1.
Basel
–
Basel is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine. Basel is Switzerlands third-most-populous city with about 175,000 inhabitants, located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland, the official language of Basel is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Basel has been the seat of a Prince-Bishopric since the 11th century, the city has been a commercial hub and important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry in the 20th century. It hosts the oldest university of the Swiss Confederation, There are settlement traces on the Rhine knee from the early La Tène period. The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an Oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul. In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some 20 km from Basel as the administrative centre. The city of Basel eventually grew around the castle, the name of Basel is derived from the Roman-era toponym Basilia, first recorded in the 3rd century. It is presumably derived from the personal name Basilius, the Old French form Basle was adopted into English, and developed into the modern French Bâle. The Icelandic name Buslaraborg goes back to the 12th century Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan, Basel was incorporated into Germania Superior in AD83. Roman control over the area deteriorated in 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum formed by Diocletian, the Alamanni attempted to cross the Rhine several times in the 4th century, but were repelled. In a great invasion of AD406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace, from this time, Basel has been an Alemannic settlement. The Duchy of Alemannia fell under Frankish rule in the 6th century, and by the 7th century, based on the evidence of a third solidus with the inscription Basilia fit, Basel seems to have minted its own coins in the 7th century. Under bishop Haito, the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle, at the partition of the Carolingian Empire, Basel was first given to West Francia, but passed to East Francia with the treaty of Meerssen of 870. The city was plundered and destroyed by a Magyar invasion of 917, the rebuilt city became part of Upper Burgundy, and as such was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1032. Since the donation by Rudolph III of Burgundy of the Moutier-Grandval Abbey and all its possessions to Bishop Adalbero II in 999 till the Reformation, in 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel began under German Emperor Heinrich II. In 1225–1226, the Bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun, the bridge was largely funded by Basels Jewish community which had settled there a century earlier. For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river between Lake Constance and the sea, the Bishop also allowed the furriers to found a guild in 1226
Basel
–
Basel, as seen from the
Elisabethenkirche
Basel
–
Map of Basel in 1642, engraved by
Matthäus Merian, oriented with SW at the top and NE at the bottom.
Basel
–
A panoramic view of Basel, looking North from the Münster tower over Kleinbasel (Small Basel). The blue tower in the centre, the
Messeturm, was Switzerland's tallest building 2003-10; the bridge on the extreme right is the Wettsteinbrücke, Basel's second oldest bridge, but recently replaced by a new structure. The first bridge on the left is the Mittlere Brücke (Middle or Central Bridge), the oldest bridge in Basel.
Basel
–
The
synagogue of Basel
2.
Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
Switzerland
–
Founded in 44 BC by
Lucius Munatius Plancus,
Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
–
Flag
Switzerland
–
The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
–
The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.
3.
Theologian
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
Theologian
–
Augustine of Hippo (354–430),
Latin theologian. His writing on
free will and
original sin remains influential in Western Christendom.
Theologian
–
Albert the Great (1193/1206–1280),
patron saint of
Roman Catholic theologians
Theologian
–
Tommaso D'aquino was the greatest Western theologist of the Middle Ages.
Theologian
–
Allamah Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi was the most influential Islamic theologist of the 20th century.
4.
Church Dogmatics
–
Church Dogmatics is the fourteen-volume magnum opus of Swiss Protestant theologian Karl Barth, which was published in stages from 1932 to 1967. Widely regarded as one of the most important theological works of the century, Barth published the first part-volume of the Dogmatics in 1932 and continued working on it until his death in 1968, by which time it was 6 million words long in thirteen part-volumes. Highly contextual, the volumes are written chronologically, beginning with Vol. I/1, each volume reacts to a number of influences, concurrent political issues, questions raised by his students after lectures, and refutations of other academic Christians with opposing views. Barth explores the whole of Christian doctrine, presenting it as necessarily and entirely Christo-centric and he presents Jesus Christ as the unique and complete Word of God, made flesh. The Bible, therefore, functions as the attestation thereof in a manner,1. The gospel accounts and Pauline epistles act as witnesses, pointing backwards to the culmination and perfection of the covenant of God, manifested in Jesus Christ. More specifically, the content of the Church Dogmatics is as such, Volume I.1, The Doctrine of the Word of God, Part 1, Barth lays down the foundations of undertaking such a task. In this volume he discusses the purpose and goal of the series, and the form, nature and he then embarks on a thorough yet foundational exploration of the Trinitys role in the revelation of God to humanity. Volume II.1, The Doctrine of God, Part 1, Barth begins by presenting a foundation for the knowledge of God, followed by the reality of God. Volume II.2, The Doctrine of God, Part 2, In One of Barths more notable volumes, inside, Barth discusses predestination, its human response, and the ontological foundations thereof. Volume III.2, The Doctrine of Creation, Part 2, Here and he discusses such things as humanity as the covenant-partner of God, the semi-autonomous being, and the still-dependent being. Volume III.3, The Doctrine of Creation, Part 3, This volume dives into such issues as divine providence, God as Father and Lord, the volume closes by exploring the Kingdom of Heaven and its constituents. This volume most directly explores the actions of beings in response to the Word of God. To fail here is to fail everywhere and this volume sets out to discuss certain aspects of Jesus Christs role as the servant of God. It explores Christs obedience to Gods command, the pride and fall of humankind, the justification of humankind, Volume IV.2, The Doctrine of Reconciliation, Part 2, This volume centers on the actions of Jesus Christ as servant of God and Lord of humanity. It includes such discourses as the exaltation of Christ, the sloth of humankind, the sanctification of humankind, the volume ends with a deep reflection on the interaction of the Spirit with Love inside the Christian community. Volume IV.3.1, The Doctrine of Reconciliation, Part 3, First Half, This volume, in this part-volume, more specifically, Barth deals with the glory of the Mediator and the condemnation of humanity. Volume IV.3.2, The Doctrine of Reconciliation, Part 3, Second Half, This part-volume is a continuation of the last, continuing the theme of Jesus Christ as true Witness of God
Church Dogmatics
–
Karl Barth 's Church Dogmatics
5.
