1.
Pernod Ricard
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Pernod Ricard is a French company that produces distilled beverages. The companys eponymous products, Pernod Anise and Ricard Pastis, are both anise-flavoured liqueurs and are referred to simply as Pernod or Ricard. The company also produces other types of pastis. After the banning of absinthe, Pernod Ricard was created from the Pernod Fils company and it is now a worldwide conglomerate. Pernod Ricard owns the distilled beverage division of the former corporation Seagram, in 2005, the company acquired a British-based competitor, Allied Domecq plc. In 2008, Pernod Ricard announced its acquisition of Swedish-based V&S Group, in 2013 Pernod Ricard joined leading alcohol producers as part of a producers commitments to reducing harmful drinking. As of 2015, India is the third largest market by value. 1797 – Henri-Louis Pernod, a Swiss distiller, opened his first absinthe distillery in Switzerland,1805 – Maison Pernod Fils was founded in Pontarlier, Franche-Comté in eastern France by Henri-Louis Pernod and started the production of the anise-flavored liquor known as absinthe. 1871 – Distillerie Hémard was founded near Paris,1872 – Société Pernod Père & Fils opened in Avignon. 1915 – Production and consumption of absinthe was prohibited in France,1926 – All 3 distilleries merged to form Les Établissements Pernod. 1951 – Pastis 51 was launched,1965 – Takeover of Distillerie Rousseau, Laurens et Moureaux, producer of the Suze liquor since 1889. 1932 – Ricard, which soon became Frances favourite long drink, was founded in Marseille by Paul Ricard,1940 – Production of pastis was prohibited by the Vichy regime. 1944 – Production of pastis became legal again,1968 – Paul Ricard retired, his son Patrick became CEO in 1978. 1975 – Old rivals Pernod and Ricard merged to form Pernod Ricard S. A.1988 – Pernod Ricard acquired Irish Distillers,1989 – Pernod Ricard acquired Orlando Wyndham. 1993 – Pernod Ricard worked with Cuban companies to create Havana Club International,2001 – Pernod Ricard purchased 38% of Seagrams Wines and Spirits business. 2005 – Pernod Ricard purchased Allied Domecq,2008 – Pernod Ricard purchased V&S Group including the Absolut Vodka brand, from the Swedish government. Pernod Ricard also previously owned the carbonated citrus drink Orangina, both brands were sold in 2001 to Cadbury Schweppes. The Havana Club trademark remains unchallenged elsewhere in the world, having been validated by court decisions in a number of other than the US
2.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
3.
Alcohol by volume
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Alcohol by volume is a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in a given volume of an alcoholic beverage. It is defined as the number of millilitres of pure ethanol present in 100 millilitres of solution at 20 °C, the number of millilitres of pure ethanol is the mass of the ethanol divided by its density at 20 °C, which is 0.78924 g/ml. The ABV standard is used worldwide, the International Organization of Legal Metrology has tables of density of water–ethanol mixtures at different concentrations and temperatures. In some countries, such as the U. K and France, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac and this results in the slight difference in marked % noted later in this article. Mixing two solutions of alcohol of different strengths usually causes a change in volume, mixing pure water with a solution less than 24% by mass causes a slight increase in total volume, whereas the mixing of two solutions above 24% causes a decrease in volume. The phenomenon of volume due to mixing dissimilar solutions is called partial molar volume. Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them. Another way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol proof, for example, 40% abv is 80 proof in the US and 70 proof in the UK. However, since 1980, alcohol proof in the UK has been replaced by abv as a measure of alcohol content, in the United States, a few states regulate and tax alcoholic beverages according to alcohol by weight, expressed as a percentage of total mass. Some brewers print the ABW on beer containers, particularly on low-point versions of domestic beer brands. However, because of the miscibility of alcohol and water, the factor is not constant. 100% ABW, of course, is equivalent to 100% ABV, during the production of wine and beer, yeast is added to a sugary solution. During fermentation, the yeasts consume the sugars and produce alcohol, the density of sugar in water is greater than the density of alcohol in water. A hydrometer is used to measure the change in gravity of the solution before. The volume of alcohol in the solution can then be estimated, there are a number of empirical formulae which brewers and winemakers use to estimate the alcohol content of the liquor made. The simplest method for wine has been described by English author C. J. J, the number 0.7936 is the specific gravity of a 100% ethanol solution. The difference between the starting SG and the final SG measures the specific gravity lost to CO2 release
4.
Fukushima, Fukushima
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Fukushima is the capital city of Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. It is located in the part of Nakadōri, the central region of the prefecture. The present-day city of Fukushima partially consists of most of the former Shinobu and Date Districts, the city is located in the Fukushima Basins southwest area and nearby mountains. There are many onsen on the outskirts of the city, including the areas of Iizaka Onsen, Takayu Onsen. Fukushima is also the location of the Fukushima Race Course, the only Japan Racing Association horse racing track in the Tōhoku region of Japan, as of May 2011, the city has an estimated population of 290,064 and a population density of 390 persons per km². The total area is 746.43 km², during the times of ancient Japan, the area now known as the city of Fukushima was called Minekoshi. The mountain in the middle of the city, present-day Mt. Shinobu, was formerly called Mt. Minekoshi. During the Jōmon period, for around 2,000 years there was a settlement on the eastern bank of the Abukuma River. This site has since been excavated and named the Miyahata Remains and it is said that in the 5th century AD, Kumano Atai was appointed by the Yamato court to be the Shinobu Kuni no miyatsuko, giving him control over the Fukushima Basin. Under the Nara periods Ritsuryō system, stations were established along the Seven Circuits so that officials could change horses, one of the stations, the Tōsandō, passed through the area of present-day Fukushima, and Minekoshi Station was established on the route. Minekoshi Station was located south of the Surikami River and north of the Matsukawa River, the area south of the Matsukawa River was then, as it still is now, known as Suginome. Thus it is believed that the station was located north of the area around the present-day prefectural office, the implementation of the Ritsuryō system also resulted in administrative changes, with the area of present-day Fukushima and Date being combined to form the district of Shinobu. This was the northernmost point of the Mutsu Province and held responsibility for preventing the expansion of the Emishi. After 718 and the influence of the Yamato Imperial Court. However, by 724 Mutsu Province was unable to deal on its own with the costs of holding back the Emishi, so Iwaki. In the first half of the 10th century, the Date district was separated from the Shinobu district. As a reform to the tax on rice, labor. This was accomplished both through administrative changes and forced population relocations, with Mutsu Province viewed as reclaimed land by the Imperial Court, the area saw a significant amount of reorganization
5.
Coffee
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Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab
6.
