laboratory glassware, in simplest form, a condenser can consist of a single tube of glass or metal, where the flow of outside air produces the cooling. In a further form, condensers consist of concentric glass tubes. Attachment of such during tubes and bubblers can be direct, or indirect via gas/vacuum lines, condensers are often used in reflux, where the hot solvent vapors of a liquid being heated are cooled and allowed to drip back. This reduces the loss of solvent allowing the mixture to be heated for extended periods, condensers are used in distillation to cool the hot vapors, condensing them into liquid for separate collection. For fractional distillation, an air or Vigreux condenser is used to slow the rate at which the hot vapors rise. Historically, the retort appearing in illustrations of the practice of alchemists is an apparatus that is essentially an unpacked air condenser, Liebig condensers are often used as air condensers, with air circulated rather than a liquid coolant. A Snyder column is an extremely effective air-cooled column used in selected fractional distillations and these floating glass stoppers act as check valves, closing and opening with vapor flow, and enhancing vapor-condensate mixing. F. A. A variant of the Liebig condenser having a slender design, with cone. The fused-on narrower coolant jacket may render more efficient cooling with respect to coolant consumption, the Allihn condenser or bulb condenser or simply reflux condenser is named after Felix Richard Allihn. The Allihn condenser consists of a glass tube with a water jacket. A series of bulbs on the tube increases the area upon which the vapor constituents may condense. A Davies condenser, also known as a surface condenser, is similar to the Liebig condenser. The coolant circulates in both the jacket and the central tube
13.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
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University of Giessen
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The University of Giessen, officially called Justus Liebig University Giessen, is a large public research university in Giessen, Hesse, Germany. It is named after its most famous faculty member, Justus von Liebig and it covers the areas of arts/humanities, business, dentistry, economics, law, medicine, science, social sciences, and veterinary medicine. Its university hospital, which has two sites, Gießen and Marburg, is the private university hospital in Germany. The University of Giessen is among the oldest institutions of higher educations in the German-speaking world and it was founded in 1607 as a Lutheran university in the city of Giessen in Hesse-Darmstadt because the all-Hessian Landesuniversität had become Reformed. Endowed with an issued by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, on 19 May 1607. The Peace of Westphalia led to the restoration of the old location, in the 17th and 18th centuries the Ludoviciana was a typical small state university that then had the four common faculties. The instruction was reasonable, with about 20 to 25 professors teaching several hundred students, in the 18th century came gradual modernization of the curricula and reforms in the instruction, which were definitively influenced by the local lordly court in Darmstadt. The example for the reforms were both of the universities of the Enlightenment, the University of Halle, founded in 1694. Indeed, all attempts at reform were from the start limited by the finances of Hesse-Darmstadt. The noteworthy creation of a Faculty of Economics was ultimately was out of this financial hardship. In the Faculty of Economics, new subjects were brought together. After finishing studies in this Faculty, a number of youths were able to gain recognition in the Faculties of Medicine. They established the unusually diverse course offerings that continue to exist to the day at the University of Giessen. The University of Giessen weathered the transition from the 18th to the 19th century unscathed and was still the only university of an enlarged territory, the Grand Duchy of Hesse. Alongside Jena, Giessen was the prototype for the politicized Vormärz university, at the turn of the 20th century, the Ludoviciana began to expand into a modern university. During this period, new clinics in human and veterinary medicine were established, the decisive backer of this project was the last Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig, to whom the university bestowed out of thankfulness the honorary title of Rector Magnificentissimus. In 1902 the student body surpassed one thousand, for the first time included in the student body were women, who since 1900 were admitted as guest students and starting in 1908 were admitted for regular study. After the different Hessian states were united in 1929, both universities became public universities of that German state, philosophikum II, for example is an area on the outskirts of the city bordering the city forest
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Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
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Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich is a public research university located in Munich, Germany. The University of Munich is among Germanys oldest universities, in 1802, the university was officially named Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität by King Maximilian I of Bavaria in his as well as the universitys original founders honour. Among these were Wilhelm Röntgen, Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, Otto Hahn, pope Benedict XVI was also a student and professor at the university. The LMU has recently been conferred the title of university under the German Universities Excellence Initiative. LMU is currently the second-largest university in Germany in terms of student population, in the semester of 2015/2016. Of these,8,671 were freshmen while international students totalled 7,812 or almost 15% of the student population, the university was founded with papal approval in 1472 as the University of Ingolstadt, with faculties of philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence and theology. Its first rector was Christopher Mendel of Steinfels, who became bishop of Chiemsee. In the period of German humanism, the universitys academics included names such as Conrad Celtes, the theologian Johann Eck also taught at the university. From 1549 to 1773, the university was influenced by the Jesuits, the Jesuit Petrus Canisius served as rector of the university. At the end of the 18th century, the university was influenced by the Enlightenment, in 1800, the Prince-Elector Maximilianv IV Joseph moved the university to Landshut, due to French aggression that threatened Ingolstadt during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1802, the university was renamed the Ludwig Maximilian University in honour of its two founders, Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria and Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. The Minister of Education, Maximilian von Montgelas, initiated a number of reforms sought to modernize the rather conservative. In 1826, it was moved to Munich, the capital of the Kingdom of Bavaria, the university was situated in the Old Academy until a new building in the Ludwigstraße was completed. The locals were critical of the number of Protestant professors Maximilian. They were dubbed the Nordlichter and especially physician Johann Nepomuk von Ringseis was quite angry about them, in the second half of the 19th century, the university rose to great prominence in the European scientific community, attracting many of the worlds leading scientists. It was also a period of great expansion, from 1903, women were allowed to study at Bavarian universities, and by 1918, the female proportion of students at LMU had reached 18%. In 1918, Adele Hartmann became the first woman in Germany to earn the Habilitation, during the Third Reich, academic freedom was severely curtailed. In 1943 the White Rose group of anti-Nazi students conducted their campaign of opposition to the National Socialists at this university, the university has continued to be one of the leading universities of West Germany during the Cold War and in the post-reunification era