Reformed
–
Calvinism is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the tradition which it denotes has always been diverse. The movement was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, early influential Reformed theologians include Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B, Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, and Gordon Clark were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I, sproul, Timothy J. Keller, John Piper, David Wells, and Michael Horton. Reformed churches may exercise several forms of polity, most are presbyterian or congregationalist. Calvinism is largely represented by Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist traditions, the biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations such as the World Reformed Fellowship, Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552 and it was a common practice of the Catholic Church to name what they perceived to be heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles, Calvin denounced the designation himself, They could attach us no greater insult than this word, Calvinism. It is not hard to guess where such a deadly hatred comes from that they hold against me, despite its negative connotation, this designation became increasingly popular in order to distinguish Calvinists from Lutherans and from newer Protestant branches that emerged later. Moreover, these churches claim to be—in accordance with John Calvins own words—renewed accordingly with the order of gospel. Since the Arminian controversy, the Reformed tradition—as a branch of Protestantism distinguished from Lutheranism—divided into two groups, Arminians and Calvinists. However, it is now rare to call Arminians a part of the Reformed tradition, some have also argued that Calvinism as a whole stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things including salvation. First-generation Reformed theologians include Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, John Oecolampadius, scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace. Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the presence of Christ in the Lords supper. Each of these also understood salvation to be by grace alone. Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, the doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther
Reformed
–
Reformation Wall in
Geneva; from left to right:
William Farel,
John Calvin,
Theodore Beza, and
John Knox
Reformed
–
Calvin preached at
St. Pierre Cathedral, the main church in Geneva
Reformed
–
Calvin's
magnum opus:
Institutio Christianae religionis
Reformed
–
Calvinism has been known at times for its simple, unadorned churches and lifestyles, as depicted in this painting by
Emanuel de Witte c.1661
6.
Analogia fidei
–
If a mans gift is prophesying, let him use it in proportion to his faith. The last phrase, in proportion to his faith is in Greek κατὰ ἀναλογίαν τῆς πίστεως. In Romans 12,6 this refers to one of three possible ideas, the body of Christian teachings, the belief and response to the grace of God. This phrase in Romans 12 becomes the root for later usage of the term by such Early Christian writers as Tertullian, Tertullian links it to the core set of Christian teachings, i. e. For neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is anything, but a new creation is everything, as for those who will follow this rule — peace be upon them, and mercy, and upon the Israel of God. Paul is using the word in a fairly occasional sense here, as noted, some 120 years after Paul, Tertullian uses the phrase rule of faith in On Prescription Against Heretics. In Christian theology, it is a principle which evaluates religious life, in conservative Protestantism Romans 12,6 is viewed as the biblical reference for the term analogy of the faith
Analogia fidei
–
Revelations
7.
Protestantism in Switzerland
–
Since 1920, the Swiss Reformed Churches have been organized in 26 member churches of the Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches. In the 2000 Swiss census, 33% of Swiss population were reported as registered members of a Reformed cantonal church, after the early death of Zwingli in 1531, his work was continued by Heinrich Bullinger, the author of the Second Helvetic Confession. The French-speaking cities Neuchâtel, Geneva and Lausanne changed to the Reformation ten years later under William Farel, a distinctive feature of the Swiss Reformed churches in the Zwinglian tradition is their historically almost symbiotic link to the state, which is only loosening gradually in the present. Organizationally, the Reformed Churches in Switzerland remain separate, cantonal units, the German churches are more in the Zwinglian tradition, the French more in the Calvinist tradition. They are governed synodically and their relation to the canton ranges from independent to close collaboration. A minority Lutheran community has been present since the 19th century, during the 20th century, other Lutheran congregations have been founded by immigrants from other nations, a Danish-Lutheran congregation in 1947 and a Swedish-Lutheran one in 1961. Pentecostal Protestantism reached Switzerland from the United States in the early 20th century, as of 2000, minor Protestant confessions in Switzerland were reported, Methodists, other. Schweizerischer Evangelischer Kirchenbund / Fédération des Églises protestantes de Suisse—Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches www. ref. ch www. protestant. ch - Les Eglises réformées de Suisse romande
Protestantism in Switzerland
–
Distribution of denominations in Switzerland in 2008 (green: Protestant, red:
Roman Catholic)
8.
Reformed churches
–
Calvinism is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the tradition which it denotes has always been diverse. The movement was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, early influential Reformed theologians include Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B, Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, and Gordon Clark were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I, sproul, Timothy J. Keller, John Piper, David Wells, and Michael Horton. Reformed churches may exercise several forms of polity, most are presbyterian or congregationalist. Calvinism is largely represented by Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist traditions, the biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations such as the World Reformed Fellowship, Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552 and it was a common practice of the Catholic Church to name what they perceived to be heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles, Calvin denounced the designation himself, They could attach us no greater insult than this word, Calvinism. It is not hard to guess where such a deadly hatred comes from that they hold against me, despite its negative connotation, this designation became increasingly popular in order to distinguish Calvinists from Lutherans and from newer Protestant branches that emerged later. Moreover, these churches claim to be—in accordance with John Calvins own words—renewed accordingly with the order of gospel. Since the Arminian controversy, the Reformed tradition—as a branch of Protestantism distinguished from Lutheranism—divided into two groups, Arminians and Calvinists. However, it is now rare to call Arminians a part of the Reformed tradition, some have also argued that Calvinism as a whole stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things including salvation. First-generation Reformed theologians include Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, John Oecolampadius, scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace. Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the presence of Christ in the Lords supper. Each of these also understood salvation to be by grace alone. Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, the doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther
Reformed churches
–
Reformation Wall in
Geneva; from left to right:
William Farel,
John Calvin,
Theodore Beza, and
John Knox
Reformed churches
–
Calvin preached at
St. Pierre Cathedral, the main church in Geneva
Reformed churches
–
Calvin's
magnum opus:
Institutio Christianae religionis
Reformed churches
–
Calvinism has been known at times for its simple, unadorned churches and lifestyles, as depicted in this painting by
Emanuel de Witte c.1661
9.
Theology
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
Theology
–
Augustine of Hippo (354–430),
Latin theologian. His writing on
free will and
original sin remains influential in Western Christendom.
Theology
–
Albert the Great (1193/1206–1280),
patron saint of
Roman Catholic theologians
Theology
–
Tommaso D'aquino was the greatest Western theologist of the Middle Ages.
Theology
–
Allamah Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi was the most influential Islamic theologist of the 20th century.
10.