Liqueur
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A liqueur is an alcoholic beverage made from a distilled spirit that has been flavored with fruit, cream, herbs, spices, flowers or nuts and bottled with added sugar or other sweetener. Liqueurs are typically sweet, they are usually not aged for long after the ingredients are mixed. In the United States and Canada, where spirits are often called liquor, there is confusion over liqueurs and liquors. You can distinguish them from each other because liqueurs are quite sweet and often syrupy in consistency, most liqueurs have a lower alcohol content than spirits, but some contain as much as 55% ABV. Liqueurs are historical descendants of herbal medicines, they were made in Italy as early as the 13th century and were prepared by monks. Nowadays, liqueurs are made worldwide and are served in many ways, by themselves, poured over ice, with coffee, mixed with cream or other mixers to create cocktails and they are often served with or after a dessert. Liqueurs are also used in cooking, some liqueurs are prepared by infusing certain woods, fruits, or flowers in either water or alcohol and adding sugar or other items. Others are distilled from aromatic or flavoring agents, layered drinks are made by floating different-colored liqueurs in separate layers. Each liqueur is poured slowly into a glass over the back of a spoon or down a glass rod, so that the liquids of different densities remain unmixed, the word liqueur comes from the Latin liquifacere via French. Liqueurs Liqueurs at The Cooks Thesaurus
7.
Rum
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Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels. The majority of the rum production occurs in the Caribbean. Rums are produced in various grades, light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas golden and dark rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and this beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery, organized crime. The origin of the rum is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the origin, Samuel Morewood. He wrote, As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility, that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning strong or potent. These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century, however, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a version of rumbullion or rumbustion. Both words surfaced in English about the time as rum did. This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses. Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for again, a second time, or arôme, French for aroma. A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc. In current usage, the used for a rum is often based on its place of origin
8.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
9.
Vanilla
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Vanilla is a flavoring derived from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from the Mexican species, flat-leaved vanilla. The word vanilla, derived from the diminutive of the Spanish word vaina, is translated simply as little pod, pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people cultivated the vine of the vanilla orchid, called tlilxochitl by the Aztecs. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés is credited with introducing both vanilla and chocolate to Europe in the 1520s, pollination is required to set the fruit from which the flavoring is derived. In 1837, Belgian botanist Charles François Antoine Morren discovered this fact, the method proved financially unworkable and was not deployed commercially. In 1841, Edmond Albius, a slave who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, hand-pollination allowed global cultivation of the plant. Three major species of vanilla currently are grown globally, all of which derive from a species found in Mesoamerica. Vanilla is the second-most expensive spice after saffron, because growing the vanilla seed pods is labor-intensive, despite the expense, vanilla is highly valued for its flavor. As a result, vanilla is used in both commercial and domestic baking, perfume manufacture, and aromatherapy. According to popular belief, the Totonac people, who inhabit the east coast of Mexico in the state of Veracruz, were the first to cultivate vanilla. According to Totonac mythology, the tropical orchid was born when Princess Xanat, forbidden by her father from marrying a mortal, the lovers were captured and beheaded. Where their blood touched the ground, the vine of the tropical orchid grew, in the 15th century, Aztecs invading from the central highlands of Mexico conquered the Totonacs, and soon developed a taste for the vanilla pods. They named the fruit tlilxochitl, or black flower, after the matured fruit, subjugated by the Aztecs, the Totonacs paid tribute by sending vanilla fruit to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. Until the mid-19th century, Mexico was the producer of vanilla. In 1819, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla fruits to the islands of Réunion, after Edmond Albius discovered how to pollinate the flowers quickly by hand, the pods began to thrive. Soon, the orchids were sent from Réunion to the Comoros Islands, Seychelles. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros Islands produced 200 metric tons of vanilla beans, the market price of vanilla rose dramatically in the late 1970s after a tropical cyclone ravaged key croplands. Prices remained high through the early 1980s despite the introduction of Indonesian vanilla, in the mid-1980s, the cartel that had controlled vanilla prices and distribution since its creation in 1930 disbanded. Prices dropped 70% over the few years, to nearly US$20 per kilogram
10.
Coffea arabica
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Coffea arabica /əˈræbɪkə/ is a species of Coffea originally indigenous to the forests of the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia. It is also known as the coffee shrub of Arabia, mountain coffee, C. arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, and is by far the dominant cultivar, representing some 70% of global production. Coffee produced from the acidic, more bitter, and more highly caffeinated robusta bean makes up the preponderance of the balance. Wild plants grow between 9 and 12 m tall, and have a branching system, the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6–12 cm long and 4–8 cm broad. The flowers are white, 10–15 mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters, the seeds are contained in a drupe 10–15 mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically contains two seeds. Endemic to the regions of Yemen and the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, C. arabica is now rare in Ethiopia, while many populations appear to be of mixed native. In Ethiopia, where it is called būna, it is used as an understorey shrub. It has also recovered from the Boma Plateau in South Sudan. C. arabica is also found on Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya, the species is widely naturalised in areas outside its native land, in many parts of Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, China, and assorted islands in the Caribbean and in the Pacific. The conservation of the variation of C. arabica relies on conserving healthy populations of wild coffee in the Afromontane rainforests of Ethiopia. Genetic research has shown coffee cultivation is threatening the integrity of wild coffee because it exposes wild genotypes to cultivars. Arabica coffees first domestication in Ethiopia is obscure, but cultivation in Yemen is well documented by the 12th century, Coffea arabica accounts for 70% of the worlds coffee production. C. arabica takes about seven years to mature fully, and does best with 1. 0–1.5 meters of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but plantations grow it as low as sea level, the plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and does best with an average temperature between 15 and 24 °C. Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting, unlike Coffea canephora, C. arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. Two to four years after planting, C. arabica produces small, white, the sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. Flowers opening on sunny days result in the greatest numbers of berries, on well-kept plantations, overflowering is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers only last a few days, leaving only the thick
11.
Acolhua
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The Acolhua are a Mesoamerican people who arrived in the Valley of Mexico in or around the year 1200 CE. The Acolhua were a culture of the Aztecs as well as the Tepanec, Chalca, Xochimilca. It is likely that the family of the Acolhua were descended from Otomi speakers. Under Techotlalatzins grandson, Nezahualcoyotl, the Acolhua allied with the Mexica in the Aztec Triple Alliance, the Acolhua capital, Texcoco, became a cultural center of the resultant Aztec Empire
12.