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Carl Schmidt (chemist)
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Carl Ernst Heinrich Schmidt, also known in Russia as Karl Genrikhovich Schmidt was a Baltic German chemist from the Governorate of Livonia, a part of the Russian Empire. He determined the typical patterns of many important biochemicals such as uric acid, oxalic acid and its salts, lactic acid, cholesterin, stearin. Schmidt analyzed muscle fiber and chitin and he showed that animal and plant cell constituents are chemically similar and studied reactions of calcium albuminates. He studied alcoholic fermentation and the chemistry of metabolism and digestion and he discovered hydrochloric acid in gastric juice and its chemical interaction with pepsin. He studied bile and pancreatic juices, some of this work was done with Friedrich Bidder. He studied chemical changes in blood associated with cholera, dysentery, diabetes, Schmidt received his PhD in 1844 from the University of Gießen under Justus von Liebig. In 1845, he first announced the presence in the test of some Ascidians of what he called tunicine, tunicine now is regarded as cellulose and correspondingly a remarkable substance to find in an animal. In 1850, Schmidt had been named Professor of Pharmacy at Dorpat and he was a corresponding member of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He was the president of the Estonian Naturalists Society in 1894, Schmidt is notable as the PhD advisor of the Nobel Prize winner Wilhelm Ostwald. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry, Macmillan,1964, dictionary of Scientific Biography, Charles Scribners Sons, 1970–1990, vol. Carl Schmidt – a chemical tourist in Victorian Britain, physiological-Chemical Research of Bidder and Schmidt Official site of Russian Academy of Sciences
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Henri Victor Regnault
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Henri Victor Regnault was a French chemist and physicist best known for his careful measurements of the thermal properties of gases. He was an early thermodynamicist and was mentor to William Thomson in the late 1840s, born in Aachen in 1810, he moved to Paris at the age of eight, following the death of his parents. There, he worked for an upholstery firm until he was eighteen, in 1830, he was admitted to the École Polytechnique, and in 1832 he graduated from the École des mines. In 1840, he was appointed the chair of chemistry of the École Polytechnique, beginning in 1843, he began compiling extensive numerical tables on the properties of steam. These were published in 1847, and led to his receiving the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London, in 1851 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1854 he was appointed director of the works at Sèvres. At Sèvres, he continued work on the properties of matter. He designed sensitive thermometers, hygrometers, hypsometers and calorimeters, and measured the specific heats of many substances and the coefficient of thermal expansion of gases. In the course of work, he discovered that not all gases expand equally when heated. Regnault was also an amateur photographer. He introduced the use of acid as a developing agent. In 1854, he became the president of the Société française de photographie. In 1871, his laboratory at Sèvres was destroyed and his son Alex-Georges-Henri Regnault killed and he retired from science the next year, never recovering from these losses. The crater Regnault on the Moon is named after Regnault, some have suggested that the symbol R for the ideal gas constant is also named after him. He was the first president of Société française de photographie, vieweg, Braunschweig 1851 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf 2
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Carl von Voit
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Carl von Voit was a German physiologist and dietitian. From 1848 to 1854 he studied at the universities of Munich, at Munich, his teachers were Justus von Liebig and Max Joseph Pettenkofer, and at Würzburg, he was a pupil of Albert von Kölliker. In 1855 he furthered his education at the University of Göttingen under chemist Friedrich Wohler, in 1857 he obtained his habilitation, and from 1863 was a full professor of physiology as well as curator of the physiological collection at the University of Munich. Carl von Voit is considered by many to be the father of modern dietetics, as a chemist and physiologist, he found that the amount of nitrogen in excreted urea is a measure for the protein turnover. Using a respiration chamber, he could characterize the significance of individual nutrients and he was also a successful teacher, attracting international students to the University of Munich and thus significantly influencing the US nutritionist, among others. One of his better known German pupils was Max Rubner, Carl von Voit died in Munich. The German Nutrition Society awards the Carl-von-Voit-medal since 1961, works by or about Carl von Voit at Internet Archive
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Hermann von Fehling
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Hermann von Fehling was a German chemist, famous as the developer of Fehlings solution used for estimation of sugar. Hermann von Fehling was born in Lübeck, with the intention of taking up pharmacy he entered Heidelberg University about 1835. After graduating he went to Gießen as preparateur to Justus von Liebig, in 1839, on Liebigs recommendation, he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in the polytechnic in Stuttgart, a position he held for over 45 years. He died in Stuttgart in 1885 and his earlier work included an investigation of succinic acid, and the preparation of phenyl cyanide, the simplest nitrile of the aromatic series. Later his time was occupied with questions of technology and public health rather than with pure chemistry. Among the analytical methods he worked up the best known is that for the estimation of sugars, known as Fehlings solution it is a solution of copper sulfate mixed with alkali and potassium sodium tartrate. He was a contributor to the Handwörterbuch of Liebig, Friedrich Wöhler and Johann Christian Poggendorff, for many years was a member of the committee of revision of the Pharmacopoeia Germanica. Quantitative Bestimmung des Zuckers im Harn H. Fehling, die quantitative Bestimmung von Zucker und Stärkmehl mittelst Kupfervitriol. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fehling
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Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp
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Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp, German chemist, was born at Hanau, where his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp, a physician, was professor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the local lyceum. In 1864 he was called to Heidelberg in the same capacity, another question to which he gave much attention was the connection of the boiling point of compounds, organic ones in particular, with their composition. In addition to these and other laborious researches, Kopp was a prolific writer, in 1843–1847 he published a comprehensive History of Chemistry, in four volumes, to which three supplements were added in 1869–1875. The Development of Chemistry in Recent Times appeared in 1871–1874, in addition, Kopp wrote on theoretical and physical chemistry for the Graham-Otto Lehrbuch der Chemie, and for many years assisted Liebig in editing the Annalen der Chemie and the Jahresbericht. E. Stahl, die Entdeckung der Zusammensetzung des Wassers, vieweg, Braunschweig 1875 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Die Alchemie in älterer und neuerer Zeit, ein Beitrag zur Culturgeschichte. Alan J. Rocke, Image and Reality, Kekulé, Kopp, Hermann Kopp, translated by A. J. Rocke, From the Molecular World, A Nineteenth-Century Science Fantasy, Springer,2012. The Life Work of Hermann Kopp, memorial lectures delivered before the Chemical Society. Vater Kopp, Bio-, Biblio- und Psychographisches von und uber Hermann Kopp, Hermann Kopp, First historian of chemistry
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August Wilhelm von Hofmann
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August Wilhelm von Hofmann was a German chemist. After studying under Justus von Liebig at the University of Giessen, Hofmann became the first director of the Royal College of Chemistry in London, in 1865 he returned to Germany to accept a position at the University of Berlin as a teacher and researcher. After his return he co-founded the German Chemical Society and he made considerable contributions to organic chemistry. His research on aniline helped lay the basis of the aniline-dye industry and his earliest research on coal tar laid the groundwork for his student Charles Mansfields practical methods for extracting benzene and toluene and converting them into nitro compounds and amines. Hofmann prepared three ethylamines and tetraethylammonium compounds and established their structural relationship to ammonia and his discoveries include formaldehyde, hydrazobenzene, the isonitriles, and allyl alcohol. Hofmann received several significant awards in the field of chemistry, including the Royal Medal, the Copley Medal and he was ennobled on his seventieth birthday. August Wilhelm Hofmann was born at Giessen, Grand Duchy of Hesse and he was the son of Johann Philipp Hofmann, privy councillor and provincial architect to the court at Darmstadt. As a young man, he travelled widely with his father, August Wilhelm matriculated at the University of Giessen in 1836. He originally took up the study of law and philology at Giessen and he may have become interested in chemistry when his father enlarged Liebig’s Giessen laboratories in 1839. August Wilhelm changed his studies to chemistry, and studied under Justus von Liebig and he obtained his Ph. D. there in 1841. In 1843, after his fathers death, he one of Liebigs assistants. His association with Liebig eventually became personal as well as professional, both his first wife, Helene Moldenhauer, and his third wife, Elise Moldenhauer, were nieces of Liebigs wife, Henriette Moldenhauer. Hofman reportedly courted Elise after Liebigs daughter Johanna refused him, in between, he married Rosamond Wilson, and later Bertha Tiemann He had eleven children. As president of the Royal Society in London, Albert, Prince Consort to Queen Victoria, was determined to foster scientific advancement in Britain, in 1845, he proposed to start a school of practical chemistry in London, under the style of the Royal College of Chemistry. Liebig was approached for advice, and recommended Hofmann to the directorship of the new institution, Hofmann and the Prince met when Prince Albert, on a visit to his alma mater at Bonn, found his old rooms now occupied by Hofmann and his chemical apparatus. In 1845 Hofmann was approached by Sir James Clark, physician to Queen Victoria with the offer of the directorship, with the support of Prince Albert, and funding from a variety of private sources, the institution opened in 1845 with Hofmann as its first director. The financial position of the new institution was somewhat precarious, the college opened in 1845 with 26 students at 16 Hanover Square, moving to cheaper premises at 299 Oxford Street in 1848. Hofmann himself relinquished his personal accommodation in Hanover Square and gave up part of his salary
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Lyon Playfair, 1st Baron Playfair
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Lyon Playfair, 1st Baron Playfair GCB PC FRS was a Scottish scientist and Liberal politician. Playfair was born at Chunar, Bengal, the son of George Playfair, Inspector General of Hospitals in that region, the family was fairly middle class with strong academic roots in University of St Andrews. All of Playfairs siblings were sent back to Scotland to avoid the hazards of an Indian upbringing, Playfair was named after his uncle, Sir Hugh Lyon Playfair, and was educated at the University of St Andrews, the Andersonian Institute in Glasgow, and the University of Edinburgh. Two years later, he was made chemist to the Geological Survey, in 1848, he was elected to the Royal Society, and three years later was made Special Commissioner and a member of the executive committee of the Great Exhibition. In 1859 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and he was subsequently President of the British Association in 1885. In February 1886 he returned to the government as Vice-President of the Committee on Education under Gladstone and he was made a member of the Council of the Duchy of Cornwall in 1889. Having represented Leeds South since 1885, Playfair left the House of Commons in 1892 and was ennobled as Baron Playfair and he served as a Lord in Waiting under Gladstone and then Lord Rosebery between 1892 and 1895. He was further honoured when he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1895, Playfair is also remembered for promoting a new cipher system invented by Charles Wheatstone, now known as the Playfair cipher. Lord Playfair died at his home in South Kensington, London, in May 1898, aged 80 and he was succeeded in the barony by his son from his first marriage, George James Playfair who is buried with him. Lord Playfair married Margaret Eliza, daughter of James Oakes, in 1846, after her death in August 1855 he married Jean Ann, daughter of Crawley Millington, in 1857. There were children from both marriages, Jean Ann died in 1877 and is buried in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh facing the section known as Lords Row. After her death, he married Edith Russell of Boston, whose 1884 portrait is in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts
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Emil Erlenmeyer