Time (magazine)
–
Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
Time (magazine)
–
The first issue of Time (March 3, 1923), featuring
Speaker Joseph G. Cannon.
Time (magazine)
–
Bibi Aisha on the Cover of Time.
Time (magazine)
–
Time Magazine red X covers: from left to right, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and Osama bin Laden.
11.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
–
Dietrich Bonhoeffer was a German pastor, theologian, spy, anti-Nazi dissident, and key founding member of the Confessing Church. His writings on Christianitys role in the world have become widely influential. He was arrested in April 1943 by the Gestapo and imprisoned at Tegel prison for one, later he was transferred to a Nazi concentration camp. Bonhoeffer was born on 4 February 1906 in Breslau, into a large family, in addition to his other siblings, Dietrich had a twin sister, Sabine Bonhoeffer Leibholz, he and Sabine were the sixth and seventh children out of eight. His oldest brother Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer became a chemist, and, along with Paul Harteck, walter Bonhoeffer, the second born of the Bonhoeffer family, was killed in action during World War I, when the twins were 12. The third Bonhoeffer child, Klaus, was involved in the 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler, along with Dietrich, he, both of Bonhoeffers older sisters, Ursula Bonhoeffer Schleicher and Christel Bonhoeffer von Dohnanyi, married men who were eventually executed by the Nazis. Christel was imprisoned by the Nazis but survived, Sabine and their youngest sister Susanne Bonhoeffer Dress each married men who survived Nazism. His cousin Karl-Günther von Hase was the German Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1970 to 1977, Bonhoeffer completed his Staatsexamen, the equivalent of both a bachelors degree and a masters degree, at the Protestant Faculty of Theology of the University. He went on to complete his Doctor of Theology degree from in 1927, still too young to be ordained, at the age of 24 Bonhoeffer went to the United States in 1930 for postgraduate study and a teaching fellowship at New York Citys Union Theological Seminary. Although Bonhoeffer found the American seminary not up to his exacting German standards, he had life-changing experiences, Bonhoeffer began to see things from below—from the perspective of those who suffer oppression. He observed, Here one can speak and hear about sin and grace. Later Bonhoeffer referred to his impressions abroad as the point at which he turned from phraseology to reality and he also learned to drive an automobile, although he failed the driving test three times. He traveled by car through the United States to Mexico, where he had invited to speak on the subject of peace. His early visits to Italy, Libya, Spain, the United States, Mexico, after returning to Germany in 1931, Bonhoeffer became a lecturer in systematic theology at the University of Berlin. Deeply interested in ecumenism, he was appointed by the World Alliance for Promoting International Friendship through the Churches as one of its three European youth secretaries, on 15 November 1931—at the age of 25—he was ordained at the Old-Prussian United St. Matthews Church in Berlin. Bonhoeffers promising academic and ecclesiastical career was altered with Nazi ascension to power on 30 January 1933. He was an opponent of the regime from its first days. He was cut off the air in the middle of a sentence, in November 1932, two months before the Nazi takeover, there had been an election for presbyters and synodals of the German Landeskirche
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
–
Bonhoeffer in 1939
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
–
German commemorative stamp of Dietrich Bonhoeffer from 1995
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
–
Dietrich Bonhoeffer on a weekend getaway with
confirmands of Zion's Church congregation (1932)
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
–
Memorial of Dietrich Bonhoeffer in front of
St. Peter's Church,
Hamburg
12.
Confessing Church
–
The following statistics are an aid in understanding the context of the political and theological developments discussed in this article. §24 of the Peace of Augsburg guaranteed members of other than the rulers the freedom of emigration with all their possessions. The Peace of Augsburg protected Catholicism and Lutheranism, but not Calvinism, thus, in 1613, when John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg converted from Lutheranism to Calvinism, he could not exercise the principle of cuius regio, eius religio. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia accorded the principle of cuius regio, for instance, Saxon Augustus II the Strong converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism in 1697, but did not exercise his cuius regio, eius religio privilege. A conqueror or successor to the throne who adhered to a different creed from his new subjects usually would not complicate his takeover by imposing conversions and these enlarged realms spawned diaspora congregations, as immigrants settled in areas where the prevailing creeds differed from their own. This juxtaposition of beliefs in turn brought about more frequent personal changes in denomination, in a major departure, the legislature of the North German Confederation instituted the right of irreligionism in 1869, permitting the declaration of secession from all religious bodies. The Protestant Church in Germany was and is divided into geographic regions, in the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the then-existing monarchies and republics established regional churches, comprising the respective congregations within the then-existing state borders. In the case of Protestant ruling dynasties, each church affiliated with the regnal houses. Church and State were, therefore, to a large extent combined on a regional basis, in the aftermath of World War I with its political and social turmoil, the regional churches lost their secular rulers. With revolutionary fervor in the air, the church leaders had to contend with socialists. A compromise was reached — one which favored the Protestant church establishment, there would no longer be state churches, but the churches remained public corporations and retained their subsidies from the state governments for services they performed on behalf of the government. In turn, on behalf of the churches, the state governments collected church fees from those taxpayers enlisted as parishioners and these fees were, and still are, used to finance church activities and administration. The theological faculties in the continued to exist, as did religious instruction in the schools, however. The governing structure of the churches effectively changed with the introduction of chairpersons elected by church synods instead of being appointed by the state, many Protestants voted for the Nazis in the elections of summer and autumn 1932 and March 1933. The churches did not reject National Socialism on principle, the idea of a strong authority and a close bond between throne and altar, of the kind that existed in the empire between 1871 and 1918, was in keeping with Protestant tradition. Had reservations about the democratic Weimar Republic and sympathized with political forces – such as the German National Peoples Party – that idealized the past, the German Christian movement in the Protestant Church developed in the late Weimar period. They were, for the most part, a group of fanatic Nazi Protestants who were organized in 1931 to help win elections of presbyters and this was reinforced by the Luther Renaissance Movement of Professor Emmanuel Hirsch. German Christianity emphasized the distinction between the visible and invisible church, for the German Christians, the church on earth was not the fellowship of the holy spirit described in the New Testament28 but a contrast to it, a vehicle for the expression of race and ethnicity
Confessing Church
–
Synodal elections 1933: German Christians and Confessing Church campaigners in Berlin
Confessing Church
–
Meeting house of the Evangelical
Dahlem Congregation, Berlin
Confessing Church
–
Plaque commemorating the second Reich Synod of Confession on the outside wall of the meeting house
13.