Veracruz
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It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez. This state is located in Eastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south, and Tabasco to the southeast. On its east, Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, the state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río. The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz, which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos, the state’s seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early 16th century. The state is a strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is 78,815 km2, accounting for about 3. 7% of Mexico’s total territory and it stretches about 650 km north to south, but its width varies from between 212 km to 36 km, with an average of about 100 km in width. Veracruz shares common borders with the states of Tamaulipas, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Tabasco, and Puebla, Hidalgo, Veracruz has 690 km of coastline with the Gulf of Mexico. The topography changes drastically, rising from the coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico’s highest peak at 5,636 m above sea level, the coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of the coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons. The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, major peaks include Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote, Cerro de Tecomates, Cerro del Vigía Alta and Cerro de 3 Tortas. The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round, the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter, major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés. All of the rivers and streams cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa. The largest in terms of discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable, two of Mexicos most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state
13.
Nahuatl
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Nahuatl, known historically as Aztec, is a language or group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by an estimated 1.5 million Nahua peoples, all Nahuan languages are indigenous to Mesoamerica. Nahuatl has been spoken in central Mexico since at least the seventh century CE and it was the language of the Aztecs who dominated what is now central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican history. This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan variety has been labeled Classical Nahuatl, today, Nahuan languages are spoken in scattered communities, mostly in rural areas throughout central Mexico and along the coastline. There are considerable differences among varieties, and some are mutually unintelligible, Huasteca Nahuatl, with over one million speakers, is the most-spoken variety. They have all been subject to varying degrees of influence from Spanish, No modern Nahuan languages are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery. Nahuan languages exhibit a complex morphology characterized by polysynthesis and agglutination, through a very long period of coexistence with the other indigenous Mesoamerican languages, they have absorbed many influences, coming to form part of the Mesoamerican language area. Many words from Nahuatl have been borrowed into Spanish, and since diffused into hundreds of other languages, most of these loanwords denote things indigenous to central Mexico which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names. English words of Nahuatl origin include avocado, chayote, chili, chocolate, atlatl, coyote, peyote, axolotl, as a language label, the term Nahuatl encompasses a group of closely related languages or divergent dialects within the Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. The Mexican Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas recognize 30 different individual varieties within the language group labeled Nahuatl, the Ethnologue recognizes 28 varieties with separate ISO codes. Sometimes the label also is used to include the Pipil language of El Salvador, within Mexico the question of whether to consider individual varieties to be languages or dialects of a single language is highly political. This article focuses on describing the history of the group. For details on individual varieties or subgroups, see the individual articles, in the past, the branch of Uto-Aztecan to which Nahuatl belongs has been called Aztecan. From the 1990s onward, the alternative designation Nahuan has been used as a replacement especially in Spanish-language publications. The Nahuan branch of Uto-Aztecan is widely accepted as having two divisions, General Aztec and Pochutec, General Aztec encompasses the Nahuatl and Pipil languages. Pochutec is a scantily attested language, which became extinct in the 20th century, other researchers have argued that Pochutec should be considered a divergent variant of the western periphery. Nahuatl denotes at least Classical Nahuatl together with related languages spoken in Mexico. The inclusion of Pipil into the group is debated, current subclassification of Nahuatl rests on research by Canger, Canger and Lastra de Suárez
14.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
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The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions and it is estimated that during the colonial period, a total of 18.6 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era. Spains loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas, the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile, in the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. Columbus made four voyages to the West Indiesas the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories and he founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, in 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops, the first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, the Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs, but not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés, the victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the political hierarchy. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22,1519, Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization, in the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region
15.
Allied Lyons
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Allied Domecq PLC was an international company, headquartered in Bristol, United Kingdom, that operated spirits, wine, and quick service restaurant businesses. It was once a FTSE100 Index constituent but has acquired by Pernod Ricard. Allied Domecq was the result of a 1994 merger between Allied Lyons and Pedro Domecq, Allied Lyons itself was the result of a 1978 merger between Allied Breweries and the food and catering group J. Lyons and Co. In early 2005, a bid for the company was launched by French-based rival Pernod Ricard SA. Pernod Ricard successfully completed acquisition on 26 July 2005 and sold off the overlapping spirits brands to U. S. -based competitor Fortune Brands and British-based multinational Diageo. On 12 December 2005, Pernod Ricard announced that it had agreed to sell the restaurant businesses to a consortium of three US private equity firms for $2.43 billion, the closing of the sale occurred on 1 March 2006. Allied Domecqs spirits division operated a combination of nine core global brands, mumm champagne Perrier-Jouët champagne Don Pedro Brandy Stolichnaya vodka Tia Maria liqueur Cockburns Port Harveys Bristol Cream sherry Curtis No
16.
Allied Domecq
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Allied Domecq PLC was an international company, headquartered in Bristol, United Kingdom, that operated spirits, wine, and quick service restaurant businesses. It was once a FTSE100 Index constituent but has acquired by Pernod Ricard. Allied Domecq was the result of a 1994 merger between Allied Lyons and Pedro Domecq, Allied Lyons itself was the result of a 1978 merger between Allied Breweries and the food and catering group J. Lyons and Co. In early 2005, a bid for the company was launched by French-based rival Pernod Ricard SA. Pernod Ricard successfully completed acquisition on 26 July 2005 and sold off the overlapping spirits brands to U. S. -based competitor Fortune Brands and British-based multinational Diageo. On 12 December 2005, Pernod Ricard announced that it had agreed to sell the restaurant businesses to a consortium of three US private equity firms for $2.43 billion, the closing of the sale occurred on 1 March 2006. Allied Domecqs spirits division operated a combination of nine core global brands, mumm champagne Perrier-Jouët champagne Don Pedro Brandy Stolichnaya vodka Tia Maria liqueur Cockburns Port Harveys Bristol Cream sherry Curtis No
17.
Vin & Sprit
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V&S Group, founded in 1917, is an international producer and distributor of alcoholic beverages. The group is owned by Pernod Ricard. Headquartered in Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, the group employs approximately 2,500 people, until 1994, the group had the position of a national monopoly for production and distribution, but this was abolished when Sweden joined the European Union in 1995. However, the Swedish alcohol retailing monopoly, operated by Systembolaget, is still in force. On March 31,2008 it was announced that the Swedish government intended to sell V & S Group to Pernod Ricard for 5.626 billion euro, the deal was approved and finalized on July 24,2008 at an estimated value of 5.69 billion euro. The acronym V&S comes from the name Vin & Sprit, literally meaning Wine & Liquor, V&S Group is divided into three main areas, V&S Absolut Spirits handles Absolut Vodka and the other international spirits brands, such as Level Vodka, Frïs Vodka. V&S Distillers handles spirits on the Northern and Central European markets, V&S Wine handles wines and fortified wines in the Nordic region. The production of the groups international spirits takes place in Sweden, Denmark, Great Britain, production of their local and regional spirits takes place primarily in Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Germany, and Poland. In Northern Europe, V&S Group is the largest importer and distributor of wine, the group offers their own brands of wine and also produces brands by well-known international companies. Distribution in the Nordic area is handled through the groups distribution centers in Sweden, Denmark. V&S Group is represented by the subsidiary V&S Norway in Norway, by V&S Eesti in Estonia, in the United States, distribution was handled by Future Brands, LLC, a joint-venture with Fortune Brands. In most other regions of the world, distribution was handled by Maxxium, about three-quarters of the groups sales come from spirits, whereas the remaining quarter comes from wine. Vodka is their largest selling spirit, in which Absolut holds the highest sales figures, geographically, North America is the groups single biggest market, accounting for 43% of total sales in 2007. The Swedish market accounts for one-sixth of sales, as volume is concerned, the group sold 158.4 million liters of spirits and 83.7 million liters of wine, totaling 242.1 million liters of product. List of government enterprises of Sweden V&S Group V&S Group
18.