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For his son sometimes known as Emil Jr. Erlenmeyer was born in Wehen, Duchy of Nassau, in 1825, the son of a Protestant minister. He enrolled in the University of Giessen to study medicine, in the summer of 1846 he went to Heidelberg for one year, and studied physics, botany and mineralogy, returning to Giessen in 1847. After serving as assistant to H, will and then to Carl Remigius Fresenius, Erlenmeyer decided to devote himself to pharmaceutical chemistry. For this purposes he studied in Nassau, where he passed the state pharmaceutical examination and he became dissatisfied with pharmacy and returned to chemistry, finishing his doctorate at Giessen in 1850. In 1855 he moved to Heidelberg to work on fertilizers in the laboratory of Robert Bunsen and he wished to teach, but Bunsens associates were not allowed to take private students. Therefore, with his wifes help, he converted a shed into a private laboratory and it was while at Heidelberg that Erlenmeyer was brought under the influence of August Kekulé, whose theoretical views he was one of the first to adopt. He was the first to suggest, in 1862, that double and triple bonds could form between atoms, and he made other important contributions to the development of theories of molecular structure. In 1863 he became professor at the University of Heidelberg. In 1868 he was hired as professor in Munich to take charge of the laboratories of the new Munich Polytechnic School. Erlenmeyer’s practical investigations were concerned mostly with aliphatic compounds, in 1859 he synthesised aminohexoic acid and proceeded to study the general behavior of albuminoids on hydrolysis. In the following year he studied the action of acid on glycerol. His investigations of the higher alcohols produced during fermentation yielded the important proof that these alcohols do not belong to the normal series and his investigations in the aromatic series include isomerism of the cinnamic acids and the synthesis of tyrosine from phenylalanine. In 1875, by nitrating benzoic acid, Erlenmeyer disproved the prevalent opinion that more than three nitrobenzoic acids exist, in 1860 he published a description of the conical flask that bears his name. This article incorporates text from Obituary notices, by Otto N. Witt, journal of the Chemical Society, Transactions
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Moritz Traube
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Moritz Traube was a German chemist and universal private scholar. Traube worked on chemical, biochemical, medical, physiological, pathophysiological problems, he was engaged in hygienics, physically chemistry and chemical basic research. The chemistry of oxygen and its significance to the organism were the objects of his research. Moritz Traube was a brother of the famous Berlin physician Ludwig Traube. A son, Wilhelm Traube, evolved a process of purine synthesis, Hermann Traube, another son, was a mineralogist. Traubes father was a Jewish wine merchant, the grandson of a rabbi from Krakow, Traube graduated from the Gymnasium in the provincial town of Ratibor when he was only 16 years old. His older brother Ludwig advised him to scientific studies at the University of Berlin. He moved to Giessen to participate in Liebigs practical-analytical course in 1844/45 and he attended lectures in botany and logic. In 1845 he returned to Berlin, in 1847 he received his doctorate with a thesis entitled De nonnullis chromii connubiis. The later well-known botanist Nathanael Pringsheim supported him, for a few weeks he attended lectures in clinical disciplines such as surgery and auscultation and percussion. The extraordinarily wide spectrum of his qualifications was a basis of his universal research, when another brother, who was to have taken over their fathers wine business, suddenly died of diabetes, Traubes father ordered him home to Ratibor to help manage the business. After agonizing for several weeks, Traube complied, but he could not abandon science. In a poorly-heated attic of his house, lacking time and money, isolated from scientific communication and he completed numerous well-planned, accurately executed experiments, the correctness of which his contemporaries were forced to acknowledge. Traube was also successful as a wine merchant, together with his brother Ludwig he donated 500 Taler to the Ratibor Gymnasium for students prizes. He married Bertha Moll of Lissa in 1855, the marriage produced 3 daughters and 2 sons. To facilitate his research Traube moved to Breslau and he worked for a time in the laboratory of his friend Theodor Poleck and in the Physiological Institute of Rudolf Heidenhain. Later he erected his own, well equipped laboratory and employed assistants, every year he travelled to Hungary to survey and purchase wine himself. One of his customers was Otto von Bismarck, in 1886 Traube resigned from business
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Adolph Strecker
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Adolph Strecker was a German chemist who is remembered primarily for his work with amino acids. Strecker was born in Darmstadt, the son of Ludwig Strecker, Adolph Strecker attended school in Darmstadt until 1838 when he changed to the higher Gewerbeschule. After receiving his abitur in 1840, Strecker began studying science at the University of Gießen, in August 1842, Strecker received his PhD and began teaching at a realschule in Darmstadt. He refused one offer to work for Liebig, but in 1846 he accepted another, Strecker finished his habilitation in 1848 and became a lecturer at the university. Strecker investigated a variety of problems in both organic and inorganic chemistry during his time at Gießen. Examples include the masses of silver and carbon, the reactions of lactic acid, the decomposition of hippuric acid by nitric acid. While in Norway, Strecker focused on chemistry, covering a broad range of topics from organometallic chemistry to natural products. Also while in Norway, Strecker returned to Germany for several holidays, during one such visit to Darmstadt, he married on July 3,1852. His wife died on October 13,1853, he married a second time on September 29,1855, Strecker left Norway on Gmelins death in 1860 to accept the latters position at the University of Tübingen. There he conducted research on guanine, xanthine, caffeine, and theobromine, and on the very toxic thallium oxides and he moved to the University of Würzburg in 1870, but his first semester was interrupted by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. Strecker became an officer during the war and returned to the university after it, in the summer of 1871 he undertook a recreational holiday in Berchtesgaden, Bavaria, but his health began to deteriorate. Strecker died in Würzburg, where he is buried in the Hauptfriedhof, vieweg, Braunschweig 1851 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf 2. 1877 The Strecker synthesis of amino acids involves the reaction of cyanide, ammonium chloride. The reaction can also be run with ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, because of the relative simplicity of the reactants, the Strecker synthesis has been invoked by those studying both the origin of life and meteoritic amino acids. Also named for Strecker are the Strecker degradation, which involves the conversion of acids into imines and then into ketones. Lepsius, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, volume 36, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot – entry for Strecker Adolph Strecker – brief biography and two pictures at Tübingen University