Reinhold Niebuhr
–
Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr was an American theologian, ethicist, commentator on politics and public affairs, and professor at Union Theological Seminary for more than 30 years. Niebuhr was one of Americas leading public intellectuals for several decades of the 20th century, andrew Bacevich labelled Niebuhrs book The Irony of American History the most important book ever written on U. S. foreign policy. Niebuhrs realism deepened after 1945 and led him to support American efforts to confront Soviet communism around the world, a powerful speaker, he was one of the most influential thinkers of the 1940s and 1950s in public affairs. During this time he was viewed by many as the rival of John Dewey. Niebuhrs long-term impact on political philosophy involve his utilizing the resources of the Christian faith to argue for political realism and his work has also significantly influenced international relations theory, leading many scholars to move away from idealism and embrace realism. Recent years have seen a renewed interest in Niebuhrs work, in part because of Obamas stated admiration for Niebuhr, aside from his political commentary, Niebuhr is also known for having composed the Serenity Prayer, a widely-recited prayer which was popularized by Alcoholics Anonymous. Niebuhr was also one of the founders of both Americans for Democratic Action and the International Rescue Committee and also spent time at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton and he was also the brother of another prominent theologian, H. Richard Niebuhr. Niebuhr was born in Wright City, Missouri, the son of German immigrants Gustav Niebuhr and his father was a German Evangelical pastor, his denomination was the American branch of the established Prussian Church Union in Germany. It is now part of the United Church of Christ, the family spoke German at home. His brother H. Richard Niebuhr also became a famous theological ethicist, the Niebuhr family moved to Lincoln, Illinois, in 1902 when Gustav Niebuhr became pastor of Lincolns St. Johns German Evangelical Synod church. Reinhold Niebuhr first served as pastor of a church when he served from April to September 1913 as interim minister of St. Johns following his fathers death, Niebuhr attended Elmhurst College in Illinois and graduated in 1910. He studied at Eden Theological Seminary in Webster Groves, Missouri, Press in biblical and systematic subjects, and Yale Divinity School, where he earned a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1914 and a Master of Arts degree the following year. He always regretted not taking a doctorate and he said that Yale gave him intellectual liberation from the localism of his German-American upbringing. In 1931 Niebuhr married Ursula Keppel-Compton and she was a member of the Church of England and was educated at Oxford University in theology and history. She met Niebuhr while studying for her masters degree at Union Theological Seminary, for many years, she was on faculty at Barnard College where she helped establish and then chaired the religious studies department. The Niebuhrs had two children, Christopher Niebuhr and Elisabeth Niebuhr Sifton, Ursula Niebuhr left evidence in her professional papers at the Library of Congress showing that she co-authored some of her husbands later writings. In 1915, Niebuhr was ordained a pastor, the German Evangelical mission board sent him to serve at Bethel Evangelical Church in Detroit, Michigan. The congregation numbered sixty-six on his arrival and grew to nearly 700 by the time he left in 1928, the increase reflected his ability to reach people outside the German American community and among the growing population attracted to jobs in the booming automobile industry
Reinhold Niebuhr
–
Reinhold Niebuhr
14.
Jacques Ellul
–
Jacques Ellul was a French philosopher, sociologist, lay theologian, and professor who was a noted Christian anarchist. Ellul was a longtime Professor of History and the Sociology of Institutions on the Faculty of Law, the dominant theme of his work proved to be the threat to human freedom and religion created by modern technology. Among his most influential books are The Technological Society and Propaganda, considered by many a philosopher, Ellul was by training a sociologist who approached the question of technology and human action from a dialectical viewpoint. His constant concern was the emergence of a tyranny over humanity. As a philosopher and theologian, he explored the religiosity of the technological society. In 2000 the International Jacques Ellul Society was founded by a group of former Ellul students, the society, which includes scholars from a variety of disciplines, is devoted to continuing Elluls legacy and discussing the contemporary relevance and implications of his work. Jacques Ellul was born in Bordeaux, France on 6 January 1912 to Marthe Mendes, as a teenager he wanted to be a naval officer but his father made him read law. He married Yvette Lensvelt in 1937, Ellul was educated at the universities of Bordeaux and Paris. In World War II, he was a leader in the French resistance, for his efforts to save Jews he was awarded the title Righteous among the Nations by Yad Vashem in 2001. He was a layman in the Reformed Church of France and attained a position within it as part of the National Council. Ellul was best friends with Bernard Charbonneau, who wrote on similar themes and they met through the Protestant Student Federation during the academic school year of 1929–1930. By the early 1930s, Elluls three primary sources of inspiration were Karl Marx, Søren Kierkegaard, and Karl Barth. Ellul was first introduced to the ideas of Karl Marx during a lecture course taught by Joseph Benzacar in 1929–30, Ellul studied Marx. During this same period, he came across the Christian existentialism of Kierkegaard. According to Ellul, Marx and Kierkegaard were his two greatest influences, and the two authors of which he read all of their work. Also, he considered Karl Barth, who was a leader of the resistance against the German state church in World War II, in addition to these intellectual influences, Ellul also said that his father played a great role in his life and considered him his role model. These ideological influences earned him both devoted followers and vicious enemies, in Jacques Ellul, A Systemic Exposition Darrell J. Fasching claimed Ellul believed That which desacralizes a given reality, itself in turn becomes the new sacred reality. In 1932, after what he describes as a brutal and very sudden conversion
Jacques Ellul
–
Jacques Ellul in his house in Pessac, France. Photo taken in 1990 as part of the filming of the documentary "The Betrayal by Technology" by ReRun Productions, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
15.