Alcoholic drink
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Long-term use can lead to alcohol abuse, physical dependence, and alcoholism. Drinking alcohol plays an important social role in many cultures, most countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption, some countries ban such activities entirely. However, alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world, the global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2014. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs in the world. For instance, in 2015, among Americans, 89% of adults had consumed alcohol at point, 70% had drunk it in the last year. Alcoholic drinks are divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically contain between 3% and 40% alcohol by volume. Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period, wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes. Wine involves a longer process than beer and also a long aging process. Sparkling wine can be made by means of a secondary fermentation, fruit wines are made from fruits other than grapes, such as plums, cherries, or apples. Sake is an example of rice wine. Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash and it is made from barley or a blend of several grains. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink is a spirit, beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world. Cider or cyder is an alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice, apple juice, peaches. Cider alcohol content varies from 1. 2% ABV to 8. 5% or more in traditional English ciders, in some regions, cider may be called apple wine. Mead is a drink created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains. The alcoholic content of mead may range from about 8% ABV to more than 20%, the defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drinks fermentable sugar is derived from honey. A distilled drink or liquor is a drink produced by distilling ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have a content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits
19.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
20.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
21.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
22.
Duty-free
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Which products can be sold duty-free vary by jurisdiction, as well as how they can be sold, and the process of calculating the duty or refunding the duty component. However, some countries impose duty on goods brought into the country, though they had been bought duty-free in another country, or when the value or quantity of such goods exceed an allowed limit. Duty-free shops are found in the international zone of international airports, sea ports. They are not as available for road or train travelers. These outlets were abolished for intra-EU travellers in 1999, but are retained for travelers whose final destination is outside the EU and they also sell to intra-EU travelers but with appropriate taxes. Some special member state territories such as Åland, Livigno and the Canary Islands, are within the EU but outside the EU tax union, and thus still continue duty-free sales for all travelers. 31 percent of sales came from the fragrances and cosmetics category, followed by the wine and spirit category with 17 percent and then comes tobacco products. The worlds largest airport by duty free sales is South Koreas Incheon Airport, with US$1.85 billion in 2016, the worlds first duty-free shop was established at Shannon Airport in Ireland by Brendan ORegan in 1947 and is still open to this day. Duty-free shopping was in its infancy when two American entrepreneurs, Charles Feeney and Robert Warren Miller, created what is now Duty Free Shoppers on 7 November 1960, DFS started operations in Hong Kong and spread to Europe and other places around the globe. Securing the exclusive concession for duty-free sales in Hawaii in the created a business breakthrough for DFS. DFS continued to innovate, expanding into off-airport duty-free stores and large downtown Galleria stores, in 1996, LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton acquired the interests of Feeney and two other shareholders and today jointly owns DFS with Miller. In this same period, several locales grew as duty-free shopping destinations and they are exemplified by Saint Martin and the U. S. Virgin Islands in the Caribbean, Hong Kong and Singapore. Still others claim prices competitive to duty-free, generally, goods are free of duty and tax levied on imports for sale anywhere in the shopping destination. Merchants may pay inventory/business or other taxes, but their customers usually pay none directly, the mere absence of duty or other taxes on goods being sold does not assure that they are bargains. Costs of identical goods from different duty-free sources can vary widely and they often depend on the presence or absence of nearby competition, e. g. airport stores, especially if all at any airport are owned by a single firm such as Dufry. Also, prices can often be driven upward by the costs of buyer convenience, many airlines, such as Emirates, El Al, Singapore Airlines, Middle East Airlines, Ukraine International Airlines, Delta, and Avianca, offer duty-free sales on their flights. Some duty-free shops operate in central business districts away from airports or other ports, in Japan, for example, any visitor whose passport indicates that they have been in the country for less than six months can buy duty-free items. Duty-free shops are also a mainstay in the Akihabara electronic shopping district of Tokyo, in Thailand, the King Power chain has shops where duty-free items are pre-purchased and delivered separately to the airport to be picked up on departure
23.
Viscosity
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The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the concept of thickness, for example. Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluids viscosity, a fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity, and are said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity, such as pitch. The word viscosity is derived from the Latin viscum, meaning mistletoe, the dynamic viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the situation known as a Couette flow. This fluid has to be homogeneous in the layer and at different shear stresses, if the speed of the top plate is small enough, the fluid particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u at the top. Each layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it, in particular, the fluid will apply on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An external force is required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed. The magnitude F of this force is found to be proportional to the u and the area A of each plate. The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity of the fluid, the ratio u/y is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Isaac Newton expressed the forces by the differential equation τ = μ ∂ u ∂ y, where τ = F/A. This formula assumes that the flow is moving along parallel lines and this equation can be used where the velocity does not vary linearly with y, such as in fluid flowing through a pipe. Use of the Greek letter mu for the dynamic viscosity is common among mechanical and chemical engineers. However, the Greek letter eta is used by chemists, physicists
24.