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Augustus Voelcker
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Full name John Christopher Augustus Voelcker, was a Royal Agricultural Society of England chemist. Voelcker was known for his methodical and precise analytical practices as applied to agricultural chemistry and he also attended University of Giessen, where the German chemist Justus von Liebig lectured on agricultural chemistry. He went to Utrecht in 1846 to work as assistant to professor Gerardus Johannes Mulder where Voelcker studied the chemistry of animal, in 1847 he went to Edinburgh as assistant to James Finlay Weir Johnston, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotlands chemist at the time. Whilst in Edinburgh, he lectured at Durham University and also friends with the chemist George Wilson. From 1849, as the first professor of chemistry at the Royal Agricultural College, Voelcker was recruited as consultant chemist to the Royal Bath and West of England Society by Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 11th Baronet in about 1849. He was appointed consultant chemist to the Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution in 1855, Voelcker contributed to the societys journal and lectured throughout the area. He was elected chairman of the London Farmers Club in 1875, voelckers fourth son was Arthur Francis Voelcker, M. D. F. R. C. P. Several papers in German and Dutch scientific journals Works taken from Voelcker, analysis of the Anthracite of the Calton Hill, Edinburgh. Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh,4 March 1850 Voelcker, on the Watery Secretion of the Leaves and Stems of the Ice-plant. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh,10 January 1850 Voelcker. The Effects of Burnt Clay as a Manure, journal of Agriculture, and transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. On the comparative value of white Scottish and black English oats, journal of Agriculture, and Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. On the composition of green rye and rape, Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. On the composition of the parsnip and white Belgian carrot, journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. On the comparative value of different artificial manures for raising a crop of swedes, journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. On the agricultural and commercial value of some artificial manures, the Bath and West of England agricultural journal. The Bath and West of England agricultural journal, four lectures, On the composition of farmyard manure, and the changes which it undergoes on keeping under different circumstances. Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, four lectures, Farmyard manure, Artificial manures, Barren and fertile soils, Oil-cakes
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Julius Eugen Schlossberger
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Julius Eugen Schlossberger, also spelled Julius Eugen Schloßberger, was a German physician and biochemist. He was a student of Justus von Liebig and was one of the leading physiological chemists in his lifetime, in Giessen, he came under the influence and patronage of Liebig, who introduced him to the field of physiological chemistry. From 1845, he worked at the laboratory of William Gregory at the University of Edinburgh. He also published a textbook on chemistry in 1850, titled Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie. He was the grandfather of the immunologist Hans Schlossberger
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Karl Vogt
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Karl Christoph Vogt was a German scientist, philosopher and politician who emigrated to Switzerland. Vogt published a number of works on zoology, geology and physiology. All his life he was engaged in politics, in the German Frankfurt Parliament of 1848–9, Karl was the son of Dr. Philipp Friedrich Wilhelm Vogt, professor of clinics, and Louise Follenius. His maternal uncle was Charles Follen, Karl studied medicine at the University of Giessen. He earned his doctorate from the University of Bern in 1839 with a dissertation under the title Beiträge zur Anatomie der Amphibien. In 1847 he became professor of zoology at the University of Giessen and his earlier publications were on zoology. He dealt with the Amphibia, Reptiles, with Mollusca and Crustacea, in 1842, during his time with Louis Agassiz in Neuchâtel, he discovered the mechanism of apoptosis, the programmed cell death, while studying the development of the tadpole of the midwife toad. Charles Darwin mentions Vogts support for the theory of evolution in the introduction to his The Descent of Man, Vogt was also a proponent of materialism and atheism. Vogt was active in German politics and was a representative in the Frankfurt Parliament. Karl Marx scathingly replied to attacks by Karl Vogt in his book Herr Vogt, Karl Vogt was a proponent of polygenist evolution, he rejected the monogenist beliefs of most Darwinists and instead believed that each race had evolved from a different type of ape. Vogt believed that the Negro was related to the ape and he wrote the White race was a separate species from Negroes. In Chapter VII of his Lectures on Man he compared the Negro to the White race, the differences between them, he claimed, are greater than those between two species of ape, and this proved that Negroes are a separate species from Whites. The city of Geneva, Switzerland named a boulevard after Vogt, ludwig Büchner Jacob Moleschott Fredrick Gregory, Scientific Materialism in Nineteenth Century Germany, Springer, Berlin u. a. 1977, ISBN 90-277-0760-X Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Vogt, short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
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Max Joseph von Pettenkofer
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Max Joseph Pettenkofer, ennobled in 1883 as Max Joseph von Pettenkofer was a Bavarian chemist and hygienist. He is known for his work in practical hygiene, as an apostle of good water, fresh air and proper sewage disposal. He was further known as an anticontagionist, a school of thought, named later on, that did not believe in the, at the novel concept. He was most well known for his establishment of hygiene as an experimental science and his work served as an example which other institutes around the world emulated. Pettenkofer was born in Lichtenheim, near Neuburg an der Donau and he was a nephew of Franz Xaver, who from 1823 was a surgeon and apothecary to the Bavarian court and was the author of some chemical investigations on the vegetable alkaloids. After a falling out with a relative he was staying with he briefly entered the theater and he returned to his family to marry Helene Pettenkofer. A stipulation of his marriage was that he pursue another career and was advised to pursue medicine and he attended the Wilhelmsgymnasium, in Munich, then studied pharmacy and medicine at the Ludwig Maximilian University, where he graduated M. D. in 1845. After working under Liebig at Gießen, Pettenkofer was appointed chemist to the Munich mint in 1845, two years later he was chosen as an extraordinary professor of chemistry at the medical faculty. In 1853 he was made a professor and in 1865 he also became a professor of hygiene. In his earlier years he devoted himself to chemistry, both theoretical and applied, publishing