John Updike
–
John Hoyer Updike was an American novelist, poet, short story writer, art critic, and literary critic. Hundreds of his stories, reviews, and poems appeared in The New Yorker starting in 1954 and he also wrote regularly for The New York Review of Books. His most famous work is his Rabbit series, which chronicles the life of the middle-class everyman Harry Rabbit Angstrom over the course of several decades, both Rabbit Is Rich and Rabbit at Rest were recognized with the Pulitzer Prize. Updike populated his fiction with characters who frequently experience personal turmoil and must respond to crises relating to religion, family obligations and his work has attracted significant critical attention and praise, and he is widely considered one of the great American writers of his time. He described his style as an attempt to give the mundane its beautiful due, Updike was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, the only child of Linda Grace and Wesley Russell Updike, and was raised in the nearby small town of Shillington. The family later moved to the village of Plowville. His mothers attempts to become a published writer impressed the young Updike, one of my earliest memories, he later recalled, is of seeing her at her desk. I admired the writers equipment, the typewriter eraser, the boxes of clean paper, and I remember the brown envelopes that stories would go off in—and come back in. These early years in Berks County, Pennsylvania, would influence the environment of the Rabbit Angstrom tetralogy, as well as many of his early novels, Updike graduated from Shillington High School as co-valedictorian and class president in 1950 and attended Harvard with a full scholarship. He received recognition for his writing as a teenager by winning a Scholastic Art, at Harvard, he soon became well known among his classmates as a talented and prolific contributor to the Harvard Lampoon, of which he served as president. He graduated summa cum laude in 1954 with a degree in English and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, upon graduation, Updike attended The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art at the University of Oxford with the ambition of becoming a cartoonist. After returning to the United States, Updike and his moved to New York. This was the beginning of his writing career. Updike stayed at The New Yorker as a staff writer for only two years, writing Talk of the Town columns and submitting poetry and short stories to the magazine. In New York, Updike wrote the poems and stories came to fill his early books like The Carpentered Hen. These works were influenced by Updikes early engagement with The New Yorker and this early work also featured the influence of J. D. Salinger, John Cheever, and the Modernists Marcel Proust, Henry Green, James Joyce, and Vladimir Nabokov. During this time, Updike underwent a spiritual crisis. Suffering from a loss of faith, he began reading Søren Kierkegaard
John Updike
–
Updike in 1989
John Updike
–
Updike delivering the 2008
Jefferson Lecture.
16.
Adolf Hitler
–
Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
Adolf Hitler
–
Hitler in 1938
Adolf Hitler
–
Adolf Hitler as an infant (c. 1889–90).
Adolf Hitler
–
Hitler's mother,
Klara
Adolf Hitler
–
Hitler's father,
Alois
17.
Nazi regime
–
Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
Nazi regime
–
Hitler became Germany's head of state, with the title of
Führer und Reichskanzler, in 1934.
Nazi regime
–
Flag
Nazi regime
–
Joseph Goebbels,
Reich Minister of Propaganda
Nazi regime
–
Ethnic Germans in
Saaz, Czechoslovakia, greet German soldiers with the
Nazi salute, 1938
18.
Protestant Reich Church
–
After World War II, both of these bodies were replaced by a new umbrella organization that persists to this day. Many rather monodenominational German states had turned into multidenominational between 1803 and 1815 due to the widespread annexations of smaller states whose people clung to other creeds, at that time in no German state were government and religion separated. In the 1820s almost all Roman Catholic diocesan boundaries in Germany were redrawn according to the new state borders, in Saxony and the then Thuringian states, like in most of Bavaria and all of Northwestern Germany Lutherans and Calvinists never merged. In particular, the Old Lutheran communities in Germany, Missouri, South Australia, the Kulturkampf aimed to restrain and hamper the factual or rather imagined influence of the Catholic church. There was little solidarity of Protestants and Protestant churches with the Catholic church under political attack, in particular, this law targeted a nascent German Old Catholic Church movement, one free of ultra-montanism, or control by the Vatican. The movement further targeted Jews, and a few hundreds of Mormons, under the Weimar Republic, the system of state churches disappeared with the German monarchies. At this point, the unification of the Protestant churches into a single organization seemed like a possibility, in 1920, Swiss Protestant churches came together in the Schweizerischer Evangelischer Kirchenbund. Following their example, the then 28 territorially defined German Protestant churches founded the Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchenbund in 1922 and this was not a merger into a single church but a loose federation of independent ones. The founding of the German Evangelical Church was the result of work by the German Christians who had gained a majority at the 1933 church elections. Consequently, the German Evangelical Church, created as a merger, Ludwig Müller was elected Reich Bishop. Some Protestant functionaries and laymen opposed the unification, many more agreed but wanted it under Protestant principles, not imposed by Nazi partisans. At the first Reichs Synod of Confession held in Wuppertal-Barmen between 29–31 May 1934, it called itself the Confessing Church, on 16 July 1935, Hanns Kerrl was appointed Reichsminister for Church Affairs, a newly created department. He started negotiations to find a compromise and dropped the extreme German Christians, trying to win moderate Confessing Christians, on 24 September 1935, a new law empowered Kerrl to legislate by way of ordinances within the German Evangelical Church, circumventing any synodal autonomy. In November, Kerrl decreed the parallel institutions of the Confessing Church were to be dissolved, thus, the brethren councils had to go into hiding, and Kerrl successfully wedged the Confessing Church. The Gestapo increased its suppression, undermining the readiness for compromises among the Confessing Church, zoellner concluded that this made his reconciliatory work impossible and criticised the Gestapo activities. He resigned on 2 February 1937, paralysing the Ecclesiastical Committee which lost all recognition among the opposition, Kerrl now subjected Müllers chancery of the German Evangelical Church directly to his ministry and the national, provincial and state ecclesiastical committees were soon after dissolved. Although the church was supported by the regime, the Nazis eventually lost interest in the experiment after it failed to supplant or absorb traditional Protestant churches. After 1937, relations between the Reich Church and the Nazi government began to sour and his order said the name of the God of Israel must be obliterated wherever it was displayed in Protestant churches
Protestant Reich Church
–
Stormtroopers holding German Christian propaganda during the Church Council elections on July 23, 1933 at
St. Mary's Church, Berlin.
19.