Cocktail
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When used to refer to any generic alcoholic mixed drink, cocktail may mean any beverage that contains two or more ingredients if at least one of those ingredients contains alcohol. When a mixed drink contains only a spirit and a mixer, such as soda or fruit juice, it is a highball. When a cocktail contains only a spirit and a liqueur, it is a duo. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, the origin of the word cocktail is disputed. S. The first definition of cocktail known to be an alcoholic beverage appeared in The Balance and Columbian Repository May 13,1806, editor Harry Croswell answered the question, What is a cocktail. It is said, also to be of use to a democratic candidate, because a person. Anatoly Liberman endorses as highly probable the theory advanced by Låftman and they were called cocktailed horses, later simply cocktails. By extension, the cocktail was applied to a vulgar, ill-bred person raised above his station, assuming the position of a gentleman. The mention of water as an ingredient, Låftman concluded that cocktail was an acceptable alcoholic drink, but diluted, not a purebred, a thing raised above its station. Hence the highly appropriate slang word used earlier about inferior horses, several authors have theorized that cocktail may be a corruption of cock ale. David Wondrich also speculates that cocktail is a reference to a practice for perking up an old horse by means of a ginger suppository so that the animal would cock its tail up, there is a lack of clarity on the origins of cocktails. Traditionally cocktails were a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, but by the 1860s, a cocktail frequently included a liqueur. The first publication of a guide which included cocktail recipes was in 1862 — How to Mix Drinks, or, The Bon Vivants Companion. In addition to recipes for punches, sours, slings, cobblers, shrubs, toddies, flips, a key ingredient differentiating cocktails from other drinks in this compendium was the use of bitters. Mixed drinks popular today that conform to this meaning of cocktail include the Old Fashioned whiskey cocktail, the Sazerac cocktail. The term highball appears during the 1890s to distinguish a drink composed only of a distilled spirit, the first cocktail party ever thrown was allegedly by Mrs. Julius S. Walsh Jr. of St. Louis, Missouri, in May 1917. Mrs. Walsh invited 50 guests to her home at noon on a Sunday, the party lasted an hour, until lunch was served at 1 pm. The site of this first cocktail party still stands, in 1924, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis bought the Walsh mansion at 4510 Lindell Boulevard, and it has served as the local archbishops residence ever since
25.
Dessert
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Dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. The course usually consists of foods and beverages, such as dessert wine or liqueurs. In some parts of the world, such as much of central and western Africa, the term dessert can apply to many confections, such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards, and sweet soups. Fruit is also found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts, the word dessert originated from the French word desservir, meaning to clear the table. Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, in his A History of Dessert, Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. Alternatives such as sweets or afters are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong, sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BCE and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by 500 CE. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making available to Macedonia by 300 BCE. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking, sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonialization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available, even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381, the earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats in 1828 in Eliza Leslies Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in America and Europe caused desserts to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region, sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. The proportions of ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods, flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of layers in pastries
26.
Ice cream
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Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It is usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream and it is typically sweetened with sugar or sugar substitutes. Typically, flavourings and colourings are added in addition to stabilizers, the mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at low temperatures. It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases, the meaning of the phrase ice cream varies from one country to another. Phrases such as frozen custard, frozen yogurt, sorbet, gelato, products that do not meet the criteria to be called ice cream are labelled frozen dairy dessert instead. In other countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants, analogues made from dairy alternatives, such as goats or sheeps milk, or milk substitutes, are available for those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. Ice cream may be served in dishes, for eating with a spoon, or in cones, Ice cream may be served with other desserts, such as apple pie. Ice cream is used to other desserts, including ice cream floats, sundaes, milkshakes, ice cream cakes and even baked items. During the 5th century BC, ancient Greeks ate snow mixed with honey, the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, encouraged his Ancient Greek patients to eat ice as it livens the life-juices and increases the well-being. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special chilled food, made of water and vermicelli. The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavours, a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC. The Roman Emperor Nero had ice brought from the mountains and combined it with fruit toppings to create chilled delicacies, in the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets. When Italian duchess Catherine de Medici married the Duke of Orléans in 1533, there is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century. The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latinis Lo Scalco alla Moderna. Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialots Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits, Massialots recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the consistency of sugar. Ice cream recipes first appeared in England in the 18th century, the recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Ealess Receipts in London in 1718
27.
Cake
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Cake is a form of sweet dessert that is typically baked. Typical cake ingredients are flour, sugar, eggs, butter or oil, a liquid, common additional ingredients and flavourings include dried, candied, or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa, and extracts such as vanilla, with numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients. Cakes can also be filled with preserves or dessert sauces, iced with buttercream or other icings. Cake is often served as a dish on ceremonial occasions, such as weddings, anniversaries. There are countless cake recipes, some are bread-like, some are rich and elaborate, the term cake has a long history. The word itself is of Viking origin, from the Old Norse word kaka, the ancient Greeks called cake πλακοῦς, which was derived from the word for flat, πλακόεις. It was baked using flour mixed with eggs, milk, nuts and they also had a cake called “satura”, which was a flat heavy cake. During the Roman period, the name for cake became “placenta” which was derived from the Greek term, placenta were baked on a pastry base or inside a pastry case The Greeks invented beer as a leavener, frying fritters in olive oil, and cheesecakes using goats milk. In ancient Rome, basic bread dough was sometimes enriched with butter, eggs, and honey, latin poet Ovid refers his and his brothers birthday party and cake in his first book of exile, Tristia. Sponge cakes, leavened with beaten eggs, originated during the Renaissance, during the Great Depression, there was a surplus of molasses and the need to provide easily made food to millions of economically depressed people in the United States. One company patented a cake-bread mix in order to deal with this economic situation, in so doing, cake as it is known today became a mass-produced good rather than a home- or bakery-made specialty. Later, during the boom, other American companies developed this idea further, marketing cake mix on the principle of convenience. When sales dropped heavily in the 1950s, marketers discovered that the cake in a box rendered the cake-making function of housewives relatively dispiriting, in order to compensate for this situation, the marketing psychologist Ernest Dichter ushered in the solution to the cake mix problem, frosting. Ever since, cake in a box has become a staple of supermarkets, Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients and mixing techniques. Although clear examples of the difference between cake and bread are easy to find, the classification has always been elusive. For example, banana bread may be considered either a quick bread or a cake. Butter cakes are made from creamed butter, sugar, eggs and they rely on the combination of butter and sugar beaten for an extended time to incorporate air into the batter. A classic pound cake is made with a pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, baking powder is in many butter cakes, such as Victoria sponge
28.