papers on a range of topics. One of his first projects and subsequent publications was in the separation of gold, silver and this work derived from his position at the Munich mint and was centered around minimizing the costs of currency conversion by separating the precious metals from one another. The purer elements could then be utilized in other applications, later in his career he continued published and spoke about the numerical relations between the atomic masses of analogous elements. His theories were early in the development of the Periodic Table and he rejected the current theory of triads and expanded the connections between the elements to larger groupings. He argued that the weights of different elements in a group were separated by multiples of a number that varied based upon the group. His work in area was later cited by Dmitri Mendeleev in his construction of the Periodic Table of Elements. The color-forming reaction known by his name for the detection of bile acids was published in 1844 and he further provided the experimental proof that the mysterious haematinum of ancient times was in fact a copper-colored glass. Pettenkofers name is most familiar in connection with his work in practical hygiene, as an apostle of good water, fresh air and his attention was drawn to this subject by the unhealthy condition in Munich in the 19th century. Specifically he examined the field of hygiene and determined there was a minimal amount of rigorous research
30.
Chemist
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A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties, chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties, the word chemist is also used to address Pharmacists in Commonwealth English. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry, materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning, fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses, after gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy, the word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista. Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry, Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists usually require at least a degree, but many positions, especially those in research. At the Masters level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field, postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, there are also degrees specific to become a Chemical Technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional Chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and they are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of quality control. The higher the level achieved in the field of Chemistry, the higher the responsibility given to that chemist. Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks/objectives can be given to workers/scientists with these different levels of education and/or experience
31.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
32.
Organic chemistry
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Study of structure includes many physical and chemical methods to determine the chemical composition and the chemical constitution of organic compounds and materials. In the modern era, the range extends further into the table, with main group elements, including, Group 1 and 2 organometallic compounds. They either form the basis of, or are important constituents of, many products including pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and products made from them, plastics, fuels and explosives. Before the nineteenth century, chemists generally believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were endowed with a force that distinguished them from inorganic compounds. According to the concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with a vital force, during the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and he separated the different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats, producing new compounds. In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler produced the chemical urea, a constituent of urine, from inorganic starting materials. The event is now accepted as indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism. In 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine accidentally produced the organic dye now known as Perkins mauve and his discovery, made widely known through its financial success, greatly increased interest in organic chemistry. A crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, ehrlich popularized the concepts of magic bullet drugs and of systematically improving drug therapies. His laboratory made decisive contributions to developing antiserum for diphtheria and standardizing therapeutic serums, early examples of organic reactions and applications were often found because of a combination of luck and preparation for unexpected observations. The latter half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic compounds, the development of synthetic indigo is illustrative. The production of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by 1914 thanks to the methods developed by Adolf von Baeyer. In 2002,17,000 tons of indigo were produced from petrochemicals. In the early part of the 20th Century, polymers and enzymes were shown to be large organic molecules, the multiple-step synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of natural compounds increased in complexity to glucose. For example, cholesterol-related compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex human hormones, since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12
33.
Laboratory
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A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
34.
Fertilizer
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A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants and this goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration and this article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect. The nutrients required for plant life are classified according to the elements. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers, the macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0. 15% to 6. 0% on a dry matter basis. Plants are made up of four elements, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide, although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA, to be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a fixed form. Only some bacteria and their host plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to ammonia, phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. Micronutrients are consumed in quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million, ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM. These elements are present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plants metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts their impact far exceeds their weight percentage, Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient, multinutrient fertilizers provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except ureas, organic fertilizers are usually plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture, the main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. Ammonium nitrate is widely used. Urea is another source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate. A few percent of the fertilizer market has been met by calcium ammonium nitrate
35.