Barmen Declaration
–
The Barmen Declaration or The Theological Declaration of Barmen 1934 was a document adopted by Christians in Nazi Germany who opposed the Deutsche Christen movement. The Barmen Declaration rejects the subordination of the Church to the state,8.27 We reject the false doctrine, as though the Church in human arrogance could place the Word and work of the Lord in the service of any arbitrarily chosen desires, purposes, and plans. Thus alone is the Church renewed, it submits itself explicitly and radically to Holy Scripture as Gods gracious Word,8.04 Try the spirits whether they are of God. Prove also the words of the Confessional Synod of the German Evangelical Church to see whether they agree with Holy Scripture, if you find that we are speaking contrary to Scripture, then do not listen to us. Therefore, Fear not, little flock, for it is your Fathers good pleasure to give you the kingdom, the document became the chief confessional document of the so-called Confessing Church. The ecumenical nature of the Declaration can be seen by its inclusion in the Constitution of the Presbyterian Church and the Book of Order of the worldwide Moravian Unity, one of the main purposes of the Declaration was to establish a three-church confessional consensus opposing pro-nazi German Christianity. These three churches were Lutheran, Reformed, and United, douglas, J. D. Wright, David D. Ferguson, Sinclair B. eds. Becker, Matthew L. Pericope of the Week, The Theological Declaration of Barmen, the Constitution of the Presbyterian Church. Louisville, KY, The Office of the General Assembly
Barmen Declaration
–
German stamp: 50 years of the "Barmen Declaration"
20.
German Christians
–
Their advocacy of these principles led to a schism within 23 of the initially 28 regional church bodies in Germany and the attendant foundation of the opposing Confessing Church. During the period of the German Empire, before the Weimar Republic, Church and state were therefore, to a large extent, combined on a regional basis. Monarchies of Roman Catholic dynasties also organised church bodies territorially defined by their state borders, the same was true for the three republican German states within the pre-1918 Empire. In Alsace-Lorraine the Napoleonic system of établissements publics du culte for the Calvinist, Jewish, Lutheran and Roman Catholic congregations, with the end of World War I and the resulting political and social turmoil, the regional churches lost their secular rulers. With revolutionary fervor in the air, the church leaders had to contend with socialists who favored disestablishment. Religious instruction in the continued, as did the theological faculties in the universities. The rights formerly held by the princes in the German Empire simply devolved to church councils, accordingly, in this initial period of the Weimar Republic, the Protestant Church in Germany now operated as a federation of 28 regional churches. The League was governed and administered by a 36-member Executive Committee which was responsible for ongoing governance between the conventions of the Kirchentag. The Deutsche Christen were, for the most part, a group of fanatically Nazi Protestants and they began as an interest group and eventually came to represent one of the schismatic factions of German Protestantism. This was reinforced by the Luther Renaissance Movement of Professor Emmanuel Hirsch, the movement used scriptural support to justify this position. They were led by Ludwig Müller, a rather incompetent old fighter who had no particular skills or qualifications. He was advised by Emanuel Hirsch, the group achieved no particular notoriety before the Nazi assumption of political power in January 1933. In the Prussian church elections of November 1932, Deutsche Christen won one-third of the vote, Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 and the process of Gleichschaltung was in its full sway in the first few months of the regime. The new and unified national DEK would completely replace and supersede the old federated church with its representative league, the Deutsche Christen agitated for Müller to be elected as the new Churchs bishop. Needless to say, Hitler was infuriated with the rejection of his candidate, after a series of Nazi-directed political maneuvers, Bodelschwingh resigned and Müller was appointed as the new Reichsbischof in July 1933. Their opponents founded the Confessing Church in 1934, which condemned the Deutsche Christen as heretics, the Deutsche Christen were supportive of the Nazi ideas about race. They issued public statements that Christians in Germany with Jewish ancestors remain Christians in a New Testament sense, also they supported the call from the Nazi party platform for a positive Christianity that does not stress human sinfulness. Some went so far as to call for removal of the Jewish Old Testament from the Bible and their symbol was a traditional Christian cross with a swastika in the middle and the groups German initials D and C
German Christians
–
German Christians celebrating Luther-Day in Berlin in 1933, speech by bishop Hossenfelder
German Christians
–
Flag of the German Christians 1934
21.
Predestination
–
Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, in this usage, predestination can be regarded as a form of religious determinism, and usually predeterminism. There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the views on predestination of first-century AD Judaism, josephus wrote during the first century that the three main Jewish sects differed on this question. He argued that the Essenes and Pharisees argued that Gods providence orders all human events and he wrote that the Sadducees did not have a doctrine of providence. Biblical scholar N. T. Wright asserts that Essenes were content to wait for God to liberate Israel while Pharisees believed Jews needed to act in cooperation with God, in the New Testament, Romans 8–11 presents a statement on predestination. In Romans 8, 28–30, Paul writes, We know that in everything God works for good with those who love him, who are called according to his purpose. For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, and those whom he predestined he also called, and those whom he called he also justified, and those whom he justified he also glorified. Biblical scholars have interpreted this passage in several ways, many say this only has to do with service, those he chose of service and is not about salvation. Catholic biblical commentator Brendan Byrne wrote that the mentioned in this passage should be interpreted as applied to the Christian community corporately rather than individuals. Another Catholic commentator, Joseph Fitzmyer, wrote that this teaches that God has predestined the salvation of all humans. Douglas Moo, a Protestant biblical interpreter, reads the passage as teaching that God has predestined a certain set of people to salvation, similarly, N. T. Instead, Wright asserts that Gods will works through that of humans to accomplish salvation. Origen, writing in the century, taught that Gods providence extends to every individual. He believed Gods predestination was based on Gods foreknowledge of every individuals merits, later in the fourth and fifth centuries, Augustine of Hippo also taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom. Prior to 396, Augustine believed that predestination was based on Gods foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe, scholars are divided over whether Augustines teaching implies double predestination, or the belief that God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny that he held such a view while some Protestants, julian, bishop of Eclanum, expressed the view that Augustine was bringing Manichean thoughts into the church. For Vincent of Lérins, this was a disturbing innovation and this new tension eventually became obvious with the confrontation between Augustine and Pelagius culminating in condemnation of Pelagianism at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Pelagius denied Augustines view of predestination in order to affirm that salvation is achieved by an act of free will, the Second Council of Orange in 529 also condemned the position that some have been truly predestined to evil by divine power. Damascene teaches that peoples actions are done in cooperation with God
Predestination
–
Ministry of Jesus &
Apostolic Age
22.