Cheesecake
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Cheesecake is a sweet dessert consisting of one or more layers. It may be baked or unbaked, cheesecake is usually sweetened with sugar and may be flavored or topped with fruit, whipped cream, nuts, cookies, fruit sauce, and/or chocolate syrup. Cheesecake can be prepared in many flavors, such as strawberry, pumpkin, key lime, chocolate, Oreo, chestnut, an ancient form of cheesecake may have been a popular dish in ancient Greece even prior to Romans adoption of it with the conquest of Greece. The earliest attested mention of a cheesecake is by the Greek physician Aegimus, the earliest extant cheesecake recipes are found in Cato the Elders De Agri Cultura, which includes recipes for two cakes for religious uses, libum and placenta. Of the two, placenta is most like most modern cheesecakes, having a crust that is prepared and baked. A more modern version is found in Forme of Cury, an English cookbook from 1390, on this basis, chef Heston Blumenthal has argued that cheesecake is an English invention. Modern cheesecake comes in two different types, along with the baked cheesecake, some cheesecakes are made with uncooked cream-cheese on a crumbled-biscuit base. This type of cheesecake was invented in the United States, almost all modern cheesecakes in the United States and Canada use cream cheese, in Italy, cheesecakes use ricotta, Germany, the Netherlands, and Poland use quark. Cheesecakes are most easily baked in a springform pan, often paired with a water bath to more evenly distribute the heat. Because of the density of most cheesecakes, they continue baking for some time after removal from an oven. The early Greeks considered it a cake, some modern authors point to the presence of many eggs, the sole source of leavening, as proof that it is a torte. Still others claim that the separate crust, the filling. Cheesecakes can be categorized into two basic types, baked and unbaked. Each comes in a variety of styles determined by region, South Africa South Africa has many different varieties of cheesecake, one popular variant is made with whipped cream, cream cheese, gelatine for the filling, and a buttered digestive biscuit crust. It is not baked, and is made with Amarula liqueur. This variant is similar to British cheesecake. This cheesecake is more common in British South African communities, asian-style cheesecake flavors include matcha, lychee, and mango. Asian-style cheesecakes are also lighter in flavor and are sometimes light, compared to its counterparts, Asian cheesecake is also considerably less sweet
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Caffeine
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Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the worlds most widely consumed psychoactive drug, unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the nervous system. Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid and it is found in the seeds, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to South America and East Asia and helps to protect them against predator insects and prevent germination of nearby seeds. The most well known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are very popular, in 2005, 90% of North American adults consumed caffeine daily. Caffeine can have positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity, Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinsons disease, some people experience insomnia or sleep disruption if they consume caffeine, especially during the evening hours, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal, some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit consumption to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Tolerance to the effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate. Caffeine is classified by the Food and Drug Administration as generally recognized as safe, toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than typical doses of under 500 milligrams per day. A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what bean is used, thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach a lethal dose. However pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, Caffeine is used in, Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants for both prevention and treatment. It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language, on the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible. Apnea of prematurity as a treatment, but not prevention
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Espresso Martini
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Espresso Martini is a cold, coffee-flavored cocktail made with vodka, espresso coffee, coffee liqueur, and sugar syrup. It is not a true Martini, but is one of many that are called such, there are several claims for the origin of the Espresso Martini. Bradsell has confirmed this in a widely-circulated video, bradsell has also been quoted about the circumstances of his invention of the drink, The coffee machine at the Soho Brasseries was right next to the station where I served drinks. It was a nightmare, as there were coffee grounds everywhere, and it was all about vodka back then – it was all people were drinking. The recipes for an Espresso Martini vary depending on the source, the International Bartenders Association specifies a short and not a shot of espresso, also known as a ristretto. A short espresso refers to an amount of extraction time which affects the balance of flavors expressed from the coffee beans. A longer extraction has more bitter and less acid flavors, a shorter extraction has less bitter and more acid flavors, and the volume is decreased. The highly-respected Diffords Guide recommends 1.5 fluid ounces of vodka, 3/4 fluid ounce of hot coffee, 3/4 fluid ounce of Kahlua. The ingredients are poured into a filled with ice. The mixture is shaken, fine strained and poured into a chilled martini glass. The drink is garnished with coffee beans and served, in the Chocolate Heaven episode of Giada at Home, Giada De Laurentiis shares a variant of Espresso Martini, with a chocolate-rimmed glass
31.
White Russian (cocktail)
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A White Russian is a cocktail made with vodka, coffee liqueur, and cream served with ice in an Old Fashioned glass. Often milk will be used as an alternative to cream, the traditional cocktail known as a Black Russian, which first appeared in 1949, becomes a White Russian with the addition of cream. Neither drink is Russian in origin, but both are so named due to vodka being the primary ingredient and it is unclear which drink preceded the other. The Oxford English Dictionary refers to the first mention of the word White Russian in the sense of a cocktail as appearing in Californias Oakland Tribune on November 21,1965 and it was placed in the newspaper as an insert, White Russian. 1 oz. each Southern, vodka, cream, with Southern referring to Coffee Southern, as with all cocktails, various modes of preparation exist, varying according to the recipes and styles of particular bars or mixologists. Most common varieties have adjusted amounts of vodka or coffee liqueur, shaking the cream in order to thicken it prior to pouring it over the drink is also common. Many variants of the cocktail exist, both localised and widely known, such as a White Canadian, an Anna Kournikova, a White Cuban, the White Russian is the signature drink of the Dude, the protagonist of the cult classic The Big Lebowski. In the movie, the Dude refers to it as a Caucasian, the cocktails prominence in the film has been connected to a revival in its popularity. Prior to the movie, the cocktail was considered passé and likened to an alcoholic milkshake, List of cocktails Black Russian List of coffee beverages Steven Kurutz. White Russians Arise, This Time at a Bowling Alley
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Black Russian
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The Black Russian is a cocktail of vodka and coffee liqueur. It contains five parts vodka to two parts coffee liqueur, per IBA specified ingredients, traditionally the drink is made by pouring the vodka over ice cubes or cracked ice in an old-fashioned glass, followed by the coffee liqueur. The cocktail owes its name to the use of vodka, a typical Russian spirit, dirty Black Russian, Tall Black Russian, Australian Black Russian or Colorado Bulldog, served in a highball glass and topped up with cola. Black Magic, served with a dash of lemon juice and a lemon twist to garnish, irish Russian or Smooth Black Russian, served with a head of Guinness stout. Brown Russian, served in a glass and topped with ginger ale. Peris Black Russian, served in a high ball glass with vanilla vodka rather than plain, topped with cola Vader, california Russian, served with a shot of triple sec and a slice of orange. White Russian List of cocktails Liquor portal
33.