Nitrogen
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Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7. It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently done so at about the same time, Rutherford is generally accorded the credit because his work was published first. Nitrogen is the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, the name comes from the Greek πνίγειν to choke, directly referencing nitrogens asphyxiating properties. It is an element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen, a colourless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula N2, dinitrogen forms about 78% of Earths atmosphere, making it the most abundant uncombined element. Nitrogen occurs in all organisms, primarily in amino acids, in the nucleic acids, the human body contains about 3% nitrogen by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the body after oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates, and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen, the second strongest bond in any diatomic molecule. Synthetically produced ammonia and nitrates are key industrial fertilisers, and fertiliser nitrates are key pollutants in the eutrophication of water systems. Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy-stores, nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as Kevlar used in high-strength fabric, Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class, including antibiotics. Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs, such as the caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines. Nitrogen compounds have a long history, ammonium chloride having been known to Herodotus. They were well known by the Middle Ages, alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis, as well as other nitrogen compounds such as ammonium salts and nitrate salts. The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia, celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold, the discovery of nitrogen is attributed to the Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air. Though he did not recognise it as a different chemical substance, he clearly distinguished it from Joseph Blacks fixed air. The fact that there was a component of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford, Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as air or azote, from the Greek word άζωτικός. In an atmosphere of nitrogen, animals died and flames were extinguished
36.
Trace mineral
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In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
37.
Nutrient
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A nutrient is a component in foods that an organism uses to survive and grow. Macronutrients provide the energy an organisms metabolic system needs to function while micronutrients provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out. Both types of nutrients can be acquired from the environment, micronutrients are used to build and repair tissues and to regulate body processes while macronutrients are converted to, and used for, energy. Methods of nutrient intake are different for plants and animals, plants take in nutrients directly from the soil through their roots and from the atmosphere through their leaves. Animals and protists have specialized digestive systems that work to break down macronutrients for energy, organic nutrients consist of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as minerals, water, and oxygen may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is considered if it must be obtained from an external source either because the organism cannot synthesize it or because insufficient quantities are produced. Nutrients needed in small amounts are called micronutrients while those needed in large quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent, shortages are called deficiencies, macronutrients are defined in several different ways. The chemical elements humans consume in the largest quantities are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, the classes of chemical compounds humans consume in the largest quantities and which provide bulk energy are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Water and atmospheric oxygen also must be consumed in large quantities, calcium, salt, magnesium, and potassium are sometimes added to the list of macronutrients because they are required in large quantities compared to other vitamins and minerals. They are sometimes referred to as the macrominerals, carbohydrates are compounds made up of types of sugars. Carbohydrates are classified by their number of units, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides. Proteins are organic compounds that consist of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, the body cannot manufacture some of the amino acids, the diet must supply them. Proteins, in nutrition, are broken down through digestion by proteases back into free amino acids, fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fatty acids are unbranched hydrocarbon chains,1 connected by single bonds alone or by double and single bonds. Fats are needed to keep cell membranes functioning properly, to insulate body organs against shock, to body temperature stable. The body does not manufacture certain fatty acids and the diet must supply them, although alcohol provides energy, and can thus be compared to macronutrients, it is not a substance that is essential for normal function
38.
Meat extract
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Meat extract is highly concentrated meat stock, usually made from beef. It is used to add meat flavour in cooking, and to make broth for drinking, meat extract was invented by Baron Justus von Liebig, a German 19th-century organic chemist. Liebig specialised in chemistry and the classification of food and wrote a paper on how boiling meat destroys its nutritional value. Liebigs view was that meat juices, as well as the fibres, contained much important nutritional value, however, it took 30 kg of meat to produce 1 kg of extract, making the extract too expensive. Before that, it was the Giebert et Compagnie, in the 1870s, John Lawson Johnston invented Johnstons Fluid Beef, later renamed Bovril. Unlike Liebigs meat extract, Bovril also contained flavourings and it was manufactured in Argentina and Uruguay which could provide cheap cattle. Liebig and Bovril were important contributors to the industry in South America. Meat extracts have largely supplanted by bouillon cubes and yeast extract. Some brands of meat extract, such as Oxo and Bovril, for example, the current formulation of Bovril contains 41% beef stock, 24% yeast extract, 1% dehydrated beef and salt, spice extracts and flavour enhancers among other ingredients. High purity meat extract is available from laboratory supply companies for microbiology
39.