Bern
–
The city of Bern or Berne is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their Bundesstadt, or federal city. With a population of 141,762, Bern is the fourth-most populous city in Switzerland, the Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000, Bern is also the capital of the canton of Bern, the second-most populous of Switzerlands cantons. The official language in Bern is German, but the language is an Alemannic Swiss German dialect. In 1983, the old town in the centre of Bern became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bern is ranked among the top ten cities for the best quality of life. The etymology of the name Bern is uncertain and it has long been considered likely that the city was named after the Italian city of Verona, which at the time was known as Bern in Middle High German. As a result of the find of the Bern zinc tablet in the 1980s, it is now common to assume that the city was named after a pre-existing toponym of Celtic origin. The bear was the animal of the seal and coat of arms of Bern from at least the 1220s. The earliest reference to the keeping of bears in the Bärengraben dates to the 1440s. No archaeological evidence that indicates a settlement on the site of city centre prior to the 12th century has been found so far. In antiquity, a Celtic oppidum stood on the Engehalbinsel north of Bern, fortified since the second century BC, during the Roman era, a Gallo-Roman vicus was on the same site. The Bern zinc tablet has the name Brenodor, in the Early Middle Ages, a settlement in Bümpliz, now a city district of Bern, was some 4 km from the medieval city. The medieval city is a foundation of the Zähringer ruling family, according to 14th-century historiography, Bern was founded in 1191 by Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen. In 1218, after Berthold died without an heir, Bern was made an imperial city by the Goldene Handfeste of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In 1353, Bern joined the Swiss Confederacy, becoming one of the eight cantons of the period of 1353 to 1481. The city grew out towards the west of the boundaries of the peninsula formed by the river Aare, the Zytglogge tower marked the western boundary of the city from 1191 until 1256, when the Käfigturm took over this role until 1345. It was, in turn, succeeded by the Christoffelturm until 1622, during the time of the Thirty Years War, two new fortifications – the so-called big and small Schanze – were built to protect the whole area of the peninsula
Bern
–
The construction of the Untertor-bridge in Bern, Tschachtlanchronik, late 15th century
Bern
–
Aerial view of the
Old City
Bern
–
Bern in 1638
Bern
–
View of Bern from the
ISS. The Old City is in the lower, right hand side.
23.
Safenwil
–
Safenwil is a municipality in the district of Zofingen in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. The first settlement in the area was a Roman era estate on a track from the Wigger valley toward Vindonissa. This was followed by a small Alamanni camp or settlement, the Eberkopf rock carvings date back to 893 AD, though the modern village of Safenwil is first mentioned in 924 as Sabenewilare. In the 13th century the village was under the rule Belp, in the 14th century the Ifenthal family ruled over the village from Scherenberg castle. With the conquest of the Aargau in 1415, the village came under the authority of Bern, under Bernese rule, Safenwil was located in the Lenzburg District. In 1415 Bern took over the court rights in the village. The low court right was held by Gösgen in Solothurn after 1458, in 1665 this court also went to Bern. In 1803 it became part of the newly formed Canton of Aargau and was assigned to the Zofingen district, school houses were built in Safenwil in 1730, 1829–30,1908,1969 and 1999. In 1304, Zofingen monastery built the St. Ulrichs Chapel in Safenwil, during the Protestant Reformation, Bern destroyed the chapel. Before the Reformation, Safenwil was part of the Gretzenbach parish, between 1528-1616 it was in the Zofingen parish, and after 1616 it was part of the Kölliken parish. In 1865 it became an independent parish, and built its own church in 1866-67, around 1770 Bern built the regional road from Bern to Zurich through the village. Then, in 1877, Swiss Federal Railways included it on the Aarau-Zofingen line, since 1967, the A1 motorway cuts through the town. The good transportation links allowed the town to grow, around 1820 the first factory, a weaving and dyeing factory, opened in Safenwil. The Hüssy factory remained open for over a century, closing in 1934, in 1897 the Hochuli knitting factory opened near the train station. In the 19th and 20th centuries several other factories opened, while other residents commuted to factories in Zofingen, in 1920, 14% of the jobs were in agriculture, while 75% were in industry. By 2005 most of the industry had moved out and only 19% worked in industry while 77% worked in the services sector. In 1951, the car import company Emil Frey moved into the municipality and this company employs approximately 230 workers and shapes the local labor market and the village. Safenwil has an area, as of 2009, of 5.99 square kilometers, of this area,1.66 km2 or 27. 7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 2.75 km2 or 45. 9% is forested
Safenwil
–
Safenwil and Kölliken
Safenwil
–
Some of Karl Barth's writings at the Karl-Barth-Stube museum
24.
Cantons of Switzerland
–
The 26 cantons of Switzerland are the member states of the Swiss Confederation. The nucleus of the Swiss Confederacy in the form of the first three confederate allies used to be referred to as the Waldstätte, with the Napoleonic period of the Helvetic Republic the term canton/cantone/Kanton was fully established. From 1833, there were 25 cantons, which became 26 after the secession of the canton of Jura from Bern in 1979. The term canton, now used as English term for administrative subdivisions of other countries, originates in French usage in the late 15th century, from a word for edge. After 1490, canton was increasingly used in French and Italian documents to refer to the members of the Swiss Confederacy, English use of canton in reference to the Swiss Confederacy dates to the early 17th century. It was increasingly replaced by Stand after 1550, the French term canton was not adopted into German usage prior to 1648, and after that only in occasional use. The prominent usage of Ort and Stand only gradually disappeared in German-speaking Switzerland with the Helvetic Republic, only with the Act of Mediation of 1803 did German Kanton become an official designation, retained in the Swiss Constitution of 1848. The term Stand remains in usage and is reflected in the name of the upper chamber of the Swiss Parliament. Republic Some cantonal constitutions provide for a formal name of the state. Most of Romandys cantons and Ticino call themselves république/Repubblica officially, at least within their constitutions, for example, the canton of Geneva refers to itself formally as the République et canton de Genève. Though they were part of the Holy Roman Empire, they had become de facto independent when the Swiss defeated Emperor Maximillian in 1499 in Dornach. The old system was abandoned with the formation of the Helvetic Republic following the French invasion of Switzerland in 1798, the cantons of the Helvetic Republic had merely the status of an administrative subdivision with no sovereignty. The Helvetic Republic collapsed within five years, and cantonal sovereignty was restored with the Act of Mediation of 1803, the status of Switzerland as a federation of states was restored, at the time including 19 cantons. Three additional western cantons, Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva, acceded in 1815, the process of Restoration, completed by 1830, returned most of the former feudal rights to the cantonal patriciates, leading to rebellions among the rural population. The Liberal Radical Party embodied these democratic forces calling for a new federal constitution and this tension, paired with religious issues escalated into armed conflict in the 1840s, with the brief Sonderbund War. The victory of the party resulted in the formation of Switzerland as a federal state in 1848. The cantons retained far-reaching sovereignty, but were no longer allowed to maintain standing armies or international relations. Each canton has its own constitution, legislature, government and courts, most of the cantons legislatures are unicameral parliaments, their size varying between 58 and 200 seats
Cantons of Switzerland
–
The 22 cantonal coats of arms (all but Jura, with the half-cantons represented jointly) in
stained glass set in the dome of the
Federal Palace of Switzerland (ca. 1900)
Cantons of Switzerland
–
Valais
Cantons of Switzerland
–
Caricature of the division of Basel, 1833
25.