B-52 (cocktail)
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The B-52 cocktail is a layered shot composed of a coffee liqueur, an Irish cream, and a Grand Marnier. When prepared properly, the ingredients separate into three distinctly visible layers, the name refers to the US B-52 Stratofortress long-range bomber. This bomber was used in the Vietnam War for the release of incendiary bombs, one story behind the B-52 is that it was invented by Peter Fich, a head bartender at the Banff Springs Hotel in Banff, Alberta. He named all of his new drinks after favourite bands, albums and this drink was, of course, named after the band of the same name. One of his first customers for a B-52 owned restaurants in cities in Alberta. This is why this, the first shooter, is believed to originate at the Keg Steakhouse in Calgary. The B-52 is also rumoured to have created by Adam Honigman. The B-52s widespread popularity has resulted in variations, each earning a slightly different designation. Altogether, the drinks are referred to as the B-50 series of layered cocktails, the drink became a North London favourite in late 2009 when Arsenal striker Nicklas Bendtner changed his shirt number from 26 to 52, earning himself the nickname B52 in the process. There are special machines that can prepare a B-52 in only a few seconds, however, an experienced bartender usually relies on the traditional, hand-made preparation. This method of the preparation is called building, as opposed to blending or shaking, thus, B-52s are usually served in a shot glass or sherry glass, although a heatproof glass is required when a flaming B-52 is served. First, a liqueur, such as Tia Maria or Kahlúa, is poured into the glass. Next, Baileys Irish Cream is poured slowly over the back of a cold bar spoon. Just as carefully, Grand Marnier is poured atop the Irish Cream using the bar spoon, the drink is sometimes made with a shaker and served in a cocktail glass, although this is less traditional. For a Flaming B-52, the top layer is ignited, producing a blue flame, filling the glass to the top reduces the amount of glass exposed to the flames, making the glass less likely to break, but the drink easier to spill. It is best to leave the flaming B-52 on the bartop, once lit, the drink should be finished quickly to avoid overheating the glass and burning the straw. Unless the flame is extinguished before drinking, a fireproof straw—such as one made of metal—may be preferred. Triple Sec at room temperature will not ignite easily, so it should be warmed up beforehand or topped with a layer of a dark overproof rum with 65-85% alcohol by volume
34.
Carajillo
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A carajillo is a Spanish drink combining coffee with brandy, whisky, anisette, or rum. It is typical of Spain and according to folk etymology, its dates to the Spanish occupation of Cuba. The troops combined coffee with rum to give them courage, there are many different ways of making a carajillo, ranging from black coffee with the spirit simply poured in to heating the spirit with lemon, sugar and cinnamon and adding the coffee last. A similar Italian drink is known as caffè corretto, the American version of a Spanish coffee uses a heated sugar rimmed Spanish coffee mug with 3⁄4 oz rum and 1⁄2 oz triple sec. The drink is then flamed to caramelize the sugar,2 oz coffee liqueur is then added which puts out the flame, and then it is topped off with 3–4 oz of coffee, and whipped cream. In Mexico carajillos are usually made with espresso and Licor 43 – a sweet vanilla-citrus flavored liquor– and its commonly drunk as a digestive after meals. Coffee portal Recipe and nutritional information at gastronomiavasca. net
35.
Milk and Alcohol
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Milk and Alcohol is a song by the band Dr. Feelgood, that reached number nine in the UK Singles Chart in 1979. Written by Nick Lowe and Gypie Mayo, and produced by Richard Gottehrer, however, while the song anonymously criticises Hooker, ironically it was inspired by Hookers own lyric about milk, cream and alcohol. The song was recorded in 1978 and first appeared on Private Practice, Milk and Alcohol was released as a single in January 1979. The vinyl material of the record was issued in the three colours of black, white and brown, with the white and brown meant to call to mind white milk. The outline of a Kahlúa bottle appears on the record sleeve, the background around the bottle on the different record sleeves was varied to match the vinyl colour. The song reached the Top 10 in the UK Singles Chart in the month it was released. The track reached number nine in the United Kingdom chart, in due to the songs reference to the milk and alcohol drink. The song is in the key of C major, and has a tempo of 168, like many other Dr Feelgood songs, it has a shuffle feel and a short guitar solo after the second chorus. Milk and Alcohol was the fourth hit single in the United Kingdom. In 1979, the world was perceived as being dominated by fey glam-rockers. When Milk and Alcohol was played in the pubs of Canvey Island in the late 1970s, for a while, the song led to some drinking both alcohol and milk while listening to Dr. Feelgood perform live. In April 1989, a remixed Milk and Alcohol was issued by EMI in both 7 vinyl, and 12 vinyl, both songs were later released on the Rarities disc of their Looking Back compilation album. In 1997, Milk and Alcohol continued to be played by the band making the rounds of the worlds pubs, clubs. However, by 2003, Milk and Alcohol was seen as a forgotten gem, with the band continuing to present the song in concerts, the music community regained respect for the song. In 2005, the bands biggest hit was being called a classic, three decades after reaching the UKs top ten, Milk and Alcohol continues to be a popular choice for the band during its concerts. Milk and Alcohol single release at Discogs Song lyrics at Drfeelgood. de
36.
History of alcoholic drinks
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Purposeful production of alcoholic drinks is common and often reflects cultural and religious peculiarities as much as geographical and sociological conditions. Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented beverages existed at least as early as the Neolithic period, chemical analysis of jars from the neolithic village Jiahu in the Henan province of northern China revealed traces of alcohol that were absorbed and preserved. The results of analysis were published in December 2004. This is approximately the time when barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the Middle East, wines first appearance is thought to date from 6000 BC in Georgia. The earliest firm evidence of production dates back to 5400 BC in Iran. Evidence of alcoholic beverages has also found dating from 3150 BC in ancient Egypt,3000 BC in Babylon,2000 BC in pre-Hispanic Mexico. The medicinal use of alcohol was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dating from about 2100 BC, the Hebrew Bible recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery. Wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, both the Greeks and the Romans generally drank diluted wine. In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer, often of very low strength, was a drink for all classes and ages of people. A document from that time mentions nuns having an allowance of six pints of ale each day, cider and pomace wine were also widely available, grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes. By the time the Europeans reached the Americas in the 15th century, according to a post-conquest Aztec document, consumption of the local wine was generally restricted to religious ceremonies but was freely allowed to those who were older than 70 years. The natives of South America produced a beer-like beverage from cassava or maize and this chewing technique was also used in ancient Japan to make sake from rice and other starchy crops. The ability to metabolize alcohol likely predates humanity with primates eating fermenting fruit, beer was the major beverage among the Babylonians, and as early as 2700 BC they worshiped a wine goddess and other wine deities. Babylonians regularly used both beer and wine as offerings to their gods, around 1750 BC, the famous Code of Hammurabi devoted attention to alcohol. However, there were no penalties for drunkenness, in fact, the concern was fair commerce in alcohol. Although it was not a crime, the Babylonians were critical of drunkenness, the earliest evidence of alcohol in what is now China are jars from Jiahu which date to about 7000 BC. This early rice mead was produced by fermenting rice, honey, what later developed into Chinese civilization grew up along the more northerly Yellow River and fermented a kind of huangjiu from millet. The Zhou attached great importance to alcohol and ascribed the loss of the mandate of Heaven by the earlier Xia and Shang as largely due to their dissolute and alcoholic emperors
37.