Liebig's Extract of Meat Company
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Liebigs Extract of Meat Company was the producer of LEMCO brand Liebigs Extract of Meat and the originator of Oxo meat extracts and Oxo beef stock cubes. It was named after Baron Justus von Liebig, the 19th-century German organic chemist who developed and promoted a method for production of beef extract. In 1847, Justus von Liebig developed a concentrated beef extract in hopes of providing a cheap and nutritious meat substitute, Extractum carnis Liebig, however, in Europe meat was too expensive to economically supply the necessary raw materials to create the extract. Liebig made his process public, publishing the details in 1847, Liebig clearly stated of his process that the benefit of it should. Be placed at the command of as large a number of persons as possible by the extension of the manufacture, a variety of companies produced small batches of meat extract based on Liebigs ideas, often using his name on their products. In 1862, George Christian Giebert, a young Belgium railway engineer visiting Europe, convinced that the process could be industrialized, he wrote to Liebig to suggest opening a manufacturing plant in South America. He visited Max Joseph von Pettenkofers Royal Pharmacy in Munich, and Friedrich Mohrs laboratory in Koblenz, by the end of 1864,50,000 pounds of extract worth £12,000 had been exported and sold. In 1865, Giebert offered Liebig a directorship of the company, with a cash payment. The Liebig Extract of Meat Company was established on 4 December 1865 in London with a capital of £150,000, Liebig performed and supervised quality control testing on the product arriving to Europe, in Antwerp, and promoted it as the real Liebig extract of meat. By partnering with Liebig, Giebert was able to claim that he was the officially sanctioned producer of Liebigs meat extract, other companies also used the name Liebigs Extract of Meat to market meat extracts. Liebigs meat extract is a molasses-like black spread packaged in a white glass bottle. The ratio of meat to meat extract is generally reported to be about 30 to 1, the extract was originally promoted for its supposed curative powers and nutritional value as a cheap, nutritious alternative to real meat. As subsequent research brought its nutritional value into question, its convenience and flavourfulness were emphasized, the product enjoyed immense popularity and became a staple in middle-class European households. By the late 1860s, St. Thomas Hospital in London reportedly used 12,000 pots per year of the easily digestible substance, by 1875,500 tonnes of the extract were being produced at the Fray Bentos plant each year. It was recommended for soldiers during the American Civil War for its stability, ease of transport. It was still used by the Allied forces in World War II, European adventurer Sir Henry Morton Stanley valued it on his trip to Africa. It is still sold by Liebig Benelux, in 1873, Liebigs began producing tinned corned beef, which it sold under the label Fray Bentos. Fray Bentos was trademarked by Liebig in 1881 to market Fray Bentos Compressed Cooked Corned Beef, with the introduction of freezer units, the company was eventually able to produce and export frozen and chilled raw meat as well
40.
Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
41.
Oxo (food)
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Oxo is a brand of food products, including stock cubes, herbs and spices, dried gravy, and yeast extract. The original product was the stock cube, but Oxo now also markets chicken and other flavour cubes, e. g. Chinese Recipe. The cubes are broken up and used as flavouring in meals or gravy or dissolved into boiling water, in the United Kingdom, the Oxo brand belongs to Premier Foods. In South Africa, the Oxo brand is owned and manufactured by Mars, Incorporated and in Canada is owned and manufactured by Knorr. Oxo ham stock cubes contain, Salt, Potato Starch, Dried Glucose Syrup, Flavourings, Wheat Flour, Ham Bouillon Powder, Pork Fat, Sugar, Ham Powder, Onion Powder, Dried Parsley, Smoke Flavouring. The Oxo Chicken stock cube contains 2% chicken extract with the bulk of the coming from MSG. Concentrated meat extract was invented by Justus von Liebig around 1840, the original product was a viscous liquid containing only meat extract and 4% salt. In 1899, the introduced the trademark Oxo for a cheaper version, the origin of the name is unknown. Since the cost of liquid Oxo remained beyond the reach of many families, after much research, the first Oxo cubes were produced in 1910 and further increased Oxos popularity. During World War I100 million OXO cubes were provided to the armed services, lemco was acquired by the Vestey Group in 1924 and the factory was renamed El Anglo. Vestey merged with Brooke Bond in 1968, which was in turn acquired by Unilever in 1984, the Oxo brand was sold by Unilever to the Campbell Soup Company in 2001. Campbells UK operation was sold to Premier Foods in 2006 and this included sites at both Worksop and Kings Lynn. The Worksop plant produces Oxo cubes, in South Africa, Oxo is now a brand of Mars, Incorporated. The only product marketed under the Oxo brand in South Africa was a yeast extract based spread, the product also contained a lesser portion of beef extract, giving it a slightly beefier taste than other yeast extracts. At the beginning of 2015, Mars Consumer Products Africa Ltd discontinued OXO spread in South Africa, in 1908, OXO was one of the sponsors of the London Olympic Games and supplied marathon runners with Oxo drinks to fortify them. In 1966, Oxo had a show on the offshore radio station Wonderful Radio London. The show was presented by Tony Windsor and his assistant was a woman called Katie, in this show they had a daily recipe. One of Oxos advertising campaigns was launched in the UK in 1983, the father was played by Michael Redfern, the mother was played by Lynda Bellingham, while the children were played by Blair MacKichan, Colin McCoy and Alison Reynolds
42.
Bouillon cube
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A bouillon cube /ˈbuːjɒn/ or stock cube or broth cube is dehydrated bouillon or stock formed into a small cube about 15 mm wide. It is typically made from dehydrated vegetables, meat stock, a portion of fat, msg, salt and seasonings. Vegetarian and vegan types are also made, bouillon is also available in both granular or powdered form. Dehydrated meat stock, in the form of tablets, was known in the 17th century to Anne Blencowe who died in 1712 and elsewhere as early as 1735. Various French cooks in the early 19th century—Lefesse, Massué, and Martine—tried to patent bouillon cubes and tablets, nicolas Appert also proposed such dehydrated bouillon in 1831. In the mid-19th century, Justus von Liebig developed meat extract, industrially produced bouillon cubes were commercialized by Maggi in 1908, by Oxo in 1910 and by Knorr in 1912. By 1913, there were at least 10 brands available, with contents of 59–72%. The general ingredients for a cube are, salt, hydrogenated fat, monosodium glutamate. Contrary to popular belief, stock cubes are not made by “drying out stock”, the ingredients are usually mixed in a container, left to mature and then shaped into the cube form. Alternatively, they can be mixed directly into an extruder, list of dried foods Portable soup
Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Liebig, Justus, Baron von". Encyclopedia Americana.
Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "
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