Aargau
–
The canton of Aargau is one of the more northerly cantons of Switzerland. It is situated by the course of the Aare, which is why the canton is called Aar-gau. It is one of the most densely populated regions of Switzerland, the Romans built a major settlement called Vindonissa, near the present location of Brugg. In early medieval times, the Aargau was a border region between the duchies of Alamannia and Burgundy. A line of the von Wetterau intermittently held the countship of Aargau from 750 until about 1030, from the extinction in 1254 of the Hohenstaufen dynasty until 1415, the area was ruled by the Habsburgs, and many castles from that time still stand. The Habsburgs founded a number of monasteries, the closing of which by the government in 1841 was a factor to the outbreak of the Swiss civil war – the Sonderbund War – in 1847. When Frederick IV of Habsburg sided with Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, in July 1414, the Pope visited Bern and received assurances from them, that they would move against the Habsburgs. A few months later the Swiss Confederation denounced the Treaty of 1412, shortly thereafter in 1415, Bern and the rest of the Swiss Confederation used the ban as a pretext to invade the Aargau. The Confederation was able to conquer the towns of Aarau, Lenzburg, Brugg. Bern kept the southwest portion, northward to the confluence of the Aare, the important city of Baden was taken by a united Swiss army and governed by all 8 members of the Confederation. Some districts, named the Freie Ämter – Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, shortly after the conquest of the Aargau by the Swiss, Frederick humbled himself to the Pope. The Pope reconciled with him and ordered all of the lands to be returned. The Swiss refused and years later after no serious attempts at re-acquisition, berns portion of the Aargau came to be known as the Unteraargau, though can also be called the Berner or Bernese Aargau. In 1514 Bern expanded north into the Jura and so came into possession of several strategically important mountain passes into the Austrian Fricktal and this land was added to the Unteraargau and was directly ruled from Bern. It was divided into seven rural bailiwicks and four cities, Aarau, Zofingen, Lenzburg. While the Habsburgs were driven out, many of their nobles were allowed to keep their lands and offices. The bailiwick administration was based on a small staff of officials, mostly made up of Bernese citizens. When Bern converted during the Protestant Reformation in 1528, the Unteraargau also converted, at the beginning of the 16th century a number of anabaptists migrated into the upper Wynen and Rueder valleys from Zürich
Aargau
–
Aarau
Aargau
–
Map of Aargau
Aargau
–
Two separate doors (one for Jews and one for Christians) on a house in Lengnau
Aargau
–
View of the
Lägern from
Bözberg
26.
Bonn
–
The Federal City of Bonn is a city on the banks of the Rhine in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, with a population of 311,287. About 24 km south-southeast of Cologne, Bonn is in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr region, Germanys largest metropolitan area, the title of Federal City reflects its particular political status within Germany. Founded in the 1st century BC as a Roman settlement, Bonn is one of Germanys oldest cities, from 1597 to 1794, Bonn was the capital of the Electorate of Cologne, and residence of the Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne. Composer Ludwig van Beethoven was born here in 1770, from 1949 to 1990, Bonn was the capital of West Germany, and it is here where Germanys present constitution, the Grundgesetz, was declared in 1949. From 1990 to 1999, Bonn served as the seat of government, two DAX-listed corporations, Deutsche Post DHL and Deutsche Telekom, have headquarters in Bonn. The city is the location of the University of Bonn, spanning an area of more 141.2 km2 on both sides of the River Rhine, almost three quarters of the city lie on the rivers left bank. To the south and to the west, Bonn is bordering the Eifel region which encompasses the Rhineland Nature Park, to the north, Bonn borders the Cologne Lowland. Natural borders are constituted by the River Sieg to the north-east, the largest extension of the city in north-south dimensions is 15 km and 12.5 km in west-east dimensions. The city borders have a length of 61 km. The geographical centre of Bonn is the Bundeskanzlerplatz in Bonn-Gronau, the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five governmental districts, and Bonn is part of the governmental district of Cologne. Within this governmental district, the city of Bonn is an district in its own right. The urban district of Bonn is then divided into four administrative municipal districts. These are Bonn, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Bonn-Beuel and Bonn-Hardtberg, in 1969, the independent towns of Bad Godesberg and Beuel as well as several villages were incorporated into Bonn, resulting in a city more than twice as large as before. In the south of the Cologne lowland in the Rhine valley, the history of the city dates back to Roman times. In about 12 BC, the Roman army appears to have stationed a small unit in what is presently the historical centre of the city, even earlier, the army had resettled members of a Germanic tribal group allied with Rome, the Ubii, in Bonn. The Latin name for that settlement, Bonna, may stem from the population of this and many other settlements in the area. The Eburoni were members of a tribal coalition effectively wiped out during the final phase of Caesars War in Gaul. After several decades, the gave up the small camp linked to the Ubii-settlement
Bonn
–
Beethoven Monument,
Villa Hammerschmidt, Old City Hall,
Poppelsdorf Palace, panoramic view over Bonn and the Electoral Palace, now seat of the
University of Bonn (clockwise from top left).
Bonn
–
Langer Eugen, centre of the
United Nations campus
Bonn
–
Sterntor (star gate), a reconstruction of a city wall gate in medieval Bonn
Bonn
–
View of the Old City Hall from the Market Square
27.
Protestant
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestant
–
(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestant
–
The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestant
–
Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestant
–
The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
28.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
First World War
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
First World War
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
First World War
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
First World War
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