History of beer
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Chemical tests of ancient pottery jars reveal that beer was produced as far back as about 7,000 years ago in what is today Iran. This discovery reveals one of the earliest known uses of fermentation and is the earliest evidence of brewing to date, in Mesopotamia, the oldest evidence of beer is believed to be a 6, 000-year-old Sumerian tablet depicting people drinking a beverage through reed straws from a communal bowl. A 3900-year-old Sumerian poem honouring Ninkasi, the goddess of brewing, contains the oldest surviving beer recipe. In China, residue on pottery dating from between 5400 and 4900 years ago shows beer was brewed using barley and other grains, the invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology and build civilization. Beer may have known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 5,000 years ago. Women brewers dominated alcohol production on every occupied continent until commercialization and industrialization of brewing occurred, Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. More than 133 billion liters are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion in 2006, approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer. Ninkasi, you are the one who pours out the beer of the collector vat It is the onrush of Tigris. Beer is also mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which the wild man Enkidu is given beer to drink and he ate until he was full, drank seven pitchers of beer, his heart grew light, his face glowed and he sang out with joy. These beers were often thick, more of a gruel than a beverage, though beer was drunk in Ancient Rome, it was replaced in popularity by wine. Tacitus wrote disparagingly of the beer brewed by the Germanic peoples of his day, thracians were also known to consume beer made from rye, even since the 5th century BC, as the ancient Greek logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos says. Their name for beer was brutos, or brytos, the Romans called their brew cerevisia, from the Celtic word for it. Beer was apparently enjoyed by some Roman legionaries, for instance, among the Vindolanda tablets, the cavalry decurion Masculus wrote a letter to prefect Flavius Cerialis inquiring about the exact instructions for his men for the following day. This included a polite request for beer to be sent to the garrison, Ancient Nubians had used beer as an antibiotic medicine. Mesopotamian brewing appears to have incorporated the usage of a twice-baked barley bread called bappir and it was discovered early that reusing the same container for fermenting the mash would produce more reliable results, brewers on the move carried their tubs with them. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, early traces of beer and the brewing process have been found in ancient Babylonia as well
38.
History of wine
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The earliest archaeological evidence of wine consumption yet found has been at sites in China, Georgia, Iran, and Greece. The oldest evidence of production has been found in Armenia. The altered consciousness produced by wine has been considered religious since its origin, the Greeks worshiped Dionysus or Bacchus and the Romans carried on his cult. Consumption of ritual wine was part of Jewish practice since Biblical times and, as part of the eucharist commemorating Jesuss Last Supper, Wine production and consumption increased, burgeoning from the 15th century onwards as part of European expansion. Despite the devastating 1887 phylloxera louse infestation, modern science and technology adapted and industrial wine production, the origins of wine predate written records, and modern archaeology is still uncertain about the details of the first cultivation of wild grapevines. It has been hypothesized that early humans climbed trees to pick berries, liked their sugary flavor, after a few days with fermentation setting in, juice at the bottom of any container would begin producing low-alcohol wine. According to this theory, things changed around 10. 000-8000 BC with the transition from a nomadic to a style of living. Wild grapes grow in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, the northern Levant, coastal and southeastern Turkey, the fermenting of strains of this wild Vitis vinifera subsp. Sylvestris would have become easier following the development of pottery during the later Neolithic, however, the earliest evidence so far discovered dates from millennia afterwards. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in China, Georgia, Iran, Greece, the Iranian jars contained a form of retsina, using turpentine pine resin to more effectively seal and preserve the wine. Production spread to sites in Greater Iran and Grecian Macedonia by c. 4500 BC. The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site of the remnants of crushed grapes, the oldest-known winery was discovered in the Areni-1 cave in Vayots Dzor, Armenia. Dated to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a press, fermentation vats, jars. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines, commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier. The seeds were from Vitis vinifera vinifera, a still used to make wine. The cave remains date to about 4000 BC -900 years before the earliest comparable wine remains and this is what CNN wrote, Forget France. It turns out, the birthplace of wine may be in a cave in Armenia. Wine found in Armenia is considered to be at least 6100 years old, the fame of Persian wine has been well known in Ancient times
39.
History of Bordeaux wine
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The history of Bordeaux wine spans almost 2000 years to Roman times when the first vineyards were planted. In the Middle Ages, the marriage of Henry Plantagenet and Eleanor of Aquitaine opened the Bordeaux region to the English market and eventually to the worlds stage. Bordeaux wine production seems to have begun sometime after 43 AD, during the Roman occupation of Gaul, however, it is only in 71 AD that Pliny the Elder recorded the first real evidence of vineyards in Bordeaux. The areas location along the Gironde estuary provided a trade route with the British Isles. Wine historian, Roger Dion, has theorized that the first vine cuttings that the Romans brought to Bordeaux originated in the Rioja region of Spain, the early budding of the Bordeaux wine industry suffered a number of disruptions following the fall of Rome. The area was occupied by Vandals in AD408, Goths in 406, the area was also subjected to repeated encounters with Saxon longboats along the coast. These disruptions continued into the 5th century to the period of Frankish rule, although domestically popular, French wine was seldom exported, as the areas covered by vineyards and the volume of wine produced was low. In the 12th century however, the popularity of Bordeaux wines increased dramatically following the marriage of Henry Plantagenet, the marriage made the province of Aquitaine English territory, and thenceforth the majority of Bordeaux claret was exported in exchange for other goods. Upon the ascension of their son, Richard, to the English throne Bordeaux became the base for Richards French operations, as the popularity of Bordeaux wine increased, the vineyards expanded to accommodate the demands from abroad. Henry and Aliénor youngest son, John was in favor of promoting the wine industry, in the 13th and 14th century, a code of business practices called the police des vins emerged to give Bordeaux wine a distinct trade advantage over its neighboring regions. The citizenry of Bordeaux worked diligently to promote and foster their relationship with the English market, in 1205, King Alfonso VIII of Castile laid claim to Aquitaine and put Bordeaux under siege. The village was able to withstand the attack and King John rewarded the Bourgeois with orders for wine in excess of 120 tons, in 1224, King Louis VIII of France attempted to purge the English from French soil and was halted in his advance in the town of Bordeaux. In the aftermath Bordeaux received an access to the English market through London. During the 13th century, the Graves was the wine region of Bordeaux. While there were some vines growing in the Entre-Deux-Mers, Saint-Émilion and Blaye, at the turn of the 14th century, the town of Libourne was vying for dominance in the area, exporting 11,000 tons of wine to London from the 1308 vintage. A year earlier, this fulfilled a order for 1,152,000 bottles to be used for the celebration of Edward IIs wedding. The wine of this period was highly alcoholic and fruity but did not age well. The export of Bordeaux was effectively halted by the outbreak of The Hundred Years War between France and England in 1337 followed by the outbreak of the Black Death which ravaged the area